Science and Technology

1. Definitions/Basic Concepts
i. Science
a. The scientific method
b. Aims
ii. Technology

2. The Promise of Science

i. Characteristics and Strengths of Science
ii. Impact of scientific research

3. The Integrity of Science

i. Responsibilities of the scientist
ii. Scientific bias and Malpractice
a. Inherent bias in the scientific method
b. Other factors – personal and cultural ambitions/beliefs, commercial
interests, socio-political factors

4. Emerging S&T trends – applications, implications and regulations

i. Artificial Intelligence
ii. 5G and Internet of Things
iii. Blockchain and Virtual Currency
iv. Medical science

5. Science vs Religion
i.The nature of religion
ii.Functions of religion
iii.How they conflict
iv.How they can co-exist

6. Science and Business

i. Aims of business
ii. Rationale for collaboration
iii. Problems / how their goals are in conflict

7. Science and Politics/Governance

i. The role of science in governance
ii. The role of the government in science
iii. Case Study: Regulation of scientific research in Singapore

8. Scientific Development in Singapore

9. Glossary of Key Terms

1
1. Definitions/Basic Concepts

i. SCIENCE

a. Definition of Science

Science is the organized body of knowledge of the general laws of the physical world, as
obtained and tested through the scientific method.

The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating natural phenomena, acquiring
new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge thereof. It is a systematic
approach to understanding the world and the natural phenomena around us. The underlying
assumption is that every observable phenomenon, no matter how bizarre, is attributable to a
natural and explainable cause-effect that can be deduced through a series of tests or
experiments.

To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on empirical and measurable

evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. Results of enquiries must be in quantitative
terms. Conclusions are not final and are meant to be peer-reviewed, and debunked based
on new evidence.

b. Fundamental aims/Purposes of Science

 Uncover unknowns and truths of the universe and natural environment
 Increase knowledge and understanding and control of the environment
 To satisfy human curiosity
 Seek solutions to human problems
 Enhance quality of life for people

ii. TECHNOLOGY

While science is primarily theoretical, the knowledge it provides about causes and effects is
leveraged upon by inventors, designers, and engineers to create implements and devices
that seek to ease human life or solve problems that plague it.

The simplest form of technology is the development and use of basic tools such as the
prehistoric invention of shaped stone tools. Developments in historic times, including the
printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to
communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale.

Technology has many effects:

 Helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy)
 Allowed the rise of a leisure class
 Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products known as pollution and
deplete natural resources to the detriment of Earth's environment.
 Innovations have always influenced the values of a society and raised new questions in the
ethics of technology.
 Philosophical debates have arisen over the use of technology, with disagreements over
whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it.

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not always clear. Science is
systematic knowledge of the physical or material world gained through observation and
experimentation. Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and
systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using
results and techniques from science. Technologies are not usually exclusively products of

2
science but they are often a consequence of science and engineering, because they have
to satisfy requirements such as utility, usability, and safety. The development of technology
may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical,
linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result.

2. The Promise of Science

a. Characteristics and Strengths of Science

 Objective – theories are based on observable proof of evidence and are constantly
updated by new information and data. Ideally, science is not and should not be influenced
by particular perspectives, value judgments, community bias or personal interests.
 Rational – based on empirical (measured) research rather than on the scientists’ biases and
emotions
 Logical – approach to research is systematic and documented.
 Reliable & Authoritative – subject to rigorous research, self-correction, and validation and
confirmation by other qualified but disinterested scientists.
 Practical - application of scientific knowledge can result in the development of various
technologies and tools to overcome the challenges Man faces.

b. Impacts of Scientific Research

1) People have become more informed and critical

 Science has given us empirical methods to discover, explore and explain the natural
universe.
 Dispelled superstitions and mysticism have given us more control over our lives. In the past,
people’s lives were bound by superstitions and fear of the unknown. Over time, scientific
rationality has taken hold, and people have become more critical of the information we
receive and are less naïve.

