FORENSIC BALLISTIC

INTRODUCTION

Ballistics (gr. ba'llein, "throw") is the science that deals with the motion, behavior,
and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the
science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired
performance. A ballistic body is a body which is free to move, behave, and be modified
in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by
the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air
particles.

Firearm ballistics information is used in forensic science. Separately from

ballistics information, firearm and tool mark examinations involve analyzing firearm,
ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a certain firearm or
tool was used in the commission of a crime.

Ballistics is sometimes subdivided into:

1. Internal ballistics, the study of the processes originally accelerating the

projectile, for example the passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle;
2. Transition ballistics, the study of the projectile's behavior when it leaves the
barrel and the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
3. External ballistics, the study of the passage of the projectile through space or
the air; and
4. Terminal ballistics, the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target,
whether that be flesh (for a hunting bullet), steel (for an anti-tank round), or even
furnace slag (for an industrial slag disruptor).

“Ballista” is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such
as stones at a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.

Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in
the Police Parlance to Firearms Identification.

BALLISTICS

It is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research

and development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this
field.

Technically speaking, it refers to the "science of firearms identification which

involves the scientific examination of ballistics exhibits such as: fired bullets; fired shells;
firearms; and allied matters, used in crime.

Legally speaking, ballistics is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and
bullets together with the recording and presentation by means of photography of what is
revealed by the microscope.

BALLISTICS THEORY

Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as
bullets, artillery shells, rockets and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the
destructive action of such projectiles.

The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:

bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;

skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body;
and
base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.
The following are pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:

GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the
methods of calculus, studies which helped the rapid development of external ballistics.
GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now
usually called aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.
In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.

INTERIOR BALLISTICS

It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which
the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the
firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle
occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.

Interior ballistics involves:

1. Ignition of the primer.

2. Flames is produced
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Energy that is generated
5. Force/Pressure developed
6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases
resulting from combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work
performed by the expansion of these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile.
Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the
relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the
optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the
related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.

Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into
gas. Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the
propellant grains, and the pressure at which the burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder
is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning.
Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the
same volume of water.
2. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously
called breeched pressure.
Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder
charge to the weight of the projectile.
3. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to
cause the high explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation
varies in different explosive but in some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
4. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of
energy, which would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a
distance of one foot Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the
breechblock rises and forces vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever
actuated as a rule.
Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains
of water) to the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
5. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high
against the force of gravity.
6. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
 7. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great
expansion and spontaneous tendency.
8. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
9. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing
blow that put the victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is
not fatal.
Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the
powder chamber (case). It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the
capacity the powder chamber in grains of water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully
the powder charge fills the case the more consistent and accurate the load will be. On
the other hand if the loading density is too low, (too much free space in the case) it can
cause erratic ignition, change in the pressure curve (moving the peak towards the
muzzle), or even overly rapid burning ("detonation") of the powder charge. (One reason
manuals list minimum or starting loads.)
10. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire
which merely a delayed combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start
combustion.
Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is
usually expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water
that a fired case from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal
depth. Note that this varies with different bullets or seating depth as well as the
dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
11. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge
case, chamber and bore.
Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is
now used to signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric
device. Piezo-electric units operate in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but
use a reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical properties in response to
pressure. When connected to suitable recording equipment the entire pressure pulse
history can be recorded or displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric
peak device usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure determined by the
copper crusher method.
12. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward
movement of the bullet during the explosions.
13. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has
left the barrel.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the
muzzle of the firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile
does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for almost any firearms is
obtained at an elevation of about 33.

CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws.

velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.

In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities,

rotation, air resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the
time it leaves the gun until it reaches the target.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet
after it has left the gun muzzle. It includes:
Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmos-
phere at the muzzle point.
Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to
the target. The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-
like flight - vertical drop
Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,
meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective
in only 50-70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are
capable of inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber
and gunpowder content.

Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of
1000-4000 ft./sec.

* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the
first few yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly
unstable; the end of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This
phenomenon is called “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating
gunshot wounds. A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.

Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
Penetration - depth of entry on target.

Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and

cartridges will consistently place all shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his
shots.
Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical
zone beyond the point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very
rapidly with range and the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
3. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly
during its flight the air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on
the bullet's flight and which can be used to later predict a bullet's trajectory under
different circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
4. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its
ability to keep going when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is
immense importance, for obviously the more power a bullet has an the harder it
is to stop the more effective it can be as a weapon
Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in
shape and because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and
angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater
than the dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight,
although other dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on
one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often
given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use.
5. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to
the right while that of the left and rifling curves to the left.
6. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be
expected to travel accurately and kill a particular type of live targe
 7. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge
is fired.
8. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the
flight in the bullet from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high,
comparatively flat trajectory.
9. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America,
gallery rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22
rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed
indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at
ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
“indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22
caliber installation.
10. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America,
gallery rules required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22
rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed
indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at
ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as
“indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22
caliber installation.
Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This
is normally occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
11. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific
instrument called chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower
than the muzzle velocity.
12. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target
sideways as a result of not spinning on its axis.
Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path
stays within the critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't
have to adjust your point of aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over
riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be attempted much past this
distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300
meters." If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to
do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank range is
approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
13. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a
firearm.
Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line
of sight for a given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the
zero range and it is determined by your zeroing range.
Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half
way to the zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate
height which can be greater.
Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical
purposes equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch
and at 300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy
potential of a firearm.
14. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel
before it drops enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the
target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
15. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory
(normal path) after striking a resistant surface.
16. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death
of the victim.
17. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action
instantly. So it should be understood that stopping power is not necessarily the
same thing as killing power. However, stopping power depends very largely on
the location of the sot.
18. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
19. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the
target. This is not the same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the
ordinary sense, which is more properly termed effective or apparent drop
 20. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the
bullet's path intersect.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target.
Penetration of the bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining
safety requirements for target backstops. They are important to both sportsman and
military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known
as striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the
end of the projectile's flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in
one of two ways:

the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.

CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it
is called true cylinder.

The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the
diameter near the muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest
of the barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.

Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced
by ¼ mm; and improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.

The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70
percent of its shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it
is called full choke. Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder
about 50 percent. A full choke 12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards
(55 to 59 meters) away.

Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a
slight amt. of antimony.

WOUND BALLISTICS – It
is the study of the effects
of projectile to human
body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet

slug within the tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well
as the flame from the heated expanded gases in short range fire is the one that
produces injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.
Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases.
The whole charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder
particles and hot gases) enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are
observed. Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful examination. The
edges are found ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is
commonly believed. It is also known as burning or charring.
Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at
close ranges. Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on
any material available in the path.
Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt
powder particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than
the smoke particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently
cause tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics

Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the
wound. Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not
indicate range.
Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies
somewhat with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is
of uniform in thickness.
Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms
injury but they also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds

Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues
of the body.
Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will
be the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug
has more penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with
hemispherical free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.

* Some bullets were made to be deformed upon heating the target like the hallow
point, dum-dum and soft point bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum
44 and the armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting the target. Other
bullets and the fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in
flame during its flight to the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this
bullet is also used in targeting the low flying airplane.

Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure
of the heated expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder. However, in long
range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round
shape wound of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the
bullet will produce an oval shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the
side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another
direction upon hitting the target.
Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet
penetrates and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones
and other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury
or may deflect to another direction.
Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from
the fired gun

Contact fire. This is burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the
heated and expanded gases. There is burning of the tissues because it is within the
flame zone; singeing of the hair; and particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of
entrance; skin is separated from the underlying tissues in the affected area and the
blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the presence of carbon monoxide;
pressure of the bullet will caused caving-in or excavation of tissues and the contusion
collar is seen around the wound of entrance. The size of the wound is rather small.
Near contact up to six inches distance. There is bursting of tissues, burning and
blackening of the skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present
inside as well as around the wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe
lacerated or slit-like and the size is larger than the diameter of the missile. The
excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet slug but it can be
severe as in contact fire.
Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound gradually
approximates the size of the missile. The farther the target, the lesser the burning or
blackening of tissues, gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of
tissues and lesser until they disappear beyond the 24 inches distance.

Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential points

Size of the wound

Edge of the wound
Shape of the wound
Contusion collar
Gunpowder tattooing
Presence or absence
Protrusion of tissue
Paraffin test
Wound of Entrance

smaller than the missile

Inverted
Round or oval
present in contact
and near contact fire
always present
Absent
+ in contact and near fire
Wound of Exit

bigger than the missile Everted

no definite shape
absent
absent
maybe absent if the slug is lodged inside the body
maybe present
negative

Determination whether the gunshot injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental

Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim

Usually only one gunshot wound
Usually the distance is short range or class range
Presence of suicide note
History of frustration or despondency of the victim
Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide

Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

Wound is located at any part of the body

Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim
Disturbances of the surroundings.
Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
Testimony from the witnesses

Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

Usually only one gunshot wound

Wound located at any part of the body
Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
Testimony from witnesses

Take note:

Shotgun Wound - It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots

within the tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and usually lodged
inside the body and a tendency for a wider dispersion of pellets at a certain distance
except in contact and near contact fires.

