Solution Manual For Mcknights Physical Geography A Landscape Appreciation 11 e Darrel Hess Dennis G Tasa

Solution Manual for McKnightâ€™s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 11/E Darrel H
Solution Manual for McKnightâ€™s Physical

Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 11/E Darrel
Hess Dennis G Tasa
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Chapter 6: Atmospheric Moisture
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcome 6.1 Using the hydrologic cycle, explain the transfer of water to and
from the atmosphere.
Learning Outcome 6.2 Explain the nature of the water molecule.
Learning Outcome 6.3 Explain the significance of the liquidity of water.
Learning Outcome 6.4 Explain the unique qualities and significance of ice expansion.
Learning Outcome 6.5 Describe the surface tension of water and its significance.
Learning Outcome 6.6 Explain the capillarity of water and its significance.
Learning Outcome 6.7 Explain the significance of water as the “universal solvent.”
Learning Outcome 6.8 Explain the significance of water’s specific heat.
Learning Outcome 6.9 Identify the six phase changes that can be made by water and
whether they are cooling or warming processes.
Learning Outcome 6.10 Explain the role of latent heat in condensation.
Learning Outcome 6.11 Explain the role of latent heat in evaporation.
Learning Outcome 6.12 Identify the conditions that increase the rate of evaporation.
Learning Outcome 6.13 Identify the conditions that decrease the rate of evaporation.
Learning Outcome 6.14 Differentiate between evapotranspiration and potential

evapotranspiration and their importance.
Learning Outcome 6.15 Explain the concepts that give rise to relative humidity.
Learning Outcome 6.16 Calculate the relative humidity given the air temperature and the
actual amount of water vapor in the air.
Learning Outcome 6.17 Explain the impacts on relative humidity of cooling air to the
dew point temperature.
Learning Outcome 6.18 Explain the humidity impacts of cooling air below its original
dew point temperature and then warming it.
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© 2014 Pearson Education Inc.
Learning Outcome 6.19 Identify the factors that change relative humidity and the
situations that result in these changes.
Learning Outcome 6.20 Identify the two conditions necessary for condensation to occur.
Learning Outcome 6.21 Differentiate between the normal condensation processes and
situations with supercooled water and the significance.
Learning Outcome 6.22 Differentiate between the dry adiabatic rate and saturated
adiabatic rate.
Learning Outcome 6.23 Identify the difference between the adiabatic rates, the average
lapse rate, and the environmental lapse rate.
Learning Outcome 6.24 Given the elevations, temperature, and moisture content of the
air, calculate the temperatures of the air as it moves across a mountain.
Learning Outcome 6.25 Identify and describe the three cloud forms.
Learning Outcome 6.26 Identify and describe the four cloud families.
Learning Outcome 6.27 Identify and describe the 10 cloud types.
Learning Outcome 6.28 Define fog, and name and describe the four types.
Learning Outcome 6.29 Differentiate between air stability, instability, and conditional
stability.
Learning Outcome 6.30 Explain the stability situations that influence cloud formation and
precipitation.
Learning Outcome 6.31 Describe and differentiate between the two processes that can
produce precipitation.
Learning Outcome 6.32 Identify each of the types of precipitation, and describe the
conditions that form them.
Learning Outcome 6.33 Identify and explain the four types of atmospheric lifting.
Learning Outcome 6.34 Identify the three types of regions with high annual precipitation,
and explain the atmospheric processes acting on these locations.
Learning Outcome 6.35 Identify the three regions of low annual precipitation, and
explain the atmospheric processes acting on these locations.
Learning Outcome 6.36 Explain the impact of the seasonal shifting of wind belts on
precipitation patterns.
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Learning Outcome 6.37 Explain the formation of acid rain.
Learning Outcome 6.38 Explain the effects of acid rain on the environment.
TOPICS
The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape

The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique
The Hydrologic Cycle
The Water Molecule
Hydrogen Bonds
Important Properties of Water
Liquidity
Ice Expansion
Surface Tension
Capillarity
Solvent Ability
Specific Heat
Phase Changes of Water
Latent Heat
Melting and Freezing
Evaporation and Condensation
Importance of Latent Heat in the Atmosphere
Water Vapor and Evaporation
Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation
Temperature
Water Vapor Content of Air
Wind
Evapotranspiration
Potential Evapotranspiration
Measures of Humidity
Actual Water Vapor Content
Absolute Humidity
Specific Humidity
Vapor Pressure
Relative Humidity
Water Vapor Capacity
Factors Changing Relative Humidity
Temperature-Relative Humidity Concepts
Related Humidity Concepts
Dew Point Temperature
Sensible Temperature
Condensation
The Condensation Process
Condensation Nuclei
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Supercooled Water
Adiabatic Processes
Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Rates
Saturated Adiabatic Rate
Adiabatic Warming of Descending Air
Adiabatic Rates Versus Environmental Lapse Rate
Significant Adiabatic Temperature Changes
Clouds
Classifying Clouds
Cloud Form
Cloud Families
Fog
Dew
Clouds and Climate Change
Atmospheric Stability
Buoyancy
The Stability of Air
Stable Air
Unstable Air
Latent Heat and Instability
Determining Atmospheric Stability
Temperature, Lapse Rate, and Stability
Visual Determination of Stability
Precipitation
The Processes
Collision/Coalescence
Ice-Crystal Formation
Forms of Precipitation
Rain
Snow
Sleet
Glaze
Hail
Virga
Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation
Convective Lifting
Orographic Lifting
Frontal Lifting
Convergent Lifting
Global Distribution of Precipitation
Regions of High Annual Precipitation
Region of the ITCZ and Trade Wind Uplift
Tropical Monsoon Regions
Coastal Areas in Westerlies
Regions of Low Annual Precipitation
Areas of Subtropical Highs
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Interiors of Continents
High-Latitude Regions
Seasonal Precipitation Patterns
ITCZ Shifts
Subtropical High Shifts
Monsoon Regions
Precipitation Variability
Acid Rain
Sources of Acid Precipitation
Measuring Acidity
Damage From Acid Precipitation
Action to Reduce Acid Precipitation
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape

A. Atmospheric moisture influences landscape both in the short term and long term.
1. Short term, with puddles, flooding, snow, and ice;
2. Long term, with precipitation integral to weathering and erosion, critical to
vegetation.
II. The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique

A. Water is both the most distinctive and the most abundant substance on Earth.
B. Surface water makes up more than 70 percent of surface.
III. Hydrologic Cycle

A. The hydrologic cycle is the ceaseless interchange of moisture in terms of its
geographical location and its physical state:
B. Water evaporates, becomes water vapor,
1. Goes into atmosphere
a) Vapor condenses, becomes liquid or solid state
(1) Returns to Earth.
C. Hydrologic cycle intricately related to many atmospheric phenomena.
1. Important determinant of climate:
a) Rainfall distribution
b) Temperature modification
D. The Water Molecule
1. Inside a water molecule there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen.
2. They are linked together by a covalent bond.
3. Water molecules possess a polarity with the oxygen side being negative and
the hydrogen side being positive.
4. Water molecules link together through their hydrogen bonds.
E. Important Properties of Water
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1. Liquidity—water is abundant in liquid form on numerous locations on
Earth’s surface.
a) This property increases its versatility.
2. Ice Expansion—as water freezes, it contracts until it reaches about 4°C and
then expands (as much as 9%) as it cools from 4°C to 0°C.
a) As it cools and freezes, it begins to form hexagonal structures held
together by hydrogen bonding.
b) This expansion also allows ice to become less dense than liquid water and
float.
3. Surface tension—because of its electrical polarity, water also possesses
“sticky” properties and this is what gives it the ability to bead.
4. Capillarity—surface tension and adhesion combined allow water to climb
upward in narrow openings in an action called capillarity.
a) Water can also stick to many surfaces.
b) This is called adhesion.
5. Solvent ability—water is also a “universal solvent” in that it can dissolve
almost anything.
6. Specific heat—water also has a great heat capacity.
a) When it is warmed, it can absorb an enormous amount of energy with only
a small increase in temperature.
(1) This high heat capacity is attributed to the great amount of energy
required to overcome the hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
IV. Phase Changes of Water