E.g. Human sacrifices in ancient Greece and Rome were made to ‘appease the gods’ due to
the belief that wars, epidemics and illnesses were punishments from gods and women were
burnt at the stake for having birthmarks. Scientific explanations have put an end to such
barbaric practices.

2) People are empowered and no longer at the complete mercy of nature.

 Scientific solutions meant that people were able to actively look for solutions instead of
succumbing to fate or ‘the design of the gods’ (in the case of averting or alleviating natural
disasters such as floods, drought, volcanic eruptions).

E.g. Medical science has cured and treated so many diseases once thought hopelessly fatal,
such as tuberculosis. It has also empowered us to:
 give life, e.g. life-saving technologies to separate conjoined twins that would give them a
chance of a normal and independent life
 extend life, e.g. increasing life expectancy with drugs, such as metformin, and therapies to
fight aging and keep people healthier longer
 prolong life, e.g. the ability to buy extra time when struck with incurable diseases, such as
organ transplant and life-support machines
 create life, e.g. IVF
 terminate life, e.g. Kervokian’s euthanasia device to assist suicide of terminally ill patients.

3) People have become more civilized

 We are civilized in our beliefs and actions:

o Barbaric and primitive rituals due to superstition have been replaced by more humane and
logical ways of handling a situation.

3
o Increased knowledge has made us more objective and rational in our treatment of others:

E.g. the understanding of genes reminds us that there is little difference between people of
different races.

4) Vastly improved quality of life and standard of living

E.g. Info-communication technology that allows people to transcend time and space in
interpersonal and business communication. This has also aided information access, retrieval
and storage, and also enriched the individual’s ability for self-expression, political participation
and civic engagement.

E.g. Mechanization of advanced societies sees most tedious and labour-exhaustive forms of
work being replaced with machines, and now even artificial intelligence, enhancing
productivity and progress greatly.

E.g. Drugs such as Ritalin, Provigil, and Inderal are common drugs ingested to improve
concentration. Enhancement drugs are also used primarily to treat people with cognitive
difficulties: e.g. Alzheimer's & Parkinson's disease, ADHD.

5) We are able to manage and alleviate environmental/energy threats or crises.

E.g. Depleting fuel stocks and environmental degradation threaten the future of humankind.
R&D in food science and agricultural science can safeguard ourselves against the ever-
increasing volatility of the global food production process due to climate change and political
uncertainties.

E.g. development of hybrid cars, LED lighting, smart sensors and thermostats to improve the
efficiency of our energy usage

E.g. artificial photosynthesis can simultaneously reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide and
produce liquid fuel. Though not yet commercially viable, this research brings us a step closer
to reducing our dependence on fossil fuels while simultaneously reducing CO2 emissions.
Microbial genomics research can create new energy sources like biofuels and bioenergy.

6) Created new areas for growth and new jobs in the economy

E.g. scientific advancement has led to the creation of new growth areas in the economy and
more job opportunities for skilled labour in various sectors such as pharmaceutical, biomedical,
info-communications etc.

7) Enhanced security and defence

E.g. Smart drone patrols - autonomous air and sea vehicles guard against coastline threats,
including terrorism, illegal immigration, smuggling, pirates and illegal fishing. Cutting back on
human involvement in these often-dangerous situations, the drones help cut costs while
bolstering safety at the same time.

E.g. Intelligent satellite image processing - security experts have long been able to tap into
satellite images to help their preventative and response efforts. Now with the availability and
quality of these images increasing, they offer an even more valuable resource for security and
disaster-relief operations. Artificial intelligence can search areas automatically and provide
real-time reports to rescue teams.

8) Allows people to satisfy our curiosity and answer profound questions

E.g. Space exploration raises the possibility of living on other planetary surfaces as we explore
the depths of the cosmos. Such exploration enables man to blaze new trails, map new lands
and answer profound questions about ourselves and our universe (“Are we the only ones out

4
there? Is there extraterrestrial life?”).