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance

Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to explosion of the
heated and expanded with accompanying flame causing burning of the skin and the
tissues. There is singeing of the hair; presence of wads and particles of gunpowder
inside the wound of entrance.
Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration of the skin
and destruction of tissues due to the pressure of explosion. The burning on the surface
of the skin and particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of
entrance. There is singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the
wound of entrance.
Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the
wound with irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of
tissues with slight burning, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a big central hole with
ragged edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this
distance, there will be no more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing,
singeing of the hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing
a central core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produced separate
wound of entrance. The pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in
non-choked barrel while in full-choked bore the dispersion is one half less but there is a
wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.

Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun injuries

Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

Location of wound in the body
Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
Number of wound of entrance and exit
Direction and length of the bullet tract
Organs or tissues involved
Location of the slug if lodged in the body
Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound

Effects or complications of wound

Hemorrhage – Bleeding. It is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to
trauma or existing pathology.
Direct mechanical injury - This is the direct damage to the tissues
Shock - It is disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood
pressure, decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body.
Infection. It is the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the
living tissues.
Embolism. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of
fats or septic embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied
by the blood.

Points to consider in the reporting of wound:

Character of the wound
Location of wound in the body
Measurement of the wound - It is declared in inches, centimeters and millimeters.
Length
Width
Depth
Number of wound
Direction of wound
Organs involved
Severity of the wound
Period of healing or incapacity of the victim.

Other pieces of evidence in dealing with the wound

Evidence from the wounding weapon

Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the wounding weapon.
Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the victim or assailant
Presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
Effects or complications of wound such as found in the clinical manifestations on the
victim
Evidence from the scene of the crime
Presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or flouring, walls, furniture and
other materials at the scene of the crime
Presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids at the scene of the crime

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of

ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police
use as their guide in field investigations. This includes the following:

Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of
the investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking,
preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms
and allied matters.
Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the
firearms examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test
firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative
purposes, photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of
comparative charts, and the making of reports on the findings and observations of the
firearms examiners.
Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner
and the ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.
Take Note:

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to

Courts of Justice and legal proceedings.

FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace,
where people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title
"Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes the subject under consideration - the science
of investigation and identification of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The
terms "Ballistics", Forensic Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean
one and the same thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used
interchangeably.

SUBJECTS OF BALLISTICS STUDY

FIREARMS

A firearm is a weapon that fires either single or multiple projectiles propelled at

high velocity by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant.
This process of rapid burning is technically known as deflagration. In older firearms, this
propellant was typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or
other propellants.

The term gun is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in specialist use has a
restricted sense—referring only to an artillery piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity
and a relatively flat trajectory, such as a field gun, a tank gun, an anti-tank gun, or a gun
used in the delivery of naval gunfire.

Firearms are sometimes referred to as small arms. Small arms are weapons
which can be carried by a single individual, with a barrel bore of up to approximately
0.50 inch (12.7 mm). Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using
optical sights. The range of accuracy for small arms is generally limited to about one
mile (1600 m), usually considerably less, although the current record for a successful
Sniper attack is slightly more than 1 1/2 miles.

Firearm (Technical) is an instrument that is used for the propulsion of projectile

by means of the expansive force of gases of burning gunpowder.

Firearms or Arm (legal – Sec. 877 of the RAC and Sec. 290 of NIRC) –
includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers and all other weapons
from which a bullet, a ball, a shot, a shell or missiles may be discharged by means of
gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes air rifles, except that are in small
in caliber and usually used as toys. The barrel of any firearm is considered a complete
firearm for purposes of Section 877 of the Revised Administrative Code.

Take Note:

 Rifle – long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer
distance, with spiral grooves to fire only a single shot.
 Musket – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.
 Shotgun – long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and
designed to shot birds in flight; long smooth bored firearm and breech loading
designed to fire a number of lead pellets or shot in one charge.
 Carbine – s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is
designed to fire a single shot through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full
automatic, for every press of the trigger.
 .22 – minimum caliber - .19 - .18 – if only used as toys, could not be considered
as firearm.
 barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a
violation of illegal possession of firearm (SCRA Dec. 11, 1992).
FIREARM: IN ITS GENERAL CONTEXT

Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally,
the term is used for light firearms, such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often
called small arms. Heavier firearms are generally referred to as artillery.

Mechanism

Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts:

1. Barrel – It is a long tube. It may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral

grooves on the inner surface, as in a rifle.
2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel. It holds the
cartridge (explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel,
holding the cartridge in the chamber.
4. Every up-to-date firearm has some way by which the breech can be opened for
loading and locked for safety in firing. Artillery uses screw plugs or breechblocks.
Machine guns, rifles, and other small arms usually have a metal cylinder, or bolt,
that is locked when the gun is fired, and drawn back to eject (force out) the empty
cartridge case and to reload.
5. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in some large
artillery pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed firing pin through the
breech bolt against a sensitive primer in the cartridge. The firing pin is cocked
(drawn back) against a hook called the sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear
releases the firing pin, which in turn leaps forward to strike the primer. A jet of
flame from the primer ignites the rest of the powder, forming a gas. This
explosive gas propels the bullet from the barrel.

HANDGUN/SHORT ARMS

1. Pistol – a handgun that is magazine feed. It is said that pistols were invented in
the Italian town “PISTOIA.” Hence, the name pistol – arrived in Britain about
1515 as German import.
2. Revolver – A handgun with a corresponding cylinder that revolves before the
barrel which consist of different chambers.

ORIGINS OF FIREARMS

 13th Century – development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in

Western Europe.
 BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English
monk – are both credited with gunpowder invention.

* Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist,
with the invention of gunpowder in 1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the
application of gun powder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s.
This powder was that we now call “black powder”.

 1118 – Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell o

fseveral Moorish campaign in which artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon
and Scwartz.
 1245 – Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated
the Poles, Hungarians and Russians.
* It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by Chinese
were aware of gunpowder and its use as a propellant long before its advantage
became recognized in Europe. It may also assume the Arabs with their advance
knowledge of chemistry at that time.
  1247 – one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that o fan
attack on Seville, Spain.
 1346 – Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy
 1453 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DA VINCE as can be gleaned in his sketch of
steam powered cannon to his primitive wheel lock firearm.

* First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of
being carried by an individual soldier hence; the development of cannons
preceded that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Stages of development of man’s weapon:

> STONES > CLUBS > KNIVES > SPEARS AND DARTS > SLINGSHOTS TO
HURL OBJECTS > BOWS AND ARROWS > CROSS-BOWS >GUNS > MISSILES

Contributors in Firearms Development

 Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of Modern Ballistics
 Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the
making of breech-loading riffles.
 Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.
 John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech
loading single shot riffle.
 John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.
 David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first known carbine.
 Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.
 Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.
 Eliphalet Remington – one of the first riffle makers.
 John Mahlon Marlin – founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
 James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riffled-
musket.
 Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical
revolver bringing it to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in
the Colt Army 1873 model, which became famous for its .45 caliber.
 Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith and Wesson
in the US., Adams and Scott-Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and
Beretta on the CONTINENT, until revolvers were in used in every part of the
world.
 Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (Riffles and
pistols)
 John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-automatic US Riffle,
Cal. .30 MI
 Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers.
 John Dreyse (1841) - Invented a breech-loading infantry rifle, the so called
needle gun because of its long sharp firing pin.
 Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - He develop a serviceable breech loading
artillery rifle.
 Carl Walther (1866) - Develop a reliable small caliber automatic Pistol.
 Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been
adopted by the German government.
 Sergei Mossin (1891) - Designed the Russian Service rifle.
 Kijiro Nambu (1904) - An army gun designer whose design was first produced
by the Kayoba factory.
 Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950) - Formed the Armalite business.
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 – Gunpowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use
as a propellant for a projectile. Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the
middle of the 14th century that portable hand firearms were introduced. These
guns were ignited by a hand-held hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to riffled barrels appeared. Although it’s
important as an aid to accuracy was recognized by some, it was a year after
before riffling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and ball were developed.
This greatly speeded loading and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that certain
compounds detonated by a blast would be used to ignite the charge in a firearm,
for the basis for all later percussion and cartridge to come into general use.
1845 - Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet breech cap” which
was in reality the first rim fire cartridge.
1858 – Center fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge o f1858 marked the beginning of
the rapid development of the center fire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun,
utilizing the recoil of the piece of load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory
smokeless powder, a new propellant which not only lacked the smoke
characteristic of black powder, but also more powerful.