A. It comes in three states (liquid, solid, and gas) and can change from one state to
another.
1. Evaporation—liquid water converted to the gaseous form.
2. Condensation—water vapor converted to the liquid form.
3. Sublimation—the process by which water vapor is converted directly to ice,
or vice versa.
4. In each of the change processes, there is a gain or loss of heat, or latent heat.
5. Converting 1 gram of ice to 1 gram of liquid water at 0°C requires 80 calories
of heat absorbed.
6. To raise the temperature of 1 gram of liquid water at 0°C to the boiling point,
540 calories of heat must be absorbed.
7. For ice to sublimate to water vapor, or water vapor to sublimate to ice, 680
calories must be absorbed, or released, respectively.
8. The energy that is absorbed when water undergoes a phase change from a
solid to a liquid or a liquid to a gas is known as the latent heat of
evaporation.
9. The energy that is released when water undergoes a phase change from a gas
to a liquid or a liquid to a solid is known as the latent heat of condensation.
10. In nature, water requires 540 to 600 calories of energy for every 1 gram of
liquid water at 20°C.
11. Importance of latent heat in the atmosphere—the absorption and release of
energy during evaporation and condensation have several effects.
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a) Water can store energy when it evaporates.
b) Water can release heat back to the atmosphere when it condenses.
V. Water Vapor and Evaporation

A. Water vapor—the gaseous state of water; atmospheric moisture.
1. Changes easily from one state to another with temperature and pressure
changes.
a) This ease of changing results in erratic distribution around the world.
2. Can be virtually absent in some parts of world, constitutes as much as 4
percent of atmospheric volume in other parts.
3. Essentially restricted to lower troposphere.
VI. Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation

A. Evaporation—process by which liquid water is converted to gaseous water
vapor.
1. Molecules of water escape the liquid surface into the surrounding air.
2. Water vapor is added to the air when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate
of condensation—net evaporation, in this instance.
3. Rate of evaporation from a water surface depends on three factors: The
temperature of the water and the air, the amount of water vapor already in the
air, and whether the air is still moving.
B. Rates of Evaporation
1. Temperature is a key factor in evaporation, both in water and in the air around
it.
a) Molecules become more agitated the higher the temperature, and this
agitation leads to evaporation.
2. Temperature works in conjunction with pressure.
a) Vapor pressure—the pressure exerted by water vapor in the air.
(1) At any given temperature, there is a maximum vapor pressure that
water vapor molecules can exert.
(a) Saturated air—the point at which some water vapor molecules
must become liquid because maximum vapor pressure is exceeded.
(i) The warmer the air, the more water vapor it can hold before
becoming saturated.
C. Evapotranspiration
1. Evapotranspiration—the process of water vapor entering the air from land
sources.
a) Evapotranspiration occurs through two ways:
(1) Transpiration—the process by which plant leaves give up their
moisture to the atmosphere;
(2) Evaporation from soil and plants.
b) Most evapotranspiration occurs through plants.
2. Potential evapotranspiration—the maximum amount of moisture that could
be lost from soil and vegetation if the ground were sopping wet all the time.
3. Potential evapotranspiration rate and actual rate of precipitation play a key
role in determining a region’s groundwater supply (or lack of it).
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VII.Measures of Humidity
A. Humidity—the amount of water vapor in the air.
B. Absolute Humidity
1. Absolute humidity—a direct measure of the water vapor content of air.
a) Expressed as the weight of water vapor in a given volume of air, usually
as grams of water per cubic meter of air.
(1) Amount is a function of how much volume is being considered.
(a) If the volume of air doubles, the absolute humidity halves.
b) Absolute humidity is limited according to temperature.
(1) The colder the air, the less vapor it can hold.
C. Specific Humidity
1. Specific humidity—a direct measure of water-vapor content expressed as the
mass of water vapor in a given mass of air (grams of vapor/kilograms of air).
D. Vapor Pressure
1. Vapor pressure—the contribution of water vapor to the total pressure of the
atmosphere.
2. Saturation vapor pressure—the maximum possible vapor pressure at a
given temperature.
E. Relative Humidity
1. Relative humidity—an expression of the amount of water vapor in the air in
comparison with the total amount that could be there (capacity) if the air were
saturated. This is a ratio that is expressed as a percentage.
a) Relative Humidity = Actual Water Vapor in Air/Capacity x 100
b) Relative humidity changes if either the water vapor content or the water
vapor capacity of the air changes.
2. Temperature–Relative Humidity Relationship
a) Relative humidity also changes if temperature changes.
(1) Relationship between temperature and relative humidity is one of most
important in all meteorology.
(a) Inverse relationship—as one increases, the other decreases.
(2) Relative humidity can be determined through the use of a
psychrometer (see Appendix IV for a description of humidity
measurement via this instrument).
F. Related Humidity Concepts
1. Dew point temperature—the critical air temperature at which saturation is
reached.
2. Cooling is the most common way that air is brought to the point of saturation
and condensation.
3. Sensible temperature—a concept of the relative temperature that is sensed
by a person’s body.
VIII.Condensation
A. Condensation—process by which water vapor is converted to liquid water;
opposite of evaporation.
1. For condensation to take place, air must be saturated.
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a) Condensation cannot occur, however, even if the air is saturated, if there is
not a surface on which it can take place.
(1) Air becomes supersaturated if surface is not available.
b) In upper atmosphere, surfaces are available through hygroscopic particles
or condensation nuclei—tiny atmospheric particles of dust, smoke, and
salt that serve as collection centers for water molecules.
(1) Most common are bacteria blown off plants or thrown into air by
ocean waves.
2. Clouds often are composed of liquid water droplets even when the
temperature is below freezing.
3. If water is dispersed as fine droplets, it can remain liquid at temperatures as
cold as –40°C (–40°F).
4. Water that persists as a liquid below freezing is known as supercooled.
5. Supercooled water droplets promote the growth of ice particles in cold clouds.
IX. Adiabatic Processes