E.g. The Human Genome Project/The God Particle has brought us ever closer to answering the
bigger questions that people have always asked about the origins of humankind and the
universe.

3. The Integrity of Science

The free, open, and responsible practice of science is fundamental to scientific advancement
for both human and environmental well-being. Science requires freedom of movement,
collaboration, and communication, as well as equitable access to data and resources. It
requires scientists to conduct and communicate scientific work for the benefit of society, with
excellence, integrity, respect, fairness, trustworthiness, clarity, and transparency.

i) Responsibilities of all scientists:

a) Excellence in conduct of research

 Employ high quality research methods to the best of one’s understanding and ability, and
base conclusions on critical analysis of all of the evidence.
 Engage honestly and objectively in the publication and peer review process and report
results and interpretations fully, accurately, and with honest disclosure of bias.
 Maintain clear, accurate records of research and data, using standards that allow others
to verify and replicate the work

b) Ethics
 Communicate facts, conclusions, and uncertainty honestly, clearly, and transparently and
disclose all conflicts of interest from any sources that could bias conclusions.
 Protect the health and safety of people, animals, and the environment, following ethical
guidelines for their treatment and bearing in mind the broader implications of one's
research for the environment and society.
 Upon publication of results, make available all non-proprietary data, methods, and source
code, providing clear paths to their location and accessibility.

ii) Scientific bias and Malpractice:

a) Inherent Bias in the Scientific Method

Bias – the inclination to favour one perspective over others. For scientific research to be
objective and indisputable, all experiments (and their peer review) need to be devoid of bias
and be neutral. However, cognitive biases are common place and are an inescapable
element of research.

i) The scientist is fallible:

Scientists engage in a great deal of free-wheeling exploration and experimentation before

they can assemble their ideas scientifically. This process is not devoid of bias as the scientists
choose what data to focus on and discard observations that do not conform to their world
views. This method of trial and error can lead to false conclusions.

E.g: The theory of the ‘Static Universe’ found its biggest adherent in Albert Einstein who argued
in favour of it and even calculated it into his theory of general relativity. He subsequently
abandoned this model when astronomers discovered the universe is actually expanding. He
was reported by physicist, George Gamow, as having called it his ‘biggest blunder” of his
career.

5
ii) That the scientist self-corrects suggests the existing theories are not final:

As the scientific process is not perfect, findings by scientists need to be corroborated by the
scientific community before the hypothesis becomes widely accepted. It is normal to
discover that many scientific studies are ultimately wrong. There are more theories in the
graveyard of science than theories that stand the test of time. Theories are only as good as
theories are, until new data comes along and invalidates them. Thus theories reflect the best
guess at what is going on based on things we observe (data), but they are not immutable.

E.g.: For decades it was believed that stress and poor eating habits caused ulcers. However,
Drs Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Australia won the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2005 for
establishing that ulcers are caused by bacteria, not stress. It is now common practice to use
antibiotics to treat most ulcers.

b) Other Influences

Personal and cultural ambitions/beliefs

Example: In April 2014, Haruko Obokata, a stem cell biologist at Japan's Laboratory for Cellular
Reprogramming (Riken Centre for Developmental Biology) was found guilty of scientific
misconduct. She claimed that stem cells could be produced quickly and cheaply from normal
adult cells by soaking them in citric acid. The creation of these "Stap" cells (stimulus-triggered
acquisition of pluripotency) was described as a "major scientific discovery" and a "game
changer" by respected scientists in the field. However, the findings were too good to be true.
The results could not be reproduced in another experiment and upon investigation, it was
found that Obokata doctored her images and plagiarised other papers in her report. Hubris in
the drive to make a historic discovery was cited as the key factor for her fall from grace.