MECHANISMS OF FIREARM ACTION

Generally, the principles involved in all firearms action are the same. When the
firearm is cocked and ready to fire, a pull on the trigger will cause the firing pin of the
hammer to hit the percussion cap of the cartridge in the firing chamber which is aligned
with the rear portion of the barrel. The hit by the firing pin on the percussion cap will
cause generation of a sufficient heat capable of igniting the primer.

The primer will in turn ignite the gunpowder or propellant which will cause
evolution of gases under pressure and temperature. The marked expansion of the
gases will force the projectile forward with certain velocity.

Owing to presence of the rifling at the inner wall of the bore, the barrel offers
some degree of resistance to the projectile. In as much as the riffling is arranged in a
spiral manner, the projectile will produce a spinning movement as it comes out in the
muzzle.

Together with the bullet passing out of the barrel are high pressure heated
gases, unburned powder grains with flame and smoke.

During explosion, there is a backward kick of the firearm which in automatic

firearm cause the cocking and the cartridge cause thrown out by the ejector. The
backward movement is called recoil of the firearm.

RIFLING

Rifling refers to spiral grooves that have been formed into the barrel of a firearm.
It is the means by which a firearm imparts a spin to a projectile to gyroscopically
stabilize it to improve accuracy. Most rifling is created by either cutting with a machine
tool, pressed by a tool called a "button" or forged into the barrel over a "mandrel". The
grooves are the spaces that are cut out, and the resulting ridges are called 'lands'.
These lands and grooves can vary in number, depth, shape, direction of twist ('right' or
'left'), and 'twist rate' (turns per unit of barrel length). The spin imparted by rifling
significantly improves the stability of the projectile, improving both range and accuracy.
 It consists of the number of the helical grooves cut on the surface of the bore, it
includes the lands and grooves are running parallel with one another concentrically.

* Sporting Rifle
As a bullet is fired from a rifle, grooves in the interior of the barrel cause it to spin. The
spinning motion stabilizes the bullet and increases its distance and accuracy. This
illustration shows a modern hunting rifle and highlights its main components.

Take Note:

Recent developments - The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have
fairly sharp edges. More recently, polygonal rifling has become popular, as it seems to
produce better accuracy due to the fact that it does not damage the bullet as badly as
conventional rifling. Polygonal barrels also tend to have longer service lives because the
reduction of the sharp edges of the land reduces flame erosion. Higher velocities may
be generated due to a reduction of friction and an improvement of the gas seal between
the bullet and barrel. A disadvantage of polygonal rifling is that if simple lead bullets are
used, lead from the bullet tends to accumulate in the barrel (called leading) resulting in
a dirty barrel, poor accuracy, and if the leading becomes severe, excessive chamber
pressure which could cause a barrel or locking failure. Polygonal rifling is currently seen
on most pistols from GLOCK and Kahr Arms.

CALIBER OF THE FIREARM

The caliber of the firearm is the diameter of the bore of the barrel measured from
land to land in rifled firearm. It is expressed in inches or fraction of an inch by the
American and English manufacturers and millimeters or in centimeters there by
manufacturers in Continental Europe.

THE RIFLE

The rifle, invented about 1500, had spiral grooves in the barrel that made it more
accurate than any previous firearm. Smokeless powder was developed in the 1800's.
Breechloading systems replaced dangerous muzzle loading. Many improvements since
have resulted in high-powered firearms.

Rifle is a gun with spiral grooves in its long barrel that spin the bullet as it is shot.
Rifles are usually held against the shoulder when firing. Soldiers use rifles in battle.
People also use rifles to hunt game and to compete in shooting matches.

The parts of a rifle - All rifles have four basic parts:

(1) the barrel,
(2) the stock, (3) the action, and
(3) the sights.

How a rifle works. A rifle is ready to be fired when a cartridge has been fed into the
firing chamber. Then the rifle is aimed and the trigger squeezed. The rifle's hammer or
firing pin strikes the rear end of the cartridge and ignites the primer. The primer in turn
ignites the propellant powder in the cartridge. The powder burns rapidly, creating
pressure that drives the bullet down the barrel.

The rifling in the barrel makes the bullet spin. Without spin, a bullet would not
stay pointed forward in flight, but would tumble over and over. The spinning motion
increases the accuracy of a bullet.

Kinds of Rifles

Rifles are classified by:

 type of action: (manually operated, automatic, or semiautomatic);

 the name of the designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington or
Winchester); or
 caliber. Caliber may refer to the inside diameter of the barrel or the diameter of
the bullet. The caliber is measured in millimeters or in decimal fractions of an
inch.

There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated actions-bolt-

action, lever-action, and slide-action. These rifles have magazines (cartridge holders)
that feed cartridges into the firing chamber.

The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and semiautomatic-is operated

by forces caused by the burning of the propellant powder in the firing chamber.

1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock a door.
When the bolt on the rifle is pulled back, the used cartridge is thrown out and the
hammer is cocked. When the bolt is moved forward, it pushes a new cartridge
into the firing chamber.
2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech down and
back up. The down movement throws out the used cartridge and cocks the
hammer. The up movement inserts a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with a back-and-
forth movement of a rod and handle beneath the front part of the barrel. When
the handle is pulled back, the breech opens and the used cartridge is thrown out.
A live cartridge is inserted when the handle is pushed forward.

The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It weighs 8.9
pounds (4 kilograms) when loaded with a 30-cartridge magazine. The M16A2 can fire
one shot at a time, or three shots in a single burst. It uses a 5.56-millimeter cartridge.

Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of brass or steel.
Cartridges vary in size according to the caliber of the rifle. The names of some
cartridges include the year the cartridge was put into use. The .30-06 is a .30-caliber
cartridge chosen for use by the U.S. Army in 1906. The classification of some cartridges
includes the caliber and velocity (speed) of the bullet. The bullet from a .250-3000
cartridge has a velocity of 3,000 feet (910 meters) per second.
THE HANDGUN:

Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other types of guns,
such as rifles and machine guns, require the use of both hands, a tripod (three-legged
stand), or a shooting rest.

Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)

The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other parts. The grip is
the handle of the gun, and the barrel is the metal tube through which the bullet is fired.
The lands and rifling (grooves) are alternating raised surfaces and channels inside the
barrel. They cause the bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.
 The shooter uses the sights to line up the handgun with the target. Some sights
can be adjusted to help aim the gun more easily. All handguns made for target shooting
have adjustable sights.

The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It consists of such
parts as the trigger, the hammer, and the cartridge chamber. The type of action
determines how the handgun is loaded and fired. The action of every handgun includes
a safety, a mechanism that prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally. The safety
ensures that the gun fires when the shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example,
when the gun is dropped to the ground.

Types of handguns - There are five main types of handguns:

1. single-action revolvers,
2. double-action revolvers,
3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,
4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and
5. single-shot pistols.

Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder. Most pistols are

loaded with a magazine containing the ammunition. The magazine is a metal holder
inserted in the gun's butt (thicker end).

Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near the hammer
rotates the cylinder one-sixth of a turn when the hammer is cocked. This movement
puts a cartridge into line with the barrel and the firing pin (part that strikes the primer to
fire the cartridge). After cocking the hammer, the shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer
unlocks and falls, exploding the cartridge. The Colt single-action Army revolver, first
produced in the 1870's, is the most famous firearm of this type.

Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically hold six

cartridges. But, unlike single-action revolvers, double-action revolvers do not require the
user to manually cock the hammer before firing. Instead, the gun is fired by only pulling
the trigger. When the trigger is pulled, a lock that holds the cylinder in place is released,
revolving the cylinder and cocking the hammer. When the next chamber is lined up with
the barrel, the cylinder locking bolt is raised into the locking notch, securing the cylinder.
The hammer then falls and fires the cartridge. The cycle is repeated for the next shot.

The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the single-action revolver
is that it can be fired rapidly. The Smith & Wesson military and police revolver is one of
the most popular double-action revolvers. This firearm was introduced in 1905.

Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device

called a slide to cock the hammer or the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker
mechanism. When the slide is released, it moves forward and feeds a round from the
clip into the cartridge chamber. When the shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or
the striker mechanism is released, impacting the primer and exploding the gunpowder in
the cartridge. The explosion causes the slide to move backward. This recoil
automatically ejects the empty cartridge and recocks the gun. When the slide moves
forward again, it reloads the chamber. The most famous single-action semiautomatic is
the Colt .45 automatic pistol. It served as the standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces
from 1911 until 1985.

Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action

revolvers. When the trigger is pulled, the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires
the cartridge. After the initial shot, the pistol begins to operate like a single-action
semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of the first shot forces out the empty cartridge case,
cocks the hammer, and inserts a new cartridge from the clip into the cartridge chamber.
Double-action semiautomatics are widely used by sports enthusiasts and police officers.
In 1985, the 9-millimeter Beretta, a double-action semiautomatic pistol, became the
standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces. Other popular models include the Smith &
Wesson Model 39 and the Walther PPK.
 Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting
competitions. To load a single-shot pistol, the user moves the operating lever (part that
opens and closes the action) forward and down to lower the breech block and to cock
the firing pin. The breech block closes the breech of the gun-that is, the part behind the
barrel. After the breech block has been lowered, the cartridge chamber is exposed. The
user then inserts a cartridge into the chamber. Next, the operating lever is pulled up and
back to close the chamber and move the cartridge into the closed position. The pistol is
then ready to fire. When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin drops, exploding the
cartridge. The procedure is then repeated to remove the cartridge and reload the pistol.
Famous single-shot pistols include the Hammerli Free Pistol, the Walther, and the
Martini.