A. Key physical geographic fact:
1. Large masses of air can be cooled to the dew point ONLY by expanding as
they rise.
a) Because of this limitation, adiabatic cooling is the only prominent
mechanism for development of clouds and production of rain.
B. Dry adiabatic lapse rate—the rate at which a parcel of unsaturated air cools as it
rises; this rate is relatively steady (5.5°F per 1000 feet) (10°C/km).
1. Air is not necessarily dry; it is just not saturated.
2. Descending air warms, and it does so at the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
3. Lifting condensation level (LCL)—the altitude at which rising air cools
sufficiently to reach 100 percent relative humidity at the dew point
temperature and condensation begins.
4. Saturated adiabatic lapse rate—the diminished rate of cooling, which
occurs when air rises above the lifting condensation level. It depends on
temperature and pressure, but averages about 3.3°F per 1000 feet (6°C/km).
X. Clouds
A. Not all clouds precipitate, but all precipitation comes from clouds.
B. At any given time, about 50 percent of Earth is covered by clouds.
C. Clouds play an important role in the global energy budget.
1. Receive insolation from above and terrestrial radiation from below.
a) They absorb, reflect, scatter, or reradiate this energy, and so influence
radiant energy.
D. Classifying Clouds
1. Clouds are classified on the basis of two factors:
a) Form
b) Altitude
2. Cloud Forms
a) Three forms of clouds:
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(1) Cirriform clouds—a cloud that is thin, wispy, and composed of ice
crystals rather than water particles; it is found at high elevations.
(2) Stratiform clouds—a cloud form characterized by clouds that appear
as grayish sheets or layers that cover most or all of the sky, rarely
being broken into individual cloud units.
(3) Cumuliform clouds—a cloud that is massive and rounded, usually
with a flat base and limited horizontal extent, but often billowing
upward to great heights.
b) These three cloud forms are subclassified into 10 types based on shape.
(1) One type may evolve into another.
(2) Three of these 10 are purely one form, while the other seven are
combinations of these three.
(a) Three pure forms:
(i) Cirrus cloud—high cirriform clouds of feathery appearance.
(ii) Cumulus cloud—puffy white cloud that forms from rising
columns of air.
(iii)Stratus cloud—low clouds, usually below 6500 feet (2 km),
that sometimes occur as individual clouds but more often
appear as a general overcast.
c) Precipitation comes only from clouds that have “nimb” in their name,
specifically, nimbostratus or cumulonimbus.
(1) Cumulonimbus cloud—cumuliform cloud of great vertical
development often associated with a thunderstorm.
(2) Nimbostratus cloud—a low, dark cloud, often occurring as
widespread overcast and normally producing precipitation.
3. Cloud Families
a) Four categories based on altitude:
(1) High clouds—Altocumulus clouds—found above 6 kilometers (i.e.,
cirrus clouds)
(2) Middle clouds—between about 2 and 6 kilometers (i.e., altocumulus
and alto stratus).
(3) Low clouds—below 2 kilometers (i.e., stratocumulus and
nimbostratus).
(4) Clouds with vertical development (i.e., cumulus clouds).
E. Fog
1. Fog—a cloud whose base is at or very near ground level.
a) No physical differences between cloud and fog.
(1) Important differences in how fog and clouds form.
(a) Most clouds develop as a result of adiabatic cooling in rising air.
(b) Most fogs are formed either when Earth’s surface cools to below
its dew point or when enough water vapor is added to the air to
saturate it.
(2) Radiation fog—forms through loss of ground heat.
(3) Advection fogforms when warm moist air moves over a cold surface.
(4) Upslope fog (orographic fog)—caused by adiabatic cooling when
humid air climbs a topographic slope.
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(5) Evaporation fog—when water vapor is added to cold air that is already
near saturation.
F. Dew
1. Dew—the condensation of beads of water on relatively cold surfaces; if
temperature is below freezing, ice crystals (white frost) forms.
G. Clouds and Climate Change
1. Clouds are important in their influence on radiant energy.
a) They receive both solar and terrestrial radiation and then can absorb,
scatter, reflect, or reradiate the energy.
b) Their influence must be taken into account when attempting to anticipate
the causes and consequences of climate change.
XI. Atmospheric Stability

A. Buoyancy—the tendency of an object to rise in a fluid.
1. A parcel of air moves vertically until it reaches a level at which the
surrounding air is of equal density (equilibrium level).
B. The Stability of Air
1. Stable air—resists vertical movement; non-buoyant, so will not move unless
force is applied.
2. Unstable air—buoyant, will rise without external force or will continue to
rise after force is removed.
3. Conditional instability—intermediate condition between absolute stability and
absolute instability. Occurs when an air parcel’s adiabatic lapse rate is
somewhere between the dry and wet adiabatic rates. Acts like stable air until
an external force is applied; when forced to rise, it may become unstable if
condensation occurs (release of latent heat provides buoyancy).
C. Determining Air Stability via Temperature and Lapse Rate
1. Air stability is related to adiabatic temperature changes, as discussed in
Review Questions 24–28.
2. Accurate determination of stability of any mass of air depends on temperature
measurements, but one can get a rough indication from looking at cloud
patterns.
a) Unstable air is associated with distinct updrafts, which are likely to
produce vertical clouds.
b) Cumulous clouds suggest instability.
c) Towering cumulonimbus clouds suggest pronounced instability.
d) Horizontally developed clouds, most notably stratiform, characterize
stable air that was forced to rise.
e) Cloudless sky indicative of stable, immobile air.
XII.Precipitation
A. Most clouds do not yield precipitation.
B. Condensation alone is insufficient to produce raindrops.
C. The Processes
1. It is still not well understood why most clouds do not produce precipitation.
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2. Two mechanisms are believed to be principally responsible for producing
precipitation:
a) Collision and coalescence of water droplets
b) Ice-crystal formation
(1) Collision/Coalescence—most responsible for precipitation in the
tropics and produces much precipitation in the middle latitudes.
(a) Rain is produced by the collision and coalescing (merging) of
water droplets.
(i) No ice crystals because cloud temperatures are too high.
(b) Must coalesce enough that the droplets become large enough to
fall.
(c) Coalescence is assured only if atmospheric electricity is favorable,
so that positively charged droplets collide with negatively charged
ones.
(2) Bergeron process—process by which ice crystal formation occurs; it
is believed to account for the majority of precipitation outside of
tropical regions.
(a) Ice crystals and supercooled water droplets in cloud are in direct
competition for water vapor not yet condensed.
(b) Ice crystals will attract most of the vapor if liquid droplets are in a
state of equilibrium.
(i) If ice crystals grow at expense of water droplets, the crystals
will grow large enough to fall.
(ii) As they descend, they grow warmer and pick up more
moisture, growing still larger.
(iii)They then either precipitate as snowflakes or melt and
precipitate as raindrops.
D. Forms of Precipitation
1. Rain—the most common and widespread form of precipitation, consisting of
drops of liquid water. Most rain is the result of condensation and precipitation
in ascending air that has a temperature above freezing, but some results from
thawing of ice crystals.
2. Snow—solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals, small pellets, or flakes,
which is formed by the direct conversion of water vapor to ice.
3. Sleet—small raindrops that freeze during decent, reaching ground as small
pellets of ice.
4. Glaze—rain that turns to ice the instant it collides with a solid object.
5. Hail—rounded or irregular pellets or lumps of ice produced in cumulonimbus
clouds as a result of active turbulence and vertical air currents. Small ice
particles grow by collecting moisture from supercooled cloud droplets.
6. Virga—if the relative humidity of the air below a precipitating cloud is low,
falling precipitation may evaporate before reaching the surface.
XIII.Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation

A. Significant amounts of precipitation can originate only by rising air and adiabatic
cooling.
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B. There are four principal types of atmospheric lifting:
1. Convective lifting
2. Orographic lifting
3. Frontal lifting
4. Convergent lifting
5. More often than not, the various types operate in conjunction.
C. Convective Lifting
1. Showery precipitation with large raindrops falling fast and hard; caused by
convective lifting, which occurs when unequal heating of different air surface
areas warms one parcel of air and not the air around it.
a) This is the only spontaneous of the four lifting types; the other three
require an external force.
D. Orographic Lifting
1. Caused when topographic barriers force air to ascend upslope; only occurs if
the ascending air is cooled to the dew point.
a) Rain shadow—area of low rainfall on the leeward side of a topographic
barrier; can also apply to the area beyond the leeward side, for as long as
the drying influence continues.
E. Frontal Lifting
1. Occurs when air is cooled to the dew point after unlike air masses meet,
creating a zone of discontinuity (front) that forces the warmer air to rise over
the cooler air (frontal lifting).
F. Convergent Lifting
1. Showery precipitation caused by convergent lifting, the least common form of
lifting, which occurs when air parcels converge and the crowding forces
uplift, which enhances instability. This precipitation is particularly
characteristic of low latitudes.
XIV. Global Distribution of Precipitation