E.g.: He Jiankui became widely known in November 2018 after he had claimed that he had
created the first human genetically edited babies, twin girls known by their pseudonyms, Lulu
and Nana. The announcement in November 2018 of Lulu and Nana, who were born by mid-
October 2018, was initially praised in the press as a major scientific advancement. But following
scrutiny on how the experiment was executed, He received widespread condemnation mostly
for conducting unauthorised genome-editing procedures on human embryos, a process
deemed too premature by the scientific community to be conducted on human subjects. On
29 November 2018, Chinese authorities suspended his research activities. On January 21, 2019,
He was fired by his employer, Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech). On 30
December 2019, the Shenzhen Nanshan District People's Court sentenced He Jiankui to three
years in prison and fined him 3 million RMB (US$430,000). However, set within the context of
China’s approach to biomedical ethics and its rampant global ambitions, He’s actions fit into
a wider pattern of dangerous excess.

Commercial interests

Corporate interests and patronage may also affect the objectivity and accuracy of science.

The sponsors of the research may only be interested in the commercial benefits of the
research. Big companies like Exxon-Mobil and Coca Cola have their own corporate scientists.
This skews much research and development in favour of the business they are representing
and focuses only on areas of science which may be immediately monetized, inflating the
corporate profits of these corporate giants, widening the rich-poor gap in society.

E.g.: Coca-Cola, the world’s largest producer of sugary beverages, is backing a new ‘science-
based’ solution to the obesity crisis in America. The beverage giant has teamed up with
influential scientists who are advancing the message in medical journals, conferences and
social media that weight-conscious Americans are overly fixated on how much they eat and
drink while not paying enough attention to exercise. To help the scientists get the word out,

6
Coca-Cola has also provided financial and logistical support to a new non-profit organization
called the Global Energy Balance Network. Health experts say this message is misleading and
part of an effort by Coke to deflect criticism about the role sugary drinks have played in the
spread of obesity and Type 2 diabetes. The controversy comes as Coca-Cola faces declining
sales of carbonated soft drinks.

Socio-Political Factors

Socio-political factors can condition science so as to make it selectively useful in sustaining

inequitable political and economic structures and in serving powerful groups or political
agenda in society.

E.g.: The Trump administration undermined, suppressed and censored government scientists
working to study the coronavirus and reduce its harm. Donald Trump in particular argued that
scientists and institutions who contradicted his views were motivated by their political agendas
- and, by extension, that the science itself was false. His appointees have made political tools
out of the US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), ordering the agencies to put out inaccurate information, issue ill-advised
health guidance, and tout unproven and potentially harmful treatments for COVID-19.

4. Emerging S&T Trends – Applications, Implications & Regulations

a) Artificial Intelligence (AI)

What is artificial intelligence?

Artificial intelligence refers to the ability of a computer or machine to mimic the capabilities of
the human mind — learning from examples and experience, recognising objects,
understanding and responding to language, making decisions, solving problems — and
combining these and other capabilities to perform functions a human might perform

Examples of artificial intelligence

 Smart assistants (like Siri and Alexa)
 Disease mapping and prediction tools
 Manufacturing and drone robots
 Optimised, personalised healthcare treatment recommendations
 Conversational bots for marketing and customer service
 Robo-advisors for stock trading
 Spam filters on email
 Social media monitoring tools for dangerous content or false news
 Song or TV show recommendations from Spotify and Netflix

Pros and Cons of artificial intelligence

Pros Cons
1. Reduction in Human Error 1. Not error-proof
The phrase “human error” was born because Although AI can virtually remove human
humans make mistakes from time to time. error from processes, it can still exist in the
Computers, however, do not make these code, along with bias and prejudice. Being
mistakes if they are programmed properly. largely algorithm-based, the technology
With Artificial intelligence, the decisions are can be coded to have a negative impact
taken from the previously gathered on certain demographics and discriminate
information applying a certain set of against people. Worryingly, if security is not
algorithms. So errors are reduced and the 100%, hackers can take advantage of AI's
chance of reaching accuracy with a greater thirst for knowledge.
degree of precision is a possibility.