THE MACHINE GUN

1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds
of ammunition each minute. Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20
millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or metal belt, or from a cartridge
holder called a magazine. Because machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled
by air. Machine guns are heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support.

Operation: In all machine guns, extremely high gas pressure provides the
operating energy for the firing cycle. The cycle begins when the propellant charge in the
cartridge case burns. This combustion creates the gas pressure that is used in the
blowback, gas, and recoil operating systems. All three systems fire the projectile
through the bore of the barrel, eject the cartridge case, place a new cartridge in the
firing chamber, and ready the mechanism to repeat the cycle.

In the blowback system, the operating energy comes from the cartridge case
as the case is forced to the rear by the gas pressure. The case moves against the bolt
(a device that opens and closes the bore), driving the bolt backward against a spring.
The case is ejected, and the compressed spring drives the bolt forward. As the bolt
moves forward, it cocks the firing mechanism, picks up a new cartridge, carries it into
the chamber, and the cycle begins again.

In the gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt. The bolt is
driven to the rear, providing energy for a cycle like that of the blowback system.

In the recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is fired. These
parts remain locked together as they are forced to the rear by the gas pressure. This
movement provides energy to operate the gun.

2. Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is a major infantry

weapon. It is air-cooled and gas-operated, and fires about 600 rounds a minute. The
M60 replaced the Browning machine gun, an important weapon in World Wars I and II,
and the Korean War.

3. Aircraft weapons. By the close of World War I, several types of machine

guns were mounted on airplanes. These types included the Vickers, Maxim, Hotchkiss,
Colt-Martin, and Lewis. Some machine guns were synchronized to fire in between the
blades of propellers.

During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns as armament.
They also carried automatic cannon up to 20 millimeters in size. During the Vietnam
War, airplanes and helicopters called gunships carried machine guns or cannon. Today,
most fighter planes and gunships carry rockets for air-to-air and air-to-ground use.
Bombers use machine guns mounted in groups of two or four in power-driven turrets.
The Vulcan 20-millimeter aircraft cannon has six rotating barrels. It can fire more than a
ton of metal and explosives each minute.

4. Anti-aircraft weapons. The .50-caliber Browning machine gun was used as

an antiaircraft weapon during World War II. It was used alone, or in groups of two or
four. Large-caliber automatic cannon that fired explosive shells were also developed as
antiaircraft weapons. The 20-millimeter, Swiss-made Oerlikon gun was used on U.S.
Navy ships. It was a self-fed, self-firing cannon that could fire 600 rounds a minute.

CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS

A. ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel. Riflings
refers the lands and grooves such as the following: Rifle – Pistol - Revolver
2. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel for the
breech end up to the muzzle of the firearm. Such as the following: Shotguns -
Muskets

SHOTGUN – it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a number of lead pellets

one discharge.
GAUGE – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the
diameter of lead ball weighing in pounds.

B. MAIN TYPES OF FIREARM (according to caliber of projectile)

1. Artillery – propelled projectile is more than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas
2. Small Arms – propelled projectile is less than one inch diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms and handguns/arms

C. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Single Rifle Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every
loading. Example: Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms – type of firearm designed to fire several shots in one loading.
Example: Automatic pistols, Revolvers, Rifles, Shotguns
3. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Examples:
Rifles, Shotguns.
4. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or
feeding of the chamber takes place. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone) – loading takes place by back and forth
manipulation of the under forearm of the gun. Examples: Rifles and Shotguns.
6. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on the firearm.
Examples: Rifles, Shotguns.

D. TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols d. Shotguns
b. Revolvers e. Machine guns
c. Rifles
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a. Pistols b. Revolvers c. Rifles

E. UNUSUAL/MISCELLANEOUS TYPES – those that are unique in mechanism and

construction.
a. Paltik pistols b. Paltik riflesc. Paltik revolvers d. Paltik shotguns

F. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS POWER PURSUANT TO

R.A. 8294

Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of

Firearms or Ammunition or Instruments used or intended to be used in the Manufacture
of Firearms or Ammunitions. The penalty of prision correctional in its maximum period
and a fine of not less than Fifteen thousand pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon
any person who shall unlawfully manufacture, dealt in, acquire, dispose or possess any
low-powered firearm, such as rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other firearm of similar
firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or instrument used in the
manufacture of any firearm or ammunition: provided, that no other crime was
committed.

The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand
pesos (P30,000.00) shall be imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered
firearms which includes those with bore bigger in diameter than caliber .38 and 9mm
such as caliber .40, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber firearms but considered powerful
such as caliber .357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other firearms with firing
capability of full automatic and by burst of two (2) or three (3): Provided, however, that
no other crime was committed by the person arrested.

G. THREE MAIN PARTS OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver 3. Rifle – Cal. .30

a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. cylinder assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

2. Pistol 4. Shotgun
a. barrel assembly a. barrel assembly
b. slide assembly b. magazine assembly
c. frame or receiver c. stock group

H. ADVANTAGES

1. Revolver

 almost everyone knows something about how to handle it.

 safer for inexperienced people.
 the mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better.
 a misfire does not put the revolver out of action.
 Can handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which
reduces velocity.

2. Automatic pistol

 has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally

 more compact for the same fire power
 easier to load, easier to clean
 barrel when worn or corroded can be replaced without sending the gun to the
factory
 gives greater number of shots
 gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
 no gas leakage during firing

I. DISADVANTAGES

1. Revolver

 bulkier to carry
 grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol
 hard to clean after firing
 slower to load
 harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job
 worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to improper
lining up of cylinder
 2. Automatic Pistol

 ammunition must be perfect – it causes jam

 misfire stops the functioning of gun
 when kept loaded for long period of time – magazine spring is under tension
 has poorer trigger pull
 magazine requires jacketed bullet
 more dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people
 usually not adopted for reloading
 possible ejection of empty shell towards the face of the firer causing flinching
 throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence
 cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming

J. PRECAUTION FOR REVOLVERS

Every police officer should frequently check his revolver for:

1. obstruction in the barrel
2. bulging or swollen barrel
3. firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position
4. on older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the
firing pin hole (insures blow in the center of primer)
5. evidence of “splitting lead” around breech of barrel or for complaints of fellow
shooters
6. tightness of all side plate screw
7. tightness of ejector rod head if the weapon is S & W
8. cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust

AMMUNITIONS/CARTRIDGES

LEGAL DEFINITION – it maybe found in Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of the National
Internal Revenue Code as well as in Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code. It
refers to ammunition as s “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other missile may be fired
by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term also includes ammunition for air
rifles as mentioned elsewhere in the Code.

TECHNICAL DEFINTION – Technically speaking, the term ammunition refers to

a group of cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridge – meaning a complete unfired
unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge, case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also
refer to a “single round”.

ORIGIN

The term “cartridge” evolved from about the turn of sixteenth century. The
earliest small arms ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-measured charge of
powder wrapped in a paper. In Webster’s later edition, a cartridge is defined as “A case
capsule, shell or bag of metal, pasteboard, of the like, containing the explosive charge
and in small arms and some cannon, the projectile to be fired. The term cartridge is
derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it came through
the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of paper, which indicates that the
original cartridges were not the brass gilding- metal tipped units which we are familiar
with today.

The use of paper-wrapped powder charged greatly speeds the loading of military
weapons, avoided waste of powder from spillage, and provided a uniform charge from
shot to shot. In time, the bullet was either attached faster or more convenient.

Take Note:

 “ammunition” means any unfired assembly of cartridge case, powder, primer

and projectile which may be used in a firearm. Today, it refers to a “file of
 assembled cartridges” in bulks as in boxes or lots & also used to refer to the
supply a person may be carrying with him.
 “round” refers to a single cartridge.
 shotgun cartridges are commonly referred to as “shell” or “shotshell”
 rifle ammunition is referred to as “metallics” or “cartridges”.
 When an investigator uses a term “cartridge” he invariably refers to revolver,
pistol, or rifle cartridges.
 The layman uses the abovementioned terms indiscriminately, although as
general rule he speaks of “cartridges” when referring to a pistol, revolver, rifle
ammunitions and “shells” when referring to shotguns.
 Among the uniformed, the word “bullet” as often misused, as it is commonly
used to apply to any sort of any unfired cartridge. Actually, it is that solid portion
of the cartridge which leaves the muzzle of the gun and does the “striking” or
“killing”. The word can properly be used in connection with pistol, revolver or
rifle ammunition but other common designations for the bullet are “projectile” or
“ball” is a relic of old muzzle- loading days when all rifle projectiles were round
lead balls.

