Mechanical Properties of Solids

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Mechanical Properties of Solids
1. Introduction If a body does not regains its original size

and shape completely and immediately
A rigid body generally means a hard solid after the removal of deforming force, it is
object having a definite shape and size. But said to be a plastic body and this property is
in reality, bodies can be stretched, called plasticity.
compressed and bent. Even the appreciably
rigid steel bar can be deformed when a 6. Perfectly plastic body
sufficiently large external force is applied on
That body which does not regain its original
it. This means that solid bodies are not
configuration at all on the removal of
perfectly rigid. A solid has definite shape
deforming force are called perfectly plastic
and size. In order to change (or deform) the
bodies.Putty and paraffin wax are nearly
shape or size of a body, a force is required.
perfectly plastic bodies.
YZ
2. Deforming Force
7. Stress
A force which produces a change in
X
If a body gets deformed under the action of
configuration (size or shape) of the object
an external force, then at each section of
on applying it, is called a deforming force.
T.
the body an internal force of reaction is set
3. Elasticity up which tends to restore the body into its
EE
original state.
Elasticity is that property of the object by
virtue of which it regains its original 7.1 Definition
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configuration after the removal of the

The internal restoring force set up per unit
deforming force.
T-
area of cross section of the deformed body

For example, if we stretch a rubber band is called stress.
and release it, it snaps back to its original
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7.2 Mathematical Form

length.
Applied Force
4. Perfectly Elastic Body Stress =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Those bodies which regain its original Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal.
configuration immediately and completely
Its dimensional formula is [ML-1T -2 ].
after the removal of deforming force are
called perfectly elastic bodies. The nearest 7.3 Types of stress
approach to a perfectly elastic body is
quartz fibre. There are three different types of stress
5. Plasticity 1. Longitudinal Stress

If deforming force is applied normal to the area 8.1 Mathematical Equation

of cross section, then the stress is called
longitudinal stress. It is further categorized in change in dimension
Strain =
two types original dimension
(a) Tensile stress If there is an increase It has no unit and it is a dimensionless

in length of the object under the effect quantity.
of applied force, then stress is called
According to the change in
tensile stress.
configuration, the strain is of three
(b) Compressional stress If there is a
types
decrease in length of the object under
the effect of applied force, then stress is change in length
(1) longitudinal strain=
called compression stress. original length
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change in volume
(2) Volumetric strain = Original volume
(3) 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 tangential applied force
X
Area of face
T. 9. Hooke’s Law
Robert Hook found that within the

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elastic limit, the stress is directly

2. Tangential or Shearing Stress proportional to strain. Thus we have
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If deforming force acts tangentially to 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 ∝ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

the surface of a body, it produces a
T-
or
change in the shape of the body. The
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑲. 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
tangential force applied per unit area is
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called tangential stress. where K is the constant of

proportionality called “Elastic Modulus”
3. Normal Stress
of the material.
If a body is subjected to a uniform force
There are some materials that do not
from all sides, then the corresponding
obey Hooke’s law like rubber, human’s
stress is called hydrostatic stress.
muscle.
8.Strain
9.1 Types of Modulus of rigidity
When a deforming force acts on a body,
9.1.1 Young’s Modulus of rigidity (Y)
the body undergoes a change in its
shape and size. The fractional change in
configuration is called strain.

It is defined as the ratio of normal stress Compressibility

to the longitudinal strain within the
Compressibility of a material is the
elastic limit.
reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity.
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Compressibility (C) = 1 / k
Y=
Longitudinal strain Its SI unit is N-1m 2 and CGS unit is dyne-1
It has same units as stress because cm2 .
strain does not have any unit. Y is 9.1.3 Modulus of rigidity or shear
measured in N/m2 or Pa. Modulus (𝜼)
Metals generally have large values of 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus compare to other 𝜼=
shear strain
materials. In scientific terms, the higher
YZ
𝐹
the Young’s modulus of the material the 𝐹
𝜼= 𝐴 =
more elastic it is. ϒ 𝐴ϒ
X
9.1.2 Bulk Modulus of Rigidity 𝐹
𝜼=
Aϒ
T.
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
κ=
Volumetric strain
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−𝐹/𝐴
or κ= = - pV/∆𝑉
∆V/V
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The SI unit of bulk modulus is N/m2

T-
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The SI unit of shear modulus is N/m2
The shear modulus of a material is

always considerably smaller than the
Young’s modulus for it.
10. Limit of elasticity

The maximum value of deforming force for
which elasticity is present in the body is
called its limit of elasticity.