7

E.g. AI that is trained to analyse malicious
emails. Able to generalize, the AI learns to
recognize malicious behaviour that a
human might not recognize, whether due to
distraction, duress, or simply because of the
quality of the email. An effective AI engine
will block the email from reaching the user’s
mailbox to ensure email security
E.g. Microsoft's ill-fated chatbot, Tay (bot),
had to be taken down after only 16 hours,
after it started to tweet racist and
inflammatory content ideas it repeated from
other Twitter users. According to Microsoft,
this was caused by trolls who "attacked" the
service as the bot made replies based on its
interactions with people on Twitter.

2. Takes risks instead of humans 2. Unable to fully replicate humans

We can overcome many risky limitations of Machines can’t be creative and can’t feel.
humans by developing an AI Robot which in Relying on machines to adapt to new
turn can do the risky things for us. Let it be environments, be creative and think out of
going to mars, defuse a bomb, explore the the box will be a big mistake. This is not
deepest parts of oceans, mining for coal and possible because their thinking zone is
oil, it can be used effectively in any kind of restricted to only the algorithms that they
natural or man-made disasters. have been trained for. Humans are sensitive
and can be creative. They can generate
ideas and think out of the box. Their thoughts
are guided by feelings which are completely
lacking in machines. No matter how
advanced a machine is, it can never possess
the intuitive and creative abilities of the
human brain.

3. Available 24/7 3. Job automation

A machine doesn’t require breaks like the
way humans do. They are programmed for
long hours and can continuously perform
without getting bored or distracted. The
machine does not get tired, even if it has to
work for consecutive hours.
This is a major benefit over humans, who
need a rest from time to time to be efficient.
However, in the case of machines, their
efficiency is not affected by any external
factor and it does not get in the way of
continuous work.
It’s no longer a matter of if AI will replace
certain types of jobs, but to what degree. In
many industries — particularly but not
exclusively those whose workers perform
predictable and repetitive tasks —
disruption is well underway (esp. jobs in retail
sales, market analysis, hospitality and
warehouse labour). As AI robots become
smarter and more dextrous, the same tasks
will require fewer humans.

E.g. Chat bots designed to handle queries

24/7

4. Helping in repetitive jobs to improve 4. Widening Socio-Economic Inequality

efficiency Widening socioeconomic inequality sparked
In our day-to-day work, we will be performing by AI-driven job loss is another cause for
many repetitive work like sending a thanking concern. While some new jobs would be
mail, verifying certain documents for errors created, the concern is there may not be
and many more things. Using artificial enough of these to go round and that many
intelligence we can productively automate of these jobs will be inaccessible to less
these mundane tasks and can even remove educationally advanced members of the
“boring” tasks for humans and free them up displaced workforce, as the cost of smart
to be increasingly creative. machines falls over time and their
capabilities increase. To remain relevant,
E.g. Using AI Cognitive Automation, one will have to learn new skills to stay ahead
employees can speed up the process of of the curve.
verifying bank documents to get a loan which
is often a repetitive task E.g. over 50 million Chinese workers may

8
require retraining as a result of AI-related
deployment. The U.S. will be required to
retool 11.5 million people in America with
skills needed to survive in the workforce.

5. Rise of Deepfakes
Deepfake technology is an evolving form of
artificial intelligence that’s adept at making
you believe certain media is real.
Using machine learning, a subset of AI that’s
involved in natural language processing, an
audio clip of any given person could be
manipulated to make it seem as if that
person spouted racist or sexist views when in
fact it is a compilation of doctored images
and audio designed to fool you. As such,
deepfakes can threaten political elections,
individual and corporate finances,
reputations, cybersecurity and more. On a
personal level, deepfakes can lead to
bullying, reputational and financial
damage, and identity theft. On a global
scale, deepfakes can create problems
through mass disinformation.