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE (Nomenclature)

1. BULLET – the projectile propelled through the barrel of a firearm by means of

expansive force of gases coming from burning gunpowder.
2. CARTRIDGE CASE – the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder.
Sometimes called ”shell” or “casting”.
3. GUNPOWDER – It is the propellant which when ignited by the primer flash is
converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge
through the barrel and on to the target.
4. PRIMER – the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of
chemical compound, which when heat or struck by firing pin would ignite. Such
action is called “percussion.”

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF FIREARMS

1. Revolver cartridges
2. Pistol cartridges
3. Rifle cartridges
4. Shotgun cartridges

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMERS

1. PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE – the first cartridge of a self –exploding type which
enjoyed any real general use was the type called the “pin fire” commonly
attributed to Monsier Le Facheux of Paris, around 1896. Pin-fire cartridges were
made for all types was small arms in appearance to a modern shotgun shell
wherein it had a head of the cartridge and a percussion fixed by a wad or metal
cup. The percussion had a pin resting on its detonating compound. The end
protruding of the e pin is hit by a hammer coming down vertically from the side of
the cartridge instead of penetrating horizontally from its fear. This type of
cartridge is no longer used.
2. CENTER FIRE – priming powder is located at the center.
3. RINGFIRE CARTRIDGE – A type of cartridge used only on sabotage cases.
The chattel cartridges of Steyr advance combat rifle and Steyr anti-material
squad machine gun. This is a special type of cartridge wherein the priming
mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of the base of the cartridge.
4. RIM FIRE CARTRIDGE – The simplest form of modern cartridge is the “rim-fire
cartridge”. The name “rim-fire” is derived from the fact that this type can be fired
only if the cartridge is struck by the hammer of firing pin on the rim of he case. In
this type, the priming mixture is contained or located in a cavity inside and
around the rim of the cartridge which is a very sensitive area. If a rim fire
cartridge is struck anywhere in the sensitive area, the priming substance is
 crushed between the front and rear of the case rim. This denotes or ignites the
priming mixture, causing a flash of flame.

Rim-fire cartridges may be identified by the smooth base of the cartridge

case, which may or may not have a head stamps are merely letters or design found
on the base of the cases that identifies the manufacturer. These rim-fire cartridges
are generally found in caliber .22s. They can be fired in either caliber .22 pistols,
caliber 22. revolvers and caliber .22 rifles. Rim-fire cartridges can be further
classified into:

a. rimmed type – used in revolvers .38 and .357

b. semi-rimmed – used in super .380
c. rimless - .45 pistols, Thompson, grease gun, submachine guns

TYPES ACCORDING TO CALIBER

1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

2. Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber .380 – used in pistols
6. Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
7. Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
8. Caliber .44 – used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber .45 – used in Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50 – used in caliber .50 machine guns

The abovementioned different classes of small arms cartridges are generally

encountered by the Police in the field of firearms investigation in our jurisdiction. These
are commonly used by criminals because they are used in firearms that are easy to
carry, conceal, fire and dispose of.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS

1. Penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet,

2. High explosives - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of
penetrating pieces or becoming a high-speed jet of molten metal, and
3. Carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-
deceiving materials, or submunitions (small ammunition).

ARTILLERY AMMUNITION

Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as howitzers, mortars,
antiaircraft guns, and naval guns. Most types of field and naval artillery ammunition are
called shells. A single shell, like a single cartridge, is known as a round. Field artillery
projectiles range in size from 50 to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90
kilograms). Most artillery shells taper to the rear, a shape that gives them greater range.
Some have streamlined ogives (nose shields). Others, known as base-burner shells,
have a small amount of propellant burning in the tail during flight. This reduces drag (air
resistance).

Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on impact and damage or
destroy the target. Detonating the shell's explosive filler shatters the shell into
thousands of fragments. High explosives include TNT; RDX, also known as cyclonite or
hexogen; composition B, a mixture of RDX and TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a
combination of PETN and TNT. Other shells contain mines or small shells that can be
expelled at intervals over a specified area or during a certain period of time.

Still other shells are filled with a non-explosive substance, such as a chemical
that is poisonous or that produces smoke or fire. Illuminating, or star, shells light up the
battlefield or seascape. A shell with a chaff warhead expels strips of aluminum, which
produce images on a radar screen similar to those caused by aircraft. Such images
confuse radar operators and thus help protect aircraft from enemy attack.

There are five main types of artillery shells

1. Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a casing, a primer,

and a propellant. Like small-arms cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are
manufactured as complete units.
2. Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However, the projectile fits
loosely into the casing so that the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount
of propellant in the casing can be increased or decreased, depending on how far
the shell is from the target.
3. Separate loading ammunition, also called bag ammunition, consists of
separate sections for the projectile, the primer, and the propellant. The propellant
is packed into bags that are placed behind the projectile. The number of bags
used depends on the distance the shell must travel. This type of ammunition is
used to fire the heaviest artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated ammunition consists of two sections. One section is the projectile.
The other includes the primer, the casing, and a fixed amount of propellant.
5. Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being fired. It often uses
pop-out tail fins to steer itself. Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking
a laser spot on the target. This spot is usually produced by a forward observer, a
person or object forward of the line of fire. Some shells known as smart shells
have small radars and computers in them. These shells can search for and find
such targets as armored vehicles or trucks without help.

ARTILLERY-VEHICLE AMMUNITION

Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles fired by guns mounted on

tanks and other armored vehicles. They have diameters from 20 to 125 millimeters.

A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose cap of tungsten

or another heavy metal. The cap helps the projectile penetrate opposing vehicles. A
high explosive projectile is a hollow-charge warhead. This warhead is hollow in the front
and has an explosive charge in the back. Its explosion converts a copper cone in the
warhead to a molten, high-speed jet. The jet penetrates the target. Another armored
vehicle projectile is a long dart made of tungsten or depleted uranium (uranium with
most of its radioactivity removed). The dart travels on a device called a sabot, which
breaks away after the dart leaves the gun's barrel.

RIOT CONTROL AMMUNITION

This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing

serious injury. Most of this ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is
made of soft rubber rings that look like doughnuts and may contain tear gas. These
rings cause less damage than do the rubber bullets.

SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE (SHELL)

Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a cartridge that contains a powder charge
and a load of metal pellets, called shot. The shot spreads over a wide area. This makes
it easier to hit a moving target with a shotgun than with the single bullet from a rifle or a
pistol. The shotgun is chiefly a hunting gun.

Kinds of Shots:

1. bird shot - small shotgun pellets

2. buckshot – larger ones are used to shoot such animals as deer
3. single shot – consist of single unit of projectile

Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass or steel case
at one end. They contain lead or steel shot instead of bullets.
 The caliber of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The weight of the lead
shot required to fit the muzzle of the gun is the standard of measurement for the bore. If
a bullet weighing 1/12 pound (38 grams) fits the bore, the shotgun is called a 12-bore,
or a 12-gauge, gun. Popular gauges are 10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410.

Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that is called .410
gauge shotguns which actually means .41 caliber. A 12-gauge shotgun has a caliber
of .729 inch.

SHOT WADS. At a distance of 5-8 yards or more from the place of firing in the
approximate direction of fire, one can sometimes find wads.

CARTRIDGE LIFE

The life of well made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps 10 years on the
average. Some last 5-6 years, however, ammunitions may lose some of its strength
in 5 or 6 years. Some may last 25 years or more depending on the conditions storage.
Damp, and warm climates are worst.

In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common practice to

varnish the mouth of the case before the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of
waterproofing around the joint between the primer and the primer pocket.

CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL

It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet,

gunpowder and primer.

It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during firing and this remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence
that can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE

The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is fired in

revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, or machine guns. These include:

1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge
case are forced against the walls of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a
“gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose
of limiting the forward travel of cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit
the clearance, if any between the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs three functions:
a.) holding primers securely in certain position;
b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge;
c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not
be fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES –the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web or
bottom of the primer pocket through which the primer “flash” provides ignition to
the powder charge. It is the “opening” or “canal” that connects the priming
mixture with the gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY – the “head” and “body” constitute the “cork” that plugs
the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to
prevent the bullet from being push back or loosened.
 6. CANNELURES – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes
found rolled into the neck and body of cases at the location of the cases of the
bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It
works two ways a) it aids in holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to
the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the burning of
gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains
the priming mixture; b) the shell head which contains the head stamp, caliber,
and year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER –that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell
designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after each firing.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASESHAPE

1. Straight – all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38
special
2. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called “magnum jet” Cal. .22.
3. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
4. Belted – ex. .30 magnum
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS
1. Rimmed – diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body
2. Semi-rimmed – diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body
3. Rimless – diameter of base is the same as of the body

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS

BASE
1. RIMMED – It has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the
body of the cartridge case. This flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted
from the weapon in which it is used.
2. SEMI-RIMMED – It has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the
cartridge case and a groove around the case body just in front of the flange.
3. RIMLESS – The flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for
extraction purposes, a groove around the case-body in front of the flange.
4. REBATED – It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the
cartridge case.
5. BELTED CASE – It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the
cartridge, the belt is for additional strength in high pressure cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES

1. Straight cased – where the case diameter is approximately the same along its
length.
2. Bottled-necked – where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth,
reduced in diameter to that of the bullet.
3. Tapered case – where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in
diameter along its length.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and the primer
2. Prevent the escape of gases
3. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.