11.Stress- strain Curve zero, a residual strain equal to OE is left in

the wire. The material is said to have
acquired a permanent set. The fact that
stress-strain curve is not retraced on
reversing the strain is called elastic
hysteresis.
(d) If the load is increased beyond the point

C, there is large increase in the strain or the
length of the wire. In this region, the
constrictions ( called necks and waists)
develop at few points along the length of
the wire and the wire breaks ultimately at
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Figure shows the stress-strain curve for a the point D, called the fracture point.
metal wire which is gradually being loaded. In the region between B and D, the length
X
(a) The initial part OA of the graph is a
T. of the wire goes on increasing even without
straight line indicating that stress is any addition of load. This region is called
proportional to strain. Upto the point A, plastic region and material is said to
undergo plastic flow or plastic deformation.
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Hooke’s law is obeyed. The point A is called

the proportional limit. In this region, the The stress corresponding to the braking
wire is perfectly elastic. point is called ultimate strength or tensile
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strength of the material.

(b) After the point A, the stress is not
T-
proportional to strain and a curved portion 12. Elastic after Effect

AB is obtained. However, if the load is
The bodies return to their original state on
removed at any point between O and B, the
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the removal of the deforming force. Some

curve is retraced along BAO and the wire
bodies return to their original state
attains its original length. The portion OB of
immediately after the removal of the
the graph is called elastic region and the
deforming force while some bodies take
point B is called elastic limit or yield point.
longer time to do so. The delay in regaining
The stress corresponding to B is called yield
the original state by a body on the removal
strength.
of the deforming force is called elastic after
(c) Beyond the point B, the strain increases effect.
more rapidly than stress. If the load is
removed at any point C, the wire does not
13. Elastic Fatigue
come back to its original length but traces The property of an elastic body by virtue of
dashed line. Even on reducing the stress to which its behavior becomes less elastic

under the action of repeated alternating When a deforming force is applied at the
deforming force is called elastic fatigue. free end of a suspended wire of length 1
and diameter D, then its length increases by
14. Ductile Materials ∆l but its diameter decreases by ∆𝐷. Now
two types of strains are produced by a
The materials which have large plastic range
single force.
of extension are called ductile materials.
Such materials undergo an irreversible ∆𝑙
(i) Longitudinal strain =
increase in length before snapping. So they 𝑙
can be drawn into thin wires. For e.g. −∆𝐷

(ii) Lateral strain = – D
copper, silver, iron, aluminium etc.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
∴ Poisson’s Ratio (σ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛=
15 Brittle Materials
YZ
−∆𝐷
The materials which have very small range D 𝑙∆𝐷
= ∆𝑙 =− 𝐷∆𝑙
of plastic extension are called brittle 𝑙
X
materials. Such materials break as soon as
The negative sign shows that longitudinal
the stress is increased beyond the elastic
T. and lateral strains are in opposite sense.
limit. For e.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics etc.
As Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of two strains,
16. Elastomers
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it has no units and dimensions.

The materials for which strain produced is The theoretical value of Poisson’s ratio lies
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much larger than the stress applied, with in between – 1 and 0.5. Its practical value lies
the limit of elasticity are called elastomers, between 0 and 0.5
T-
e.g., rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the

large vessel carrying blood from heart. etc. 19. Applications of elasticity
Elastomers have no plastic range.
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The elastic behavior of materials plays an

17. Elastic Potential Energy of important role in everyday life. All
stretched wire engineering designs require precise
knowledge of the elastic behavior of
When a wire is stretched, interatomic materials. For example while designing a
forces come into play which opposes the building, the structural design of the
change. Work has to done against these columns, beams and supports require
restoring forces. The work done in knowledge of strength of materials used.
stretching the wire is stored in it as its
elastic potential energy. A bridge has to be designed such that it can
withstand the load of the flowing traffic, the
18. Poisson’s Ratio force of winds and its own weight. Similarly,
in the design of buildings use of beams and

columns is very common. In both the cases,

the overcoming of the problem of bending
of beam under a load is of prime
importance. The beam should not bend too
much or break. Let us consider the case of a
beam loaded at the centre and supported
near its ends as shown in Fig.
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A bar of length l, breadth b, and depth d
X
when loaded at the centre by a load W sags
T.
by an amount given by δ = W l 3/(4bd3Y)
Bending can be reduced by using a material

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with a large Young’s modulus Y. Depression

can be decreased more effectively by
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increasing the depth d rather than the

breadth b. But a deep bar has a tendency to
T-
bend under the weight of a moving traffic,

hence a better choice is to have a bar of I-
shaped cross section. This section provides
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a large load bearing surface and enough

depth to prevent bending. Also this shape
reduces the weight of the beam without
sacrificing its strength and hence reduces
the cost.

Mechanical Properties of Solids

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