6. Privacy, Security and the Weaponization

of AI
As seen across many nations, the
development in autonomous weapons
system (AWS) is progressing rapidly, and this
increase in the weaponization of artificial
intelligence seems to have become a highly
destabilizing development and there are
fears of what could transpire if this
technology falls into the hands of a rogue
state or terrorist organization.

E.g. AI weaponization - navigating and

utilizing unmanned naval, aerial, and terrain
vehicles, producing collateral-damage
estimations, deploying “fire-and-forget”
missile systems and using stationary systems
to automate everything from personnel
systems and equipment maintenance to the
deployment of surveillance drones
and robots.

While autonomous weapons systems are

believed to provide opportunities for
reducing casualties and the operating costs
of the weapons system -- specifically through
a more efficient use of manpower -- and will
likely enable weapons systems to achieve
greater speed, accuracy, persistence,
precision, reach and coordination on the
battlefield, they can just as easily be
converted into indiscriminate death
machines.

9
 Malicious use of AI could also threaten digital
security (e.g. through criminals training
machines to hack computers) and personal
privacy (e.g. through privacy-eliminating
surveillance, discriminatory profiling and
repression using automated facial
recognition technologies)

E.g. The facial recognition technology,

which is integrated into China’s rapidly
expanding networks of surveillance
cameras, looks exclusively for Uighurs based
on their appearance and keeps records of
their comings and goings for search and
review. The practice makes China a pioneer
in applying next-generation technology to
watch its people, potentially ushering in a
new era of automated racism.

Regulations

AI law and regulations can be divided into three main topics – governance of autonomous
intelligence systems, responsibility and accountability for the systems, and privacy and safety
issues.

E.g. Regulation of Deepfakes

Here are some of the ways the U.S. government and companies are trying to detect, combat,
and protect against deepfakes with new technology, rules, and legislation:

 Social media rules. Social media platforms like Twitter have policies that outlaw deepfake
technology. Twitter’s policies involve tagging any deepfake videos that aren’t removed.
YouTube has banned deepfake videos related to the 2020 U.S. Census, as well as election
and voting procedures.

 U.S. legislation. While the U.S. government is making efforts to combat nefarious uses of
deepfake technology with bills that are pending, three states have taken their own steps.
Virginia was the first state to impose criminal penalties on nonconsensual deepfake
pornography. Texas was the first state to prohibit deepfake videos designed to sway
political elections. And California passed two laws that allow victims of deepfake videos —
either pornographic or related to elections — to sue for damages.

President Donald Trump also signed into law the National Defense Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 2020, which is the first U.S. legislation related to deepfakes and sets forth three
goals:
1. Reporting on foreign weaponization of deepfakes.
2. Congressional notification of any deepfake disinformation that targets U.S. elections.
3. A competition to encourage the creation of deepfake detection technologies.

b) 5G and Internet of Things (IoT)

What is 5G and Internet of Things?

5G is the 5th generation mobile network. 5G wireless technology is meant to deliver

higher peak data speeds, ultra low latency (delay), greater reliability, massive network
capacity, and a more uniform user experience to more users.

The Internet of Things, or IoT, refers to the billions of physical devices around the world that are

10
now connected to the internet, all collecting and sharing data. By combining these
connected devices with automated systems (artificial intelligence), it is possible to gather
information, analyse it and create an action to help someone with a particular task, or learn
from a process.

Over the past few years, the Internet of Things (IoT) market has been experiencing explosive
growth. There will be 25 billion connected devices by 2021. Estimates suggest that the total
installed base of smart devices, such as smart TVs, smart locks, IP cameras, home assistants
and their associated services, in homes around the world, will reach 75 billion units by the end
of 2025, a five-fold increase in ten years.