Take Note:

 Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to

become very soft and ductile and very weak: when it is drawn or otherwise
worked, it becomes hard, strong and elastic.
 Belted Cartridge – A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor
groove. The cartridge seats on this belt, most “Magnum” cartridge case. Also
called a European type primer.
  Blank Cartridge – Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder
charge and a wad to train the powder.
 Blank Cartridge Pistol – A firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may
escape through the hole in the top of the frame.
 Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder.
 Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process
of making case by punching discs from a sheet of brass and then making these
discs out into tubes closed to one end.
 Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.
 Rolled Crimp – One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward
into a cannelure on the bullet all around its circumference to retain the bullet at
the proper seating depth.
 Round – One single complete cartridge.
 Ruptured Case – Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the
gas has escape.
 Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.
 Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the “roman
candle” variety.

BULLETS (Projectiles)

Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE – is a metallic or non-metallic body usually

referred to as a bullet that is completely dependent upon an outside force for its power.

Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from
shotguns although strictly speaking these projectiles designed for shotguns are called
“shot”, “slug” or pellets. In a layman’s viewpoint, a projectile fired from a firearms is
called slug, although what be actually meant is a “bullet”.

The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boulette”, a small ball. In
common Police parlance, a bullet may be called “slug” which is a colloquial term.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:

1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal such as lead,
tin and antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder
metal such as guiding metal and copper zinc.

Purposes of the jacket

1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the target.
2. prevent damage while in the weapon
3. control expansion

Take Note:

 copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of
caliber .45 - jacket of metal patch made of cupro nickel or gilding metal.
 If jscket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or
destroyed.

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Pointed bullet
2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Hollow Point bullet
6. Boat Tailed bullet
 * Another improvement in bullets was the boat-tail in which the name became .30
M1. The “M” stands for Mark but some contend stands for MODIFICATION.

COMMON BULLET TYPES

1. solid lead point

2. solid hollow
3. solid paper patch
4. metal cased
5. soft point
6. metal cased hollow point
7. metal point
8. rifled slug
9. glycer type bullet
10. quadraximum
PURPOSES OF BULLETS

1. .38 – disability purposes

2. .45 – knocking power – subduing a maniac or amok
3. M16 – fatal effects
4. Garand and Carbine – penetration and long range shooting

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Ball Bullets – have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against
vehicles, weapons and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is
set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning
permits the flight of the bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials,
that can be set on fire by impact. They are used against target that will burn
readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of
their small size it is difficult to make a fuse tat will work reliably in small arms
ammunition. For this reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to
20mm and above.

BULLETS’ MEASUREMENT (DIAMETER)

Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by caliber (the
diameter of the bullet). Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United States
have traditionally specified caliber in decimal fractions of an inch. For example, a .30-
caliber cartridge has a diameter of 30/100 inch (7.6 millimeters). However, it is
becoming customary to use millimeters instead. The U.S. armed forces specify caliber
in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges are less than 20 millimeters or .78 caliber.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

1. Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm

2. Caliber .25 about 6.35 mm
3. Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
5. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6. Caliber .38 about 9mm
7. Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm

CONVERSION TABLE

Multiply
1. cm to mm - 10.0
 2. mm to inch - 0.03937
3. inch to mm - 25.4
4. meter to yard - 1.094
5. grain to gram - 0.06480
6. gram to grain - 15.43
7. gram to kg - 0.001

Take Note:

 .0002 second – explosion of a bullet by means of tremendous explosion of

burning gases.
 Resistance of .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 ft./found.
 Buck-shot – it ranges 50 yards

Take Note:

 Ball Bullet – Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.

 Cannelure (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the
bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the
passage of the bullet inside the bore.
 Dumdum Bullet – an out-moded and generally misused term – hollow point
bullets manufactured in Dumdum, India.
 Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullets – Contain a high charge explosive, because
of heir small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms
ammunitions. For this reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually to 20
mm. and above.
 Hollow Point – designed to increase expansion (sometimes called “express
bullets”)
 Iced Bullets or solidified bullets – super cooled water made as a projectile.
 Lead Bullets - Actually a mixture of lead and one or more hardening ingredient.
 Metal Cased Bullet – colloquially used to indicate either a metal patched of full
patched bullet.
 Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet. Technically, it is a bullet
having a metal cup over the base and extending forward over that portion of the
bullet which bears against the rifling, the lead core being exposed at the nose of
the bullet.
 Mushroom Bullet – colloquially. Any bullet designed to expand on impact.
Technically, a metal patched bullet with exposed round nose.
 Ogive – the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical and forms the head of
the projectile of ogival shape.
 Plated Bullet – a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent
leading on the inside of the barrel.
 Pointed Bullet – more effective ballistically because there is less surface
resistance to air, thus the speed is less retarded and greater velocity.
 Soft or Drop Shot – shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft lead made into round
pellets.
 Soft Point Bullet – expands on striking hence it produces more serious damage
and have greater stopping power: from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon
striking a flesh until it looks like a mushroom, hence, they are often called
mushroom bullet. Such bullets are of little effect than a full-jacketed bullet in
revolvers or automatic pistols, because the velocity is too low to cause the bullet
to expand.
 Steel Jacketed Bullet – bullet having soft steel jacket, often clad or plated with
gliding metal to prevent resting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
 Tracer Bullet – a bullet containing a substance inside the jacket at the base of
the bullet which is ignited when fired showing a brilliant “tail light” during its flight.
It has an incendiary effect if they strike before the “tail light” base burned put.

GUNPOWDER
 It is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a
large amount of chemical energy at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is
to convert the propellant into a high of gas.

CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:

1. Black Powder (Europeans) – the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate

75%, Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%. It’s characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited

Qualities (typical to all explosives)

a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder – Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients,

mixed with one or more minor ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters,
inorganic salts and etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose

2. Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the following minor
ingredients:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
c. Inorganic salt

Purposes of the minor ingredients:

a. insure stability
b. reduce flash or flame temperature
c. improve ignitability

Characteristics
a. gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and shape to the
single-base propellants
b. almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small squares; discs;
flakes; stripes; pellets; and perforated cylindrical grains

3. Triple based – Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine - It was devised

in an attempt to compromise between the low power single based powders and
high power but excessive heat of double based powders. The percentage of
nitroglycerin is small, but sufficient to give added power. The nitro-guanidine
lowers the flame temperature while still adding active explosive constituent. One
of its virtues is that it is entirely flashless though it does not generate rather more
smoke than the other types.

4. High ignition temperature propellant – Its main constituent is from RDX group
of high explosives. It was moderated to the process of gelatinozation and was
then developed by Dynamite Noble of Germany in conjunction with Heckler and
Koch for the latter’s G11K2 rifle. This is a caseless cartridge.

Take Note:

 Cordite – A British propellant made by dissolving gun cotton and nitroglycerin

and adding 5% of Vaseline.
  Gun Cotton – A very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin which is a chemical
compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric
acid on cotton or any other kind of cellulose.

PRIMER

It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer assembly of center fire
cartridges consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition
pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foil), and a brass anvil.

A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil, thus
causing the composition to explode. The hole or vent in the anvil allows the flame to
pass through the primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby igniting the propellant.

Rimfire ammunition, such as the caliber .22 cartridge does not contain primer
assembly; the primer composition is spun into the rim of the cartridge case and the
propellant is in intimate contact with the composition. In firing, the firing pin strikes the
rim of the case and thus compresses the primer composition and initiates its explosion.

Take Note:

1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system.

He was a Scotch Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.

First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.

TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier
Boxer in 1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) – two flash holes or vents invented by Hiram Berdan
of New York in 1850’s.

PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION

1. Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming
mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is
sufficiently sensitive to result of chemical reaction being set up by the caused by
a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the
priming mixture that will cause its disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on
this side or point which the priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main
support for the whole primer components.

PRIMING COMPOUNDS

1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate – IF ignited produces potassium chloride

which draws moisture from the air and this moisture speeds the rusting and
corrosion in gun barrels.

CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust
formation or chemical reaction by products of combustion during firing.
 EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due
to mechanical abrasion or sliding friction.