A. The spatial distribution of precipitation is the most important geographic aspect of
atmospheric moisture.
B. Broad scale pattern is based on latitude, but many other factors are involved in
this complex pattern.
C. Isohyet—a line joining points of equal quantities of precipitation.
D. Average Annual Precipitation
E. Nature of the air mass and the degree to which that air is uplifted determine the
amount of precipitation in an area.
1. Humidity, temperature, and stability are mostly dependent on where air
originated and on the trajectory it has followed.
2. Uplifting (and its amount) determined largely by zonal pressure patterns,
topographic barriers, storms, and other atmospheric disturbances.
F. Regions of High Annual Precipitation
1. Because they have warm trade winds that are forced to rise, tropical latitudes
contain most of the wettest areas in the world.
2. Coastal regions usually receive more precipitation than interior regions
because they are closer to moisture sources.
144
3. The remaining wettest areas are narrow zones along the western coasts of
North and South America.
a) Caused by a combination of onshore westerly airflow, frequent
storminess, and mountain barriers that run perpendicular to the westerly
winds.
G. Regions of Low Annual Precipitation
1. Dry lands are most prominent on the western side of continents in subtropical
latitudes.
a) Influenced by sinking air from subtropical highs and reinforced by cold
ocean currents offshore.
2. Regions that have little access to moist air masses (such as in continental
interiors).
3. Regions on the leeward side of orographic belts experience the rain shadow
effect and therefore receive limited amounts of precipitation.
4. Very high latitudes because of limited water surfaces possessing low
temperatures.
a) These regions are referred to as “cold deserts.”
H. Seasonal Precipitation Patterns
1. Summer/winter variation in precipitation occurs over most of Earth.
a) Strongest over continental interior, because strong summer heating of
surface causes instability.
b) Coastal areas often are more balanced in their seasonal precipitation
regime (always close to moisture sources).
2. The displacement of wet and dry zones mirrors the seasonal shifting of major
pressure and wind systems, which follows the Sun—northward in July and
southward in January.
a) Summer (in each hemisphere) is the time of maximum precipitation over
most of the world.
3. Monsoon regions present the most conspicuous variation in seasonal
precipitation, with very wet summers and generally dry winters.
I. Precipitation Variability
1. In any given year or any given season, the amount of precipitation may or
may not be similar to the long-term average.
2. Precipitation variability—expected departure from average precipitation in
any given year (expressed as a percentage; can go above or below average).
a) Regions of normally heavy precipitation experience the least variability.
b) Normally dry regions experience the most variability.
XV. Acid Rain

A. Acid rain—involves either the wet or dry deposition of acidic materials from the
atmosphere onto Earth’s surface; precipitation with a pH less than 5.6.
1. World regions have been experiencing a rapidly increasing intensity,
magnitude, and extent of acid rain.
2. Evidence indicates principal human-induced sources are sulfur dioxide
emissions from smoke stacks.
145
3. Acid precipitation harms aquatic ecosystems, with several hundred lakes in
United States and Canada having become biological deserts in the last quarter
century.
a) Most fish perish at a pH of less than 4.5, and increasingly precipitation is
being recorded at this level.
4. Increasing evidence shows that it may be the major culprit in forest diebacks
taking place on every continent except Antarctica, which has no forests.
a) In some parts of eastern and central Europe, 30 to 50 percent of the forests
have been affected or killed by acid rain.
5. Causing international dilemmas and tensions.
a) Canada is dissatisfied with U.S. approach; about half of Canada’s acid rain
comes from United States and is causing their gravest environmental
concern.
b) Generally, the blame is placed on upwind regions.
6. Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act created an acid rain monitoring program.
7. In 1991, Canada and the United States signed an agreement regarding acid
rain and transboundary air pollution.
a) In 2000, the same two nations signed Annex 3 to the agreement.
(1) The goal was to reduce NOX and VOC emissions.
(2) In 2008, Canada and the United States discussed the possibility of
adding particulate matter to the agreement.
b) These programs have achieved some level of success with SO2 emissions
dropping by 67 percent of their 1990 levels, and NOX emissions dropping
by two-thirds.
XVI. Focus: GOES Weather Satellites

A. Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) are now essential
tools for weather forecasting.
1. Two are in operation.
a) In geostationary orbits, which means they always sit over the same
location on Earth, but at a distance of 35,800 kilometers (22,300 miles).
(1) One is above equator in South America, where it can see the
conterminous United States, as well as much of the north and south
Atlantic.
(2) The other is above equator in Pacific, where it can see most of the
Pacific Ocean from Alaska to New Zealand.
b) The GOES possesses instruments that produce several types of images of
Earth’s atmosphere.
(1) Visible Light Images
(a) Show sunlight that has been reflected off Earth’s surface off of the
surface of clouds.
(2) Infrared Images
(a) Show the longwave radiation emitted by the surface of Earth by
clouds.
(3) Water Vapor Images
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(a) An estimate of the amount of water vapor in Earth’s atmosphere is
measured by calculating the wavelengths of longwave infrared
radiation strongly absorbed and reemitted by water vapor.
(4) Up-to-date GOES satellite images can be viewed at: www.goes.
noaa.gov.
XVII. People and the Environment: Global Dimming

A. Particulates have a direct effect on weather and climate.
1. Higher quantities of particulates tend to lower global temperatures.
2. This has been confirmed through the analysis of Greenland ice cores.
3. Also is evidenced through the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo’s effect on
global temperatures.
B. Anthropogenic particulates also have a similar effect.
C. Project INDOEX revealed that anthropogenic particulates blocked solar energy
and promoted cloud formation.
1. These human-generated particulates can reduce the solar energy reaching the
surface by as much as 10 percent.
a) Regional differences in these decreases have been observed, with Israel
experiencing a 22 percent decline and Russia a 30 percent decline.
2. The overall effect has been a reduction of surface temperatures.
a) This phenomenon became known as “global dimming.”
D. Some scientists argue that contrails are also having a similar effect.
1. This hypothesis was studied after the grounding of all commercial air traffic in
the United States for three days following 9/11.
2. The data revealed that with the absence of contrails, temperatures increased by
more than 1ºC.
a) Also, nights were colder because the clouds formed by the contrails were
not able to absorb Earth’s reradiated energy at night.
E. Data from the Aqua satellite have revealed that the global dimming has had a
dampening effect on the greenhouse effect.
1. Is estimated that perhaps 33–50 percent of the human-induced greenhouse
warming has been counteracted by global dimming.
2. This leads to a quandary in that if humans reduce atmospheric pollutants, they
may inadvertently exacerbate global warming.
F. A 2007 study revealed that the optical thickness of aerosols in the atmosphere
declined steadily between 1991 and 2005.
1. This reduction is largely because of decreased emissions from industrial
countries.
G. NASA’s CALIPSO spacecraft documented an increase in stratospheric aerosols
over the last decade.
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McKnight and Hess 11e Chapter 6 Learning Checks
Learning Check 6-1
What is a hydrogen bond?