5G is the foundation for realising the full potential of IoT. 5G enables faster, more stable, and
more secure connectivity and 5G networks can serve billions of connected devices.

Examples of IoT applications

 Smart Home devices such as Amazon Echo and Google Home
 Wearables such as smart watches
 Smart city applications such as parking applications, transport applications monitoring
traffic congestion

Pros and Cons of IoT

Pros
1. Easy access to information and
enhanced convenience
You can easily access data and information
far from your location in real time. This is
possible because of the network of devices.
A person can access any information sitting
from any part of the globe. This makes it very
convenient for people to go about their
work, even if they are not physically present.
Cons
1. Over-reliance on IoT
The current generation has grown up with
the convenience afforded by IoT. However,
relying on IoT on a day to day basis, making
decisions by the information that it provides
could lead to devastation. No system is
robust and fault-free. We see glitches that
occur constantly in technology, specifically
involving the Internet. Because the IoT is such
a vast, diverse network, a single failure in
either the software or hardware can have
disastrous consequences.

2. Better communication and improved 2. Privacy and Security

efficiency As many of our everyday appliances,
Better communication is possible over a machines and services become connected
network of interconnected devices, making to the internet, much more information is
it more transparent, which reduces readily available. Cybercriminals exploit
inefficiencies. Processes, where machine multiple vulnerabilities in smart devices and
have to communicate with each other, are often use them to get access to entire
much more efficient and produce better, networks.
faster results.
The challenge is that these devices have
weak or no security controls and represent
the fastest-growing attack landscape for
organizations all over the world, with attacks
up 300% in 2019 alone.

3. Saves money 3. Loss of jobs

A report by DHL states that IOT will help a
business save $1.2 trillion in productivity costs
alone. With IoT, electronic appliances
effectively communicate with each other,
thereby conserving and saving cost and
energy.
Automation brought about by IoT will have
a devastating impact on the employment
prospects of less-educated workers.” For
example, people who evaluate inventory
will lose their jobs because devices can not
only communicate between each other,
but transmit that information to the

11
 owner. This disadvantages can be largely
devastating to society as a whole.
4. Automation and control
IoT allows the devices to connect digitally
with wireless infrastructure. Automating tasks
in a business helps boost the quality of
services and reduces the level of human
intervention.

Regulation

To strengthen the security of connected products, governments around the world are
continuously working on the development of new legislation. Currently, the UK and Australia
are world leaders when it comes to IoT security, with both nations already enacting voluntary
standards for consumer IoT devices. Regulating IoT is challenging for everyone involved –
authorities, manufacturers, and organizations. The goal is to further develop legislation that
effectively protects consumers, can be implemented by industry, and supports the long-term
growth of the IoT market.

E.g. In January 2020, in the USA, both California and Oregon introduced new legislation
requiring “reasonable security features” to be added to IoT devices to protect the device, and
the information on it, from a variety of threats and be appropriate to both the nature of the
device and the data it collects.

c) Blockchain and Cryptocurrency

What is Blockchain?

Blockchain is a system of recording information in a way that makes it difficult or impossible to

change, hack, or cheat the system.

A blockchain is essentially a digital ledger of transactions that is duplicated and distributed

across the entire network of computer systems on the blockchain. Each block in the chain
contains a number of transactions, and every time a new transaction occurs on the
blockchain, a record of that transaction is added to every participant’s ledger. This
decentralised database managed by multiple participants is known as Distributed Ledger
Technology (DLT). Blockchain is a type of DLT and if one block in one chain was changed, it
would be immediately apparent it had been tampered with. If hackers wanted to corrupt a
blockchain system, they would have to change every block in the chain, across all of the
distributed versions of the chain.

What is Cryptocurrency?

A cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that is secured by cryptography, which makes

it nearly impossible to counterfeit or double-spend. Many cryptocurrencies are decentralized
networks based on blockchain technology. A defining feature of cryptocurrencies is that they
are generally not issued by any central authority, rendering them theoretically immune to
government interference or manipulation.