2. Non-corrosive
Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b. antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%

WWII – Frankford Arenal (FH 42)

sulfur – 21.97% ; potassium chlorate – 47.20%; antimony sulfide – 30.83%

Typical rimfire (Cal. .22) – Frankford Arsenal

potassium chlorate – 41.43%; antimony sulfide – 9.53%; copper sulpho-cyanide –
4.70%; ground glass – 44.23%

Germans
fulminate of mercury – 39%; barium nitrate – 41%; antimony sulfide – 9%; picric acid
– 5%; ground glass – 6%

Swiss by Ziegler – 1911

fulminate of mercury – 40%; barium nitrate – 25%;
antimony sulfide – 25%; barium carbonate – 6%; ground glass – 4%
Take Note:

 Match Slow – a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton soaked in a solution of

saltpeter or hemp or on matchlock weapons.
 Maynard Primer – another form of percussion cap. Explosive pellets were
sealed at proper intervals between two strips of paper. This primer tape was then
rolled and inserted in guns of suitable design. The action of cocking the hammer
pulled the primer tape until a primer pellet lay under the hammer and over the
ignition vent into the chamber ready for firing. Similar forms are used in cap
pistols.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)

It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It
would be better termed firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally
accepted in criminal Courts trials to establish use or possession of a certain weapon.

TWO (2) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS REGARDING FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION

1. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are determinable

even before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into the following:

a. Caliber
b. Number of Lands and Grooves
c. Width of Lands and Grooves
d. Twist of riflings
e. Pitch of the rifling
f. Depth of grooves

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT FIREARMS

a. Colt Type ---------------------------------------- .45 6L G2X

b. Grease Gun ------------------------------------- .45 6R G+
c. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .45 6R GL
d. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .38 5R G=L
e. Colt Revolver ---------------------------------- .38 6L G+
f. Colt Pistol Super-------------------------------- .38 6L G+
 g. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .32 6L G+
h. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .32 6L G+
i. Colt Pistol --------------------------------------- .25 6L G2X
j. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .22 6L G2X
k. Colt Revolver ----------------------------------- .357 6L G2X
l. Smith and Wesson Rev. ---------------------- .32 5R G=L
m. Smith and Wesson MRF Rev. ---------------- .22 6R G=L
n. Enfield Revolver -------------------------------- .38 7R G2X
o. US Carbine -------------------------------------- .30 4R G3x
p. Browning Pistol --------------------------------- 9mm 6R G=L
q. Star Pistol ---------------------------------------- .380 6R G+
r. Llama Pistol ------------------------------------- .380 6L G+
s. Beretta Pistol ------------------------------------.32 6R G2X
t. Astra Pistol -------------------------------------- .32 6R G2X
u. Arminius Revolver ------------------------------ .22 6R G2X
v. Burgo Revolver --------------------------------- .22 8R G+
w. Marlin M57 Rifle -------------------------------- .22 2OR G+

2. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – are those characteristics which are

determinable only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose
existence is beyond the control of man and which have a random distribution. Their
existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation resulting
through wear, tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion, erosions and other fortuitous causes.
These are the irregularities found on the inner surface of the barrel and on the breech
face of the breechblock of the firearms as a result of the failure of the tool beyond the
control of the manufacturer to make them smooth as a minor.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIREARMS EXAMINATION

1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION

a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all
posses individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings
and this engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that
on a similar bullet fire from another barrel. And conversely,. The engraving
on bullet from the same barrel will be the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired through it,
just as every breech face leaves its “thumbmark” on the base of the fired
cartridge case.

2. IDENTIFICATION OF FIRED BULLETS AND CARTRIDGE CASES

a. The first thing to do in the examination of bullets is to conduct a visual

examination of the bullets in order to familiarize with all markings appearing
on it.
b. Conduct examination of the bore of the firearm.
c. Determine the conspicuous characteristics appearing on the bullet or any
markings appearing therein.
d. Markings appearing on the test bullet No. 1 and does not appear on the
succeeding test bullet such markings should be disregarded. Consequently,
such markings are called accidental markings which came from foreign
substances.
e. If the bullet is undersized or the bore of the firearms is badly worn out there
will be a cylindrical passage of the expending gas will appear dark or black in
the picture.

WHAT TO COMPARE?

1. Evidence Bullet
2. Test/Standard Bullet
 Before proceeding in the examination of the firearm by means of the fired
bullets, first identify the particular firearm through the class characteristics
appearing on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

Manufacturers of firearms make certain marks which may distinguish

firearms manufactured by them from that of other manufacturers. Each
manufacturer makes specific number of spiral grooves and direction of the twist
of rifling. A bullet recovered at the crime scene or from the body of the victim
may show those marks and on examination, the examiner may presumptively
state from what make of firearm it came from, thus, if one examination or
recovered bullet, it was found out that there are six (6) grooves and the rifling
marks are twisted to the left, then it is possible that it came from a Colt firearm.
Smith and Wesson manufacturer has five (5) lands, five (5) grooves and with
right hand twit of rifling. Other class characteristics varied from one manufacturer
to another.

3. SHELL Identification

a. The breechface and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically
individualities of their own. The firearm leaves its “fingerprint” or “thumbmark”
on every cartridge which is fires.
b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the
breechface of every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case
which it fires is imprinted with this individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and
those cartridges fired from different weapon must always be different.

IMPORTANCE OF FIRED BULLET IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

a. By means of fire bullet you can determine the particular barrel of firearm
used.
b. Recovered bullet can tell the type, caliber and make of firearm from which it
was fired.
c. Can determine also the condition of the firearm us
FIREARM CARTRIDGE CASE

Before proceeding in the examination, conduct a preliminary examination on the

cartridge case having a visual examination on the condition of such cartridge case.
Determine whether or not it came from a revolver or from an automatic pistol and sub-
machine guns. Examine those markings that are present on the base portion, the
breechface marks, firing pin impression, the location of the extractor and ejector
markings. Check also the markings caused by the chamber of the firearm. The
magazine and the ejector port markings must also be taken into consideration
particularly those cartridge cases from gums having full automatic mechanism.

MARKINGS APPEARING ON A FIRED CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Breechface marks
2. Firing pin impression
3. Ejector mark
4. Extractor mark
5. Chamber mark

TWO TYPES OF MARKINGS (individual)

1. Impression type – those markings caused by direct pressure contact. (ex.

Breechface mark)
2. Striated mark – those markings caused by sliding contact. (ex. Minute striations
on the cylindrical surface of the bullet)

Take Note:
  Abrasion (in the bore) – Scratches caused by using improper cleaning materials,
or by firing ammunition with bullets to which abrasive material was adhering.
Normal enlargement of the bore and wearing away of lands due to the abrasive
action of the bullets.
 Accidental Characteristics - Those ate characteristics or marks left by some
individual gun that occurred on that particular shot and may or may not
reproduced on any other shots. For example, a grain of send of shaving of steel
happened to be in the barrel when a shot was fired.
 Ballistician – Person whose knowledge in firearms identification is accepted by
the courts and other investigation agencies.
 Definitive Proof – after the gun is finally completed, it is again fired with a heavy
charge to ensure against accident. This is the definitive proof and guns passing
this test are stamped with still another marked.
 Expert - As used in courts includes all witnesses whose opinions are admitted on
grounds of specialized knowledge, training and experience.
 Fouling - The accumulated of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by
solid by-products remaining after a cartridge of is fired.
 Heavy Rusting - Usually called corrosion rather than fouling.
 Proof Marks – It is the examination and testing of firearms by a recognized
authority according to certain rules and stamped with a mark to indicate that they
are safe for sale and used by the public.
 Provisional Proof – the testing of the rough gun barrels and fired with a heavy
charge of powder to see if they are strong enough to be finished and assembled
into gun. This provisional proof and a certain stamp are placed on barrels so
tested.
 Secondary Firing Pin Impression – Is a mark on the side of the regular
impression usually found in pistols.
 Shaving Marks – a shaving on the ogive portion of the fired bullet due to poor
alignment of the cylinder with the barrel. This shaving is often found in the
revolver.
 Skid Marks – When the bullet first starts forward without turning, that before the
bullet can begin to turn, it moves forward a small distance and this makes the
front of the groove in the bullet wider than the rear part. This skidding is more
pronounced in revolvers.
 Slippage Marks – Scratches of the fired bullet due to badly worn rifling or when
the bullet is small or too soft for the velocity used, there is a tendency for it to go
straight forward without turning and it jumps the rifling or slips.
 Stripping Marks – scratches on the fired bullet due to worn out barrel.

TECHNIQUES OF EXAMINATION

1. Physical – Evidence bullets, cartridge cases and suspected firearm once

submitted by the requesting party will be physically examined to determine its markings
or initials made by the investigator for identification purposes. If no identifying marks
were found the firearms examiner will, before anything, affix his own identifying
markings or initials derived form the names of the requesting party, victim or suspect in
that order of priority. The firearm will also be physically examine to determine its safety
devices seeing to it that there is no cartridge inserted in the chamber that will cause
accidental firing. Likewise, it will be examined of its vital parts whether or not it is in
operating condition and a tag will be attached for distinction.