Inside a water molecule there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water
molecules are linked together by a covalent bond where the oxygen side is negative and
the hydrogen side is positive. These bonds are also known as hydrogen bonds.
Learning Check 6-2
Describe what happens to the volume of water as it freezes.
As water freezes it contracts until it reaches about 4°C and then expands (as much as 9%)
as it cools from 4°C to 0°C. As it cools and freezes, it begins to form hexagonal
structures held together by hydrogen bonding. This expansion also allows ice to become
less dense than liquid water and float.
Learning Check 6-3
How does the specific heat of water influence how rapidly it warms during the summer?
Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a
substance 1°C. Water has a specific heat of 1 calorie/gram. Aside from ammonia, water
has the highest specific heat of any substance. Therefore, a body of water during the
summer will require a significant amount of energy to warm, but will retain that energy
for a longer period as well.
Learning Check 6-4
Why doesn’t the temperature of a block of ice increase when it is melting?
As a block of ice melts, the energy that is required for this phase change is used to break
free the hydrogen bonds (and is known as latent heat). Only after the block of ice has
completely melted will the temperature of the water increase, that is, assuming energy
continues to be added.
Learning Check 6-5
What happens to the rate of evaporation as air approaches saturation?
As air approaches saturation, the rate of evaporation slows because the air is close to net
condensation.
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Learning Check 6-6
What does it mean when the absolute humidity of the air is 10 g/m3?
It means that there is an average of 10 grams of water vapor in every cubic meter of air.
Learning Check 6-7
If the water vapor content of air is 5 g/kg and the capacity is 20 g/kg, what is the relative
humidity?
5/25 * 100 = 25%
Learning Check 6-8
Explain what happens to relative humidity of unsaturated air if the temperature decreases.
Why?
Water vapor capacity is determined by temperature, with warm air being able to hold
more water than cold air. As the temperature of a parcel of air decreases, its relative
humidity increases because its capacity to hold water vapor has decreased. So, even
though the actual water vapor content of the air has not changed, its relative humidity
has.
Learning Check 6-9
Name the two conditions necessary for condensation to occur.
The air must be saturated and there must be cloud condensation nuclei present.
Learning Check 6-10
Why does air rising above the lifting condensation level cool at a lesser rate than air
rising below the lifting condensation level?
Rising air that is above the lifting condensation level is saturated, and rising saturated air
releases latent, heat which retards the rate of cooling. Rising air that is below the lifting
condensation level is unsaturated, and rising unsaturated air cools at a greater rate
because it is not releasing latent heat.
Learning Check 6-11
Name the three main forms by which clouds are classified.
The three forms of clouds are as follows:
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Cirriform clouds—a cloud that is thin, wispy, and composed of ice crystals rather than
water particles; it is found at high elevations.
Stratiform clouds—a cloud form characterized by clouds that appear as grayish sheets or
layers that cover most or all of the sky, rarely being broken into individual cloud units.
Cumuliform clouds—a cloud that is massive and rounded, usually with a flat base and
limited horizontal extent, but often billowing upward to great heights.
Learning Check 6-12
What makes a parcel of air unstable?
Air stability is related to adiabatic temperature changes. Accurate determination of

stability of any mass of air depends on temperature measurements. Air’s stability is
related to the temperature difference between the rate of cooling of the rising parcel of air
and the temperature of the surrounding air. For example, if the environmental lapse rate
of the surrounding air is less than the dry adiabatic rate of the rising air, the parcel of air
will remain stable. Conversely, if the environmental lapse rate of the surrounding air is
greater than the dry adiabatic rate of the rising air, the parcel of air will be unstable.
However, there is also conditional instability, which represents an intermediate condition
between absolute stability and absolute instability. Conditional instability occurs when an
air parcel’s adiabatic lapse rate is somewhere between the dry and saturated adiabatic
rates. In this situation, the parcel acts like stable air until an external force is applied;
when forced to rise, it may become unstable if condensation occurs (release of latent heat
provides buoyancy).
Learning Check 6-13
Why is hail associated with highly unstable air?
Hail is produced in cumulonimbus clouds as a result of vertical air currents (updrafts and
downdrafts). Unstable air is associated with distinct updrafts, which are likely to produce
vertical clouds. Indeed, towering cumulonimbus clouds, such as the kind where
hailstones form, suggest pronounced instability.
Learning Check 6-14
What causes a rain shadow?
A rain shadow is an area of low rainfall on the leeward side of a topographic barrier; but
it can also apply to the area beyond the leeward side, for as long as the drying influence
continues. Rain shadows form because as a parcel of air rises on the windward side of the
mountain, it cools adiabatically. As the parcel of air cools, its relative humidity increases
because its capacity to hold water vapor decreases. If the parcel cools to the dew point,
the water vapor in it will begin to condense. The altitude at which this condensation
occurs is known as the lifting condensation level. As the air is forced further aloft, it will
cool at a slower rate (the saturated adiabatic rate) as compared to its more rapid rate of
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cooling prior to reaching the lifting condensation level (the dry adiabatic rate). As the air
rises, it will continue to condense and perhaps form precipitation. As the air descends
over the orographic barrier, it is compressed and heated at the dry adiabatic rate. Because
of this heating, the parcel of descending air is warmer than the rising air on the windward
side of the mountain. Likewise, it cannot form condensation, and in fact evaporates
moisture from the surrounding landscape on the leeward side of the mountain. That is
why as compared to the windward side of the mountain, conditions on the leeward side
tend to be warmer and drier.
Learning Check 6-15
Why do equatorial regions generally have high annual precipitation?
The global wet regions are caused by the predominance of the trade winds carrying vast
amounts of moisture to the tropical landmasses, as well as atmospheric uplift associated
with the ITCZ in these regions. Abundant precipitation within the west coastal areas of
the midlatitudes is a result of frequent onshore westerly airflow, considerable storminess,
and mountain barriers causing orographic precipitation.
Learning Check 6-16
Why do west coast locations at about 25° to 30° N and S typically have low annual
precipitation?
The global dry regions are caused by high-pressure cells, which have sinking air that is
not conducive to condensation and precipitation. These conditions are reinforced along
the west coast of continents because of cool ocean currents. Lack of access for moist air
masses causes dry regions in the midlatitudes. (Specifically, in the dry regions of central
and southwestern Asia, the great distance from any ocean causes the dryness. In North
and South American dry regions, rain shadows occur.)
Learning Check 6-17
Is a desert likely to have high precipitation variability or low precipitation variability?
In any given year or any given season, the amount of precipitation may or may not be
similar to the long-term average. Precipitation variability is the expected departure from
average precipitation in any given year (expressed as a percentage; can go above or
below average). Regions that normally experience heavy precipitation possess less
variability and dry regions (i.e., deserts) in general tend to experience greater
precipitation variability.
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Learning Check 6-18
What are the main sources of acid rain?
The evidence indicates that the principal human-induced sources are sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions from smoke stacks, the smelting of metal ores, and motor
vehicle exhaust.
Key Terms and Concepts
The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique (p. 142)
1. Briefly describe how water moves through the hydrologic cycle.
Solar energy evaporates water from Earth’s surface (primarily from the oceans) into the
air; the water then condenses to the liquid or solid state and then returns to Earth’s
surface again in the form of precipitation.
2. What is a hydrogen bond between water molecules?
Inside a water molecule there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water
molecules are linked together by a covalent bond where the oxygen side is negative and
the hydrogen side is positive. These bonds are also known as hydrogen bonds.
3. Describe what happens to the density of water as it freezes.
As water freezes, it contracts until it reaches about 4°C and then expands (as much as
9%) as it cools from 4°C to 0°C. As it cools and freezes, it begins to form hexagonal
4. What is meant by surface tension of water?
Because of water’s electrical polarity, water possesses sticky properties and this is what
gives it the ability to bead. This is known as surface tension. Water can also stick to many
surfaces (known as adhesion). Combined, surface tension and adhesion allow water to
climb upward in narrow openings in an action called capillarity.
5. What is capillarity?
Capillarity is the action where water can move upward when it is confined within a
narrow opening. Water’s ability to do this is related to its adhesive characteristics and
surface tension that are generated through the polarity of water molecules.
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Phase Changes of Water (p. 145)
6. Briefly define the following terms: evaporation, condensation, and sublimation.
Evaporation is the conversion of water from a liquid state to a gaseous state.
Condensation is the conversion of water from a gaseous state to a liquid state.
Sublimation is the direct conversion of water from a gaseous state to a solid state.
7. How do phase changes of water entail the exchange of energy? (In other words,
explain latent heat.)
The latent heat, or energy stored, of the water is the energy that allows the molecules to
escape: they absorb this energy until they get enough that allows them to break free of the
water surface and enter the air. The heat leaves the water with the molecules, so the
remaining water is cooled (the latent heat of evaporation). This is why you feel cooler
after leaving a swimming pool on a dry, warm day; the water evaporates off of you and
you feel the consequent drop in temperature. When water condenses, it is the opposite in
that energy is released (the latent heat of condensation).
8. What is meant by the latent heat of condensation? Latent heat of evaporation?
See question 7.
Water Vapor and Evaporation (p. 147)

