Computer Organization & Assembly Language

Chapter One
Introduction to Computers

Girmay_2008@yahoo.com
Concept of Computer Organization & Architecture
• Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a
system visible to a programmer
or, put another way, those attributes that have a direct
impact on the logical execution of a program.
—Instruction set, number of bits used for data representation,
I/O mechanisms, addressing techniques.
—e.g. Is there a multiply instruction?
• Computer organization refers to the operational
units and their interconnections that realize the
architectural specifications.
…Cont’d
• Organization is how features are implemented
—Control signals, interfaces, memory technology.
—e.g. Is there a hardware multiply unit or is it done by
repeated addition?
Architecture & Organization …
• All Intel x86 family share the same basic architecture
• The IBM System/370 family share the same basic
architecture

• This gives code compatibility

—At least backwards
• Organization differs between different versions
Structure & Function
• A computer is a complex system; contemporary
computers contain millions of elementary electronic
components. How, then, can one clearly describe
them? The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature
of most complex systems, including the Computer.
• Structure is the way in which components relate to
each other
• Function is the operation of individual components as
part of the structure
Function
• All Computer functions are:
—Data processing
—Data storage
—Data movement
—Control
…Cont’d
• Both the structure and functioning of a computer are, in
essence, simple. In general terms, there are only four basic
functions that a computer can perform:
• Data processing: Data may take a wide variety of forms, and
the range of processing requirements is broad. However, we
shall see that there are only a few fundamental methods or
types of data processing.
• Data storage: Even if the computer is processing data on the
fly (i.e., data come in and get processed, and the results go out
immediately), the computer must temporarily store at least
those pieces of data that are being worked on at any given
moment.
…Cont’d
• Data movement: The computer’s operating environment
consists of devices that serve as either sources or destinations
of data. When data are received from or delivered to a device
that is directly connected to the computer, the process is
known as input–output (I/O), and the device is referred to as a
peripheral. When data are moved over longer distances, to or
from a remote device, the process is known as data
communications.

• Control: Within the computer, a control unit manages the

computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its
functional parts in response to instructions.
Functional view
Operations (1) Data movement
Operations (2) Storage
Operation (3) Processing from/to storage
Operation (4)
Processing from storage to I/O
Structure
• We now look in a general way at the internal
structure of a computer. We begin with a traditional
computer with a single processor that employs a
microprogrammed control unit, then examine a
typical multicore structure.
• There are four main structural components in a single
processor computers:
• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the
operation of the computer and performs its data
processing functions; often simply referred to as
processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
…Cont’d
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its
external environment.

• System interconnection: Some mechanism that

provides for communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O. A common example of system
interconnection is by means of a system bus,
consisting of a number of conducting wires to which
all the other components attach.
Structure - Top Level

The Computer: Top-Level Structure

 Structure - Top Level

Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
Structure - The CPU

CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
Structure - The Control Unit

Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
Evolution or History of
Computers
The Five Generations of Computers

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Generations of Computer
• The computer has evolved from a large-sized
simple calculating machine to a smaller but
much more powerful machine.

• The evolution of computer to the current state is

defined in terms of the generations of computer.

• Each generation of computer is designed based

on a new technological development, resulting in
better, cheaper and smaller computers that are
more powerful, faster and efficient than their
predecessors.
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…Generations of Computer

• Currently, there are five generations of

computer. In the following subsections, we will
discuss the generations of computer in terms of
the technology used by them (hardware and
software), computing characteristics (speed, i.e.,
number of instructions executed per second),
physical appearance, and their applications.

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First Generation Computers (1940-1956)
• The first computers used vacuum tubes(a sealed glass
tube containing a near-vacuum which allows the free
passage of electric current.) for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
• They were often enormous and taking up entire room.
• First generation computers relied on machine language.
• They were very expensive to operate and in addition to
using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat,
which was often the cause of malfunctions(defect or
breakdown).
• The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of
first-generation computing devices.

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First Generation Computers

Advantages :
•It was only electronic device
•First device to hold memory
Disadvantages :
•Too bulky i.e large in size
•Vacuum tubes burn frequently
•They were producing heat
•Maintenance problems
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Second Generation Computers(1956-1963)
• Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered
in the second generation of computers.
• Second-generation computers moved from
cryptic binary machine language to symbolic.
• High-level programming languages were also
being developed at this time, such as early
versions of COBOL and FORTRAN.
• These were also the first computers that stored
their instructions in their memory.

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Second Generation Computers

Advantages :
•Size reduced considerably
•The very fast
•Very much reliable

Disadvantages :
•They over heated quickly
•Maintenance problems
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Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)
• The development of the integrated circuit was
the hallmark of the third generation of
computers.
• Transistors were miniaturized and placed
on siliconchips, called semiconductors.
• Instead of punched cards and printouts, users
interacted with third generation computers
through keyboards and monitors and interfaced
with an operating system.
• Allowed the device to run many
different applications at one time.
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Third generation computers

Advantages :
•ICs are very small in size
•Improved performance
•Production cost cheap

Disadvantages :
•ICs are sophisticated

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Fourth Generation Computers(1971-present)
• The microprocessor brought the fourth
generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single
silicon chip.
• The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located
all the components of the computer.
• From the central processing unit and memory to
input/output controls—on a single chip.
• . Fourth generation computers also saw the
development of GUIs, the mouse and
handheld devices.
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Fourth Generation Computers

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Fifth Generation Computers(present and beyond)
• Fifth generation computing devices, based
on artificial intelligence.
• Are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as voice recognition.
• The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial
intelligence a reality.
• The goal of fifth-generation computing is to
develop devices that respond to natural
language input and are capable of learning and
self-organization.
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Fifth Generation Computers

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ENIAC - background
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer
• Eckert and Mauchly
• University of Pennsylvania
• Trajectory tables for weapons
• Started 1943
• Finished 1946
—Too late for war effort
• Used until 1955
ENIAC - details
• Decimal (not binary)
• 20 accumulators of 10 digits
• Programmed manually by switches
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons
• 15,000 square feet
• 140 kW power consumption
• 5,000 additions per second
von Neumann/Turing
• Stored Program concept
• Main memory storing programs and data
• ALU operating on binary data
• Control unit interpreting instructions from memory
and executing
• Input and output equipment operated by control unit
• Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies
—IAS
• Completed 1952
Structure of von Neumann machine
IAS - details
• 1000 x 40 bit words
—Binary number
—2 x 20 bit instructions
• Set of registers (storage in CPU)
—Memory Buffer Register
—Memory Address Register
—Instruction Register
—Instruction Buffer Register
—Program Counter
—Accumulator
—Multiplier Quotient
Structure of IAS –
detail
Microelectronics
• Literally - “small electronics”
• A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and
interconnections
• These can be manufactured on a semiconductor
• e.g. silicon wafer
Designing for Performance
• Year by year, the cost of computer systems continues
to drop dramatically, while the performance and
capacity of those systems continue to rise equally
dramatically.
• Today’s laptops have the computing power of an
IBM mainframe from 10 or 15 years ago. Thus, we
have virtually “free” computer power. Processors are
so inexpensive that we now have microprocessors we
throw away. The digital pregnancy test is an example
(used once and then thrown away).
…Cont’d
• For example, desktop applications that require the
great power of today’s microprocessor-based systems
include:
—Image processing
—Three-dimensional rendering
—Speech recognition
—Videoconferencing
—Multimedia authoring
—Voice and video annotation of files
—Simulation modeling