Bullets of different class characteristics will be segregated from one another

especially the determination of caliber, number of lands and grooves, twist of rifling, etc.
to facilitate its easy final microscopic examination.

Cartridge cases will also be segregated to determine the caliber, type and make
of firearm from which they were fired. Misfired or dud cartridges will also be taken into
consideration. Although they may not have any ballistics probative value, yet, they may
give a clue to the solution of a crime.

2. Test Firing – The firearm is test fired before a bullet recovery box in order to
obtain test bullets and test cartridge cases for comparison with the evidence bullets and
cartridge cases, respectively,. But before firing, the cartridge will be marked at the side
of the case and on the nose portion of the bullet with letter “T” (to represent test)
followed by the last two digits of the serial number of the firearm of the test to be made
(eg) T-77-1 to T-77-3 in their order of firing to distinguish the number 1 test from the
number 2 or 3 as the case may be.

3. Microscope Examination – After the recovery of the test bullets and

cartridge case, they will be compared with the evidence cartridge cases under the Bullet
Comparison Microscope to determine whether or not the have the congruency of
striations or the same individual characteristics.

BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE

Toady, the most widely and reliable instrument in Firearms Identification is the
Bullet Comparison Microscope. With this instrument, the firearms examiner can make a
complete examination and comparison of the so called Class and Individual
characteristics that appears on the fired bullets and fired cartridge cases.

This instrument consists of two single tubes fitted with a cross arm and
comparison eyepiece, in which the images of two objects held on its two adjustable
stages are fused into one, forming a single image as can be seen on the comparison
eyepiece. The microscope tubes are built as a unit with the comparison eyepiece which
has a prism arrangement that brings the images of the specimen held under the
microscopic tubes into a side by side position in the left and right side of the eyepiece
field the eyepiece is threaded for focusing on the dividing line between the two fields.

Under the microscope the two fired bullets or fired cartridge cases can be
examined in a “juxtaposition” and whatever the observation and findings obtained during
the examination can be photographed for court presentation and also to give the Court
a better understanding and good appreciation of how he came to that conclusion.

HOW TO OPERATE THE MICROSCOPE

Place the two objects on the two adjustable stages under the two microscopic
tubes and peep through the comparison eyepiece. If the objects cannot be seen, adjust
the stages through the rock and pinion mechanism. Once the two objects focused, the
next step is to find the similarities existing between the objects either shifting them
vertically or horizontally.

Every examiner, no matter how experienced or expert he may be, has had the
experience of spending many hours in the attempt to get the satisfactory and convincing
matching in cases where there was every reason to believe that the has the gun that
fired the evidence bullet or shell.

Obtain matching as many as possible, because convincing one’s self and

convincing the Court “beyond all reasonable doubt” are two quite different matters. Te
expert must always keep in mind the fact, judges are always keep in mind the fact,
judges are always unpredictable: if some pairs of grooves (or lands) match and others
do not, the expert must be prepared to explain why they do not.

FINDINGS/CONCLUSION

Findings are the bases of conclusion. A conclusion cannot be made without the
findings. A good conclusion is always based on good findings. In comparative
examination of the evidence bullet that are found on the periphery running from the
forward shoulder to the base portion (these are surface of the barrel), are discernible
with the test bullet or if they have the congruency, correspondence or intermarriage,
then the evidence bullet and the test bullet were fired from one and the same firearm.
For conclusive of findings, there should be at least three (3) tests that should be
compared. The first is for preliminary, the second is for confirmation and the third is for
conclusion. This is also true for fired cartridge cases. Although the individual
characteristics of the cases may be found at the base portion where breechface,
ejector, extractor markings are found on the sides that are in contact with the inner
surface of the chamber.

Clip or magazine markings may also give discernible markings. Like the ejector
or extractor markings if considered singly may not be a basis for conclusion. These only
serve as corroborative characteristics but certainly lack legal significance. This is so
because the case may have these markings even if they were unloaded from the
firearm without firing. As a rule, the point of the examination and comparison is at the
area of the primer proper where breechface markings together with the firing pin
impression are located. Primers are softer metals and receive more prominent striation
than any other portion of the base.

Conclusion is the opinion gathered from the finding. This is the end result of the
examination and should be taken seriously as it involves the life and liberty of the
suspect. When the evidence and the test bullets or cartridge cases have the same
individual characteristics, the competent examiner will conclude that they were fired
from one and the same individual characteristic; the competent examiner will conclude
that they were fired from one and the same suspected firearm. If they have different
individual characteristics, certainly, the evidence bullet or case was not fired from the
suspected firearm. Where the evidence has prominent or minor striations that the three
tests, it calls for uncertainty and doubt for a positive or negative conclusion. Only those
evidence bullets or cases that have the same individual characteristics may be taken of
photomicrograph for Court presentation.

REQUIREMENTS FOR A POSITIVE IDENTIFICATION

1. PROMINENT – Standing out or projecting beyond a surface or line, readily

noticeable.
2. CONSISTENT – Possessing firmness. The impression or striation found on the
evidence bullet or cartridge case appearing in every test bullets and cartridge
cases.
3. SIGNIFICANT – The markings have meaning or capable of being interpreted by
the Firearms Examiner or Ballistician.

INSTRUMENTS USED IN FORENSIC BALISTICS

1. Analytical or Torsion Balance – Used for determining weights of bullets and

shotgun pellets for possible determination of type, and make of firearm from
which it was fired.
2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – This valuable instrument is specially
designed to permit the firearms examiner to determine the similarity and
dissimilarity between two fired bullets or two fired shells, by simultaneously
observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field.
3. Bullet Recovery Box – Consist of a wooden box, 12 “x”12”x 96, with a hinged to
cover and with one end open. This long box is filled with ordinary cotton and
separated into sections by cardboard petitions.
4. CP–6 Comparison Projector – An instrument very much similar with the bullet
comparison microscope, where 2 fired bullets or shells can be compared in one
setting of the firearms examiner. Also in one sitting, the evidence fired shell can
b4e immediately compared with the test fired shell with the use of this equipment
is absolutely no strain of any kind. No eye strain because the magnified image
appears on a large screen and is observed as a vertical and comfortable viewing
distance. No back strain from stooping over a microscope several hours a day.
No mental strain because comparison of evidence is faster, easier and less
tiresome, thus allowing a more efficient and productive of investigative time in the
crime laboratory with method that can be seen in the screen can be
photographed by any kind of camera.
5. Filan Micrometer Eye Piece - a measuring microscope to read the width of the
land and groove marks and to obtain the pitch of the rifling in turns per inch.
6. Helixometer – Type of instrument used in measuring pitch of rifling firearms.
This instrument is generally used in high advanced ballistic laboratory. It is not
very much needed in a typical police ballistic laboratory. With the use of this
 instrument it is possible to measure the angel of twist in a rifle, pistol, or revolver
barrel. It is used by the insertion of a telescope aligned with the axis of the bore.
There is an eyepiece and an objective. The scope is mounted on a routable
bearing with graduated discs that permits reading circular measurements, there
is a scale graduated in inches. From the discs we can get the angel of the pitch,
this can be combined with the scale reading to compute how many inches of
barrel length would be needed for one complete turn of the rifling. Comparing this
figure with those in tables of manufacturers’ specifications, we can often identify
the making and the model of a weapon whose other features have been
destroyed already.
7. Machine Rest - A machine use for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
8. Caliper – an instrument used for making measurements such as bullet diameter
and bore diameter.
9. Micrometer – similar in use as caliber.
10. Onoscope – a small instrument sometimes used in examining the internal
surface of the gun barrel in determining the irregularities inside the bore of the
gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal portion and this is inserted inside the
bore for internal examination.
11. Optical Sight – sight containing series of lenses to form an optical system being
contained in one unit. Optical sights do not necessarily have telescopic
properties. The optical system may merely include range indicating, or range
estimating devices, plus the necessary means of adjusting for elevation and wind
age.
12. Shadow Graph – Equipment used in firearms identification. It contains a series
of microscopic lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining
fired bullet or fired shells to determine their class characteristics and also for
orientation purposes. It greatly differs from the bullet comparison microscope and
stereoscope microscope, that this instrument contains a large ground glass, 14
inches more or less in diameter, wherein the observation and comparison of the
class characteristics is done by the firearm examiner. Similarly with the bullet
comparison made in the circular ground glass.
13. Stereoscopic Microscope – unlike the bullet comparison microscope does not
have any camera attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court
presentation. It is generally used in the preliminary examination of fired bullets
and fired shells to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics
or for so-called orientation purposes. It can be used also in the close-up
examination of tempered serial numbers of firearms. It has two eyepieces and
the lenses and objectives can be manipulated vertically with a series of
magnifications. It is one effective instrument for firearms identification.
14. Taper Gauge – It is used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms.
This instrument is very useful for giving quick idea as to the caliber of a gun.
15. Telescope Sight – an optical employing the principle of the telescope to enlarge
the image of the target.