9. Describe the conditions associated with relatively high rates of evaporation, and the
conditions associated with relatively low rates of evaporation.
The rate of evaporation from a water surface is determined by three factors:

 the temperature of the water
 the temperature of the air
 the degree of windiness
Essentially, higher temperatures and greater windiness cause more evaporation.
10. What is meant by the vapor pressure of water in the atmosphere?
Total atmospheric pressure is the sum of the pressures exerted by all of the individual
gases in the atmosphere. Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by water vapor in the
atmosphere.
11. What is evapotranspiration?
Evapotranspiration is used to differentiate from evaporation that occurs from bodies of

water. It refers to evaporation from land, specifically from sources such as soil and other
inanimate surfaces and plants.
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Measures of Humidity (p. 148)
12. What is absolute humidity? Specific humidity?
Absolute humidity and specific humidity are similar in that they both measure how much
water could be extracted by precipitation. They differ, however, because in absolute
humidity, measurement is directly related to volume of air being considered; thus,
absolute humidity changes as the volume of air changes. In contrast, specific humidity is
not affected by variations in air volume, because it is a measurement that considers only
mass (mass of water vapor in a given mass of air).
13. What is meant by saturation vapor pressure?
Vapor pressure is the contribution of water vapor to the total pressure of the atmosphere.
Saturation vapor pressure is the maximum possible vapor pressure at a given temperature.
14. What determines the water vapor capacity of air?
Temperature tends to be the largest determinant of the water vapor capacity of air.
15. Describe and explain what is meant when we say that the relative humidity of the air
is 50 percent.
Relative humidity differs from both absolute humidity and specific humidity because it
doesn’t directly measure the amount of water vapor in the air. Instead it compares that
amount to the water vapor “capacity” of the air, and gives a percentage to describe how
close the air is to saturation with water vapor. A relative humidity of 50 percent means
that the air is “holding” one-half of the water vapor it is capable of holding at that given
temperature.
16. What is the dew point temperature?
Dew point tells at what temperature saturation is reached; it varies with moisture content
in the air. Cooling can bring formerly unsaturated air to the saturation point.
17. Explain sensible temperature.
Sensible temperature is the temperature sensed by a person’s body and involves a number
of atmospheric factors.
In addition to the actual temperature, relative humidity and amount of wind movement
play a key role in our perception of temperature. For example, when air is near saturation
on a warm, humid day, perspiration does not evaporate readily, so air feels warmer than it
actually is. On a cold, dry day, body heat is not conducted away as fast as it would be on
a cold, humid day, so air feels warmer.
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Condensation (p. 151)
18. Under what circumstances can air become supersaturated?
For condensation to take place, air must be saturated. Condensation cannot occur,
however, even if the air is saturated, if there is not a surface on which it can take place.
The air becomes supersaturated if a surface is not available.
19. Explain the role of condensation nuclei to the condensation process.
Condensation cannot occur, even if the air is saturated, if there is not a surface on which
it can take place. In upper atmosphere, surfaces are available through hygroscopic
particles or condensation nuclei. These are tiny atmospheric particles of dust, smoke, and
salt that serve as collection centers for water molecules. Some of the most common
condensation nuclei are bacteria blown off plants or thrown into air by ocean waves.
20. What are supercooled water droplets?
Water in the air or atmosphere can become supercooled if it is dispersed as fine droplets.
In this form, it can remain a liquid at temperatures as cold as –40°F (–40°C), instead of
freezing at 32°F (0°C) as it normally does when in large quantities.
Adiabatic Processes (p. 151)

21. Which cooling process in the atmosphere is responsible for the formation of most
clouds (and nearly all clouds that produce precipitation)?
Adiabatic cooling.
22. What happens to the relative humidity of an unsaturated parcel of air as it rises?
Why?
As a parcel of unsaturated air rises, it cools adiabatically. Because the temperature

decreases, the relatively humidity increases. If the parcel continues to rise to the point
where the air becomes saturated, it will have reached its dew point temperature and the
lifting condensation level.
23. What is the relationship of the dew point temperature of a parcel of air to its lifting
condensation level?
The dew point is the temperature at which a given parcel of air will reach 100 percent
relative humidity. The lifting condensation level is the altitude at which a rising parcel of
air will reach 100 percent relative humidity. If an unsaturated parcel of air rises to the
point it becomes saturated, it will achieve its dew point temperature and its lifting
condensation level simultaneously.
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24. Contrast the dry adiabatic rate and the saturated adiabatic rate.
If air is saturated, it will release energy as it rises and cause it to cool at a slower rate,
known as the saturated adiabatic rate (a value of 6°C–9°C/1000 meters). Specifically, as
saturated air rises, it releases energy (the latent heat of condensation). This released heat
energy partially counteracts the adiabatic cooling that air normally undergoes as it rises.
Because of this slower rate of cooling, the temperature decrease for saturated air is
calculated to cool at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate, as compared to the dry adiabatic
lapse rate, which is the rate an unsaturated parcel of air cools at (a value of 10°C/1000
meters). With the latter, there is no release of latent heat.
Clouds (p. 153)

25. Briefly describe the three main forms of clouds: cirrus clouds, stratus clouds, and
cumulus clouds.
The three forms of clouds are as follows:

Cirriform clouds—a cloud that is thin, wispy, and composed of ice crystals rather than
water particles; it is found at high elevations.
Stratiform clouds—a cloud form characterized by clouds that appear as grayish sheets or
layers that cover most or all of the sky, rarely being broken into individual cloud units.
Cumuliform clouds—a cloud that is massive and rounded, usually with a flat base and
limited horizontal extent, but often billowing upward to great heights.
26. Identify the four families of clouds.
The 10 cloud types are divided into four families on the basis of altitude: high clouds,
middle clouds, low clouds, and clouds of vertical development.
High clouds are generally above 20,000 feet (6 km); at this altitude, clouds are thin,
white, and composed of ice crystals. Types include cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus.
They are often harbingers of approaching weather system or storm.
Middle clouds generally occur between about 6500 and 20,000 feet (2 and 6 km). They
are composed of liquid water and may be either stratiform or cumiliform. Types include
altocumulus and altostratus. Altocumulus (puffy) usually indicate settled weather
conditions. Altostratus (elongated) usually indicate changing weather.
Low clouds are usually below 6500 feet (2 km). Usually appear as general overcast, but
can sometimes occur as individual clouds. Types include stratus, stratocumulus, and
nimbostratus. Usually associated with somber skies and drizzly rain.
Clouds of vertical development grow upward from low bases to heights of as much as
60,000 feet (15 km). Types include cumulus (usually indicate fair weather) and
cumulonimbus (storm clouds). Indicate very active vertical movements in air.
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27. Describe the four principal types of fog.
Radiation fog—a fog created by condensation near the ground, where air is cooled to the
dew point by contact with the colder ground.
Advection fog—a fog created when warm air moves horizontally over a cold surface; air
moving from sea to land is the most common source (from advection, which means
horizontal movement of air across Earth’s surface).
Upslope fog (orographic fog)—a fog created by adiabatic cooling when humid air climbs
a topographic slope.
Evaporation fog—a fog created by the addition of water vapor to cold air that is already
near saturation.
28. How and where does dew form?
Dew usually originates from terrestrial radiation. Nighttime radiation cools objects (grass,
pavement, etc.) at Earth’s surface, and the adjacent air is in turn cooled by conduction. If
the air is cooled enough to reach saturation, tiny beads of water collect on the cooled
object.
Atmospheric Stability (p. 157)

29. What is the difference between stable air and unstable air?
Stable air is air that resists vertical movement. It is non-buoyant, so it will not move
unless a force is applied.
Unstable air is air that is buoyant. It will rise without external force or will continue to
rise after force is removed.
30. What conditions make a parcel of air unstable?
Air stability is related to adiabatic temperature changes. Accurate determination of

stability of any mass of air depends on temperature measurements. Air’s stability is
related to the temperature difference between the rate of cooling of the rising parcel of air
and the temperature of the surrounding air. For example, if the environmental lapse rate
of the surrounding air is less than the dry adiabatic rate of the rising air, the parcel of air
will remain stable. Conversely, if the environmental lapse rate of the surrounding air is
greater than the dry adiabatic rate of the rising air, the parcel of air will be unstable.
However, there is also conditional instability, which represents an intermediate condition
between absolute stability and absolute instability. Conditional instability occurs when an
air parcel’s adiabatic lapse rate is somewhere between the dry and saturated adiabatic
rates. In this situation, the parcel acts like stable air until an external force is applied;
when forced to rise, it may become unstable if condensation occurs (release of latent heat
provides buoyancy).
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31. Are stratus clouds associated with stable or unstable air? Are cumulus clouds
associated with stable or unstable air?
Unstable air is associated with distinct updrafts, which are likely to produce vertical
clouds. For example, cumulus clouds suggest instability, and towering cumulonimbus
clouds suggest pronounced instability. Horizontally developed clouds, most notably
stratiform, characterize stable air forced to rise. A cloudless sky is indicative of stable,
immobile air.
Precipitation (p. 161)

32. Briefly describe the following kinds of precipitation: rain, snow, and hail.
Rain is by far the most common form of precipitation and consists of drops of liquid
water.
Snow is the general name given to solid precipitation in the form of ice crystals, small
pellets, or flakes of snow.
Hail consists of small pellets or larger lumps of ice that are usually composed of roughly
concentric layers of clear and cloudy ice.
33. How is hail related to atmospheric instability?
Hail is produced in cumulonimbus clouds as a result of vertical air currents (updrafts and
downdrafts). Unstable air is associated with distinct updrafts, which are likely to produce
vertical clouds. Indeed, towering cumulonimbus clouds, such as the kind where
hailstones form, suggest pronounced instability.
Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation (p. 164)

34. Describe the four main lifting mechanisms of air: convective, orographic, frontal,
and convergent.
Convective lifting—showery precipitation with large raindrops falling fast and hard;
caused by convective lifting, which occurs when unequal heating of different air surface
areas warms one parcel of air and not the air around it. This is the only spontaneous of
the four lifting types; the other three require an external force.
Orographic lifting—caused when topographic barriers force air to ascend upslope; it only
occurs if the ascending air is cooled to the dew point.
Frontal lifting—occurs when air is cooled to the dew point after unlike air masses meet,
creating a zone of discontinuity (front) that forces the warmer air to rise over the cooler
air (frontal lifting).
Convergent lifting—showery precipitation caused by convergent lifting, the least

common form of lifting, which occurs when air parcels converge and the crowding forces
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uplift, which enhances instability. This precipitation is particularly characteristic of low
latitudes.
35. What is a rain shadow?
Global Distribution of Precipitation (p. 167)
36. What is an isohyet?
An isohyet is a mapped line joining points of equal quantities of precipitation.
37. What is meant by the term precipitation variability?
In any given year or any given season, the amount of precipitation may or may not be
similar to the long-term average. Precipitation variability is the expected departure from
average precipitation in any given year (expressed as a percentage; can go above or
below average).
38. What is the general relationship of precipitation variability to average annual

precipitation?
Regions of normally heavy precipitation experience the least variability, while normally
dry regions experience the most variability.
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Acid Rain (p. 171)
39. What are some of the circumstances that cause acid rain?
The evidence indicates that the principal human-induced sources are sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide emissions from smoke stacks, the smelting of metal ores, and motor
vehicle exhaust. Acid precipitation harms aquatic ecosystems, with several hundred lakes
in United States and Canada having become biological deserts in the last quarter century.
Most fish perish at a pH of less than 4.5, and, increasingly, precipitation is being recorded
at this level. Increasing evidence shows that acid rain may be the major culprit in forest
diebacks taking place on every continent except Antarctica. In some parts of eastern and
central Europe, 30 to 50 percent of the forests have been affected or killed by acid rain.
Acid rain is also causing international dilemmas and tensions. For example, Canada is
dissatisfied with the U.S. approach; about half of Canada’s acid rain comes from the
United States, and it is causing their gravest environmental concern. Generally, the blame
is placed on upwind regions.
Study Questions
1. Why does ice float on liquid water?
As water freezes it contracts until it reaches about 4°C and then expands (as much as 9%)
as it cools from 4°C to 0°C. As it cools and freezes, it begins to form hexagonal
2. Why is evaporation a “cooling” process and condensation a warming process?
Both evaporation and condensation are associated with the transfer of latent heat (energy
that is stored or released when a substance changes state). When evaporation occurs,
liquid water is converted to gaseous water vapor. This is a cooling process because latent
heat is stored. When condensation occurs, gaseous water vapor condenses to liquid water.
This is a warming process because latent heat is released. Both of these processes can
result in temperature changes in atmosphere.
3. What happens to the relative humidity of a parcel of air when the temperature
decreases? Why?
more water than cold air. As the temperature of a parcel of air decreases, its relative
humidity increases because its capacity to hold water vapor has decreased. So, even
has.
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4. What happens to the relative humidity of a parcel of air when the temperature
increases? Why?
more water than cold air. As the temperature of a parcel of air increases, its relative
humidity decreases because its capacity to hold water vapor has increased. So, even
has.
5. Why does a rising parcel of unsaturated air cool at a greater rate than a rising
parcel of saturated air (in which condensation is taking place)?
If air is saturated, it will release energy as it rises and cause it to cool at a slower rate.
Specifically, as saturated air rises, it releases energy (the latent heat of condensation).
This released heat energy partially counteracts the adiabatic cooling that air normally
undergoes as it rises. Because of this slower rate of cooling, the temperature decrease for
saturated air is calculated to cool at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate, as compared to the
dry adiabatic lapse rate.
6. Why can’t descending air form clouds?
Because descending air warms at the dry adiabatic rate. As such, the water vapor capacity
of the descending air increases and makes it impossible for condensation to occur.
7. Why does the dew point temperature of an air parcel indicate its actual water
vapor content?
Dew point tells at what temperature saturation is reached; it varies with moisture content
in the air. Cooling can bring formerly unsaturated air to the saturation point.
8. How can rising stable air become unstable above the lifting condensation level?
Once condensation begins, latent heat is released, which gives the parcel of air further
buoyancy, causing it to continue to rise.
9. Explain the role of adiabatic temperature changes, as well as changes in both the
relative humidity and the actual water vapor content of the air, in the formation of
rain shadows.
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10. Using the global map of average annual precipitation (Figure 6-34), explain the
causes of:
 Wet regions within the tropics
 Wet regions along the west coasts of continents in the midlatitudes (between
about 40° and 60° N and S)
 Dry regions along the west coasts of continents in the subtropics (at about 20° to
30° N and S)
 Dry areas within the midlatitudes
The global wet regions are caused by the predominance of the trade winds carrying vast
amounts of moisture to the tropical landmasses, as well as atmospheric uplift associated
with the ITCZ in these regions. Abundant precipitation within the west coastal areas of
the midlatitudes is a result of frequent onshore westerly airflow, considerable storminess,
and mountain barriers causing orographic precipitation.
The global dry regions are caused by high-pressure cells, which have sinking air that is
not conducive to condensation and precipitation. These conditions are reinforced along
the west coast of continents because of cool ocean currents. Lack of access for moist air
masses causes dry regions in the midlatitudes. (Specifically, in the dry regions of central
and southwestern Asia, the great distance from any ocean causes the dryness. In North
and South American dry regions, rain shadows occur.)
11. Using the maps of average January and July precipitation (Figure 6.35) contrast
and explain the seasonal rainfall patterns in central Africa.
While Central Africa receives relatively abundant rainfall year-round (or less than 10%
variability), there are some distinct differences. During January, because of greater
amounts of insolation in the Southern Hemisphere, the ITCZ and the STHs dip south,
creating greater amounts of convectional heating and changes in the patterns of air
pressure. As a result, the portions of this region south of the equator receive greater
amounts of precipitation in January. Conversely, during July, the ITCZ and STHs shift
north, creating greater amounts of precipitation northward of the equator in this region.
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Exercises
1. Calculate the relative humidity for the following parcels of air:
a. If the specific humidity is 5 g/kg and the capacity is 20 g/kg
5/20 * 100 = 25%
b. If the specific humidity is 35 g/kg and the capacity is 40 g/kg
35/40 * 100 = 87.5%
2. Use Figure 6.8 to estimate the water vapor capacity (the saturation specific
humidity in g/kg) of air at the following temperatures:
a. 0°C (32°F)
~15 g/kg
b. 30°C (86°F)
~27 g/kg
3. Using your answers for Exercise problem 2, calculate the relative humidity of the
following parcels of air at the temperature given:
a. If the specific humidity is 3 g/kg at a temperature of 0°C
3/15 * 100 = 20%
b. If the specific humidity is 3 g/kg at a temperature of 30°C
3/27 * 100 = 11.1%
4. Assume that a parcel of unsaturated air is at a temperature of 20°C at sea level

before it rises up a mountain slope, and that the lifting condensation level of this
parcel is 3000 meters:
a. What is the temperature of this parcel after it has risen to 2000 meters?
–10 (2000/1000) + 20 = 0°C
b. What is the temperature of this parcel after it has risen to 5000 meters?
This question is impossible to answer without knowing the saturated adiabatic lapse rate
for this parcel of air.
163
Solution Manual for McKnightâ€™s Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation, 11/E Darrel H
5. Assume that 1 gram of liquid water is at a temperature of 20°C. How many

calories (or joules) of energy must be added for the water to warm to 40°C?
It takes 1 calorie/gram, or 4190 joules/kilogram, to raise the temperature of 1 gram of

water 1 degree Celsius. So, to increase the temperature of the water by 20 degrees, it
would take 20 calories (or 83.8 joules) of added energy to increase the temperature to 40
degrees Celsius.
Answers to Seeing Geographically Questions
Page 141
Questions:
Review the picture of a late afternoon rainstorm in Nevada. Does the rain in this area
appear to be widespread? What do you see in the photograph that supports your answer?
What do you see in the landscape that indicates the general kind of climate of this region?
Answers:
The rain is not widespread; broad areas of land in the photograph have clear/blue sky
above them. The cloud-cover is isolated in extent. The rainbows are illuminated by the
shining Sun. The mountain in the background has a rocky, nearly bare surface, and the
vegetation in the foreground occurs in clumps rather than in a uniform cover across the
ground surface; both features are indicative of a dry climate.
Page 175
Questions:
Look again at the photograph of the Nevada rainstorm at the beginning of the chapter (p.
140). What kinds of clouds are seen in the distance beyond the mountains? What do the
clouds you see and the nature of the rainfall suggest about the most likely lifting
mechanism for this rain? How long would you expect this kind of rain to last?
Answers:
Beyond the mountains, cumulus and cumulonimbus “thunderhead” clouds are visible.
They are extended in a linear fashion across the landscape, perhaps forming from heating
of a desert floor/basin such as is also occurring with the rain in the foreground of the
photo. The clouds may also be a result of orographic uplift along the linear mountain
ranges in the area. In such a case, the rain would last only as long as the clouds are rising
over the mountains; as they descend down the leeward side, adiabatic heating of the air is
initiated and precipitation ceases.
164
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Chapter 6: Atmospheric Moisture

Learning Outcome 6.2 Explain the nature of the water molecule.

Learning Outcome 6.3 Explain the significance of the liquidity of water.

Learning Outcome 6.8 Explain the significance of water’s specific heat.

Learning Outcome 6.10 Explain the role of latent heat in condensation.

Learning Outcome 6.11 Explain the role of latent heat in evaporation.

Learning Outcome 6.14 Differentiate between evapotranspiration and potential

Learning Outcome 6.27 Identify and describe the 10 cloud types.

Learning Outcome 6.37 Explain the formation of acid rain.

The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape

I. The Impact of Atmospheric Moisture on the Landscape

II. The Nature of Water: Commonplace but Unique

III. Hydrologic Cycle

IV. Phase Changes of Water

V. Water Vapor and Evaporation

VI. Evaporation and Rates of Evaporation

IX. Adiabatic Processes

XI. Atmospheric Stability

XIII.Atmospheric Lifting and Precipitation

XIV. Global Distribution of Precipitation

XV. Acid Rain

XVI. Focus: GOES Weather Satellites

XVII. People and the Environment: Global Dimming

Learning Check 6-1

What is a hydrogen bond?

Learning Check 6-2

Describe what happens to the volume of water as it freezes.

Learning Check 6-3

Learning Check 6-4

Why doesn’t the temperature of a block of ice increase when it is melting?

Learning Check 6-5

What happens to the rate of evaporation as air approaches saturation?

Learning Check 6-7

5/25 * 100 = 25%

Learning Check 6-8

Learning Check 6-9

Name the two conditions necessary for condensation to occur.

Learning Check 6-10

Learning Check 6-11

Name the three main forms by which clouds are classified.

The three forms of clouds are as follows:

Learning Check 6-12

What makes a parcel of air unstable?

Air stability is related to adiabatic temperature changes. Accurate determination of

Learning Check 6-13

Why is hail associated with highly unstable air?

Learning Check 6-14

What causes a rain shadow?

Learning Check 6-15

Why do equatorial regions generally have high annual precipitation?

Learning Check 6-16

Learning Check 6-17

Is a desert likely to have high precipitation variability or low precipitation variability?

What are the main sources of acid rain?