Examples of Cryptocurrencies

 Bitcoin - launched in 2009 by an individual or group known by the pseudonym “Satoshi

Nakamoto”. As of March 2021, there were over 18.6 million bitcoins in circulation with a total
market cap of around $927 billion
 Ethereum - second-largest cryptocurrency by market capitalization and the most actively
used Blockchain
 USD Coin - describes itself as “the world’s digital dollar.” USD Coin is tied to the U.S.
Dollar, which makes its price much more stable than other cryptocurrencies. That

12
 stability lends itself more toward digital payments.
Pros and Cons of Cryptocurrency
Pros
1. No boundaries set for transactions
User can send the currency from anywhere in
the world at any time.
2. Decentralisation – no banks required
Fund transfers are completed with minimal
processing fees, allowing users to avoid the
steep fees charged by banks and financial
institutions for wire transfers, and the
administrative hassle involved.
3. Transparency
All cryptocurrency transactions are recorded
in the blockchain, which is a public ledger.
This means everyone can see the
transactions which makes it a more
transparent process.
5. Anonymity
Bitcoin users do not need to give away their The anonymous nature of bitcoin activity
identity, giving them complete anonymity.
Cons
1. Limited acceptance
Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin are still not
universally accepted as a unit of account
and a means of payment. Granted, many
cryptocurrency payment apps have been
created in recent years to promote its use.
But none of them has made it to the core of
the world’s daily transactions and payments.
2. Highly volatile
Price volatility, tied to a lack in inherent value, is
a major problem. Until the technology is
adopted by federal governments and
regulated, there will be increased risk in
investing in this technology. As of April 2021, a
single Bitcoin was worth US$50,000, only to be
sent plunging within a month based on an
Elon Musk tweet suggesting that his car
company, Tesla, will no longer accept
payment in Bitcoin.
4. Not all aspects of the cryptocurrency
ecosystem are secure
Cryptocurrency blockchains are highly
secure, but other aspects of a
cryptocurrency ecosystem, including
exchanges and wallets, are not immune to
the threat of hacking. In Bitcoin's 10-year
several online exchanges have been the
subject of hacking and theft, sometimes with
millions of dollars worth of ‘coins’ stolen.
4. Facilitates illegal transactions
makes transactions very difficult to track and
hence well-suited for a host of illegal
activities, such as money laundering and tax
evasion. However, cryptocurrency
advocates often highly value their
anonymity, citing benefits of privacy like
protection for whistle-blowers or activists
living under repressive governments.
While Bitcoin is a relatively poor choice for
conducting illegal business online, since the
forensic analysis of the Bitcoin blockchain
has helped authorities arrest and prosecute
criminals, more privacy-oriented coins do
exist, such as Dash, Monero, or ZCash, which
are far more difficult to trace.
5. Costly and energy draining to mine for
cryptocurrencies
Bitcoin mining is the process by which new
13
 bitcoins are entered into circulation, but it is
also a critical component of the
maintenance and development of the
blockchain ledger. It is performed using very
sophisticated computers that solve
extremely complex computational math
problems. By mining, you can earn
cryptocurrency without having to put down
money for it. However, this process of mining
for cryptocurrencies uses a lot of energy and
is contributing to climate change. E.g.
Bitcoin mining consumes 116 terawatt hours
(TWh) of electricity per year – almost as much
as the entire country of Argentina.

Regulation

Cryptocurrencies are usually not controlled or regulated and their price is determined
by the supply and demand of their market. However, the recent spate of problems associated
with cryptocurrency has prompted governments worldwide to consider imposing regulations.

E.g. The U.S. – As cryptocurrency poses a significant detection problem by facilitating illegal
activity, including tax evasion, the Treasury Department has taken steps to crack down on
cryptocurrency markets and transactions. It will require any transfer worth US$10,000 or more
to be reported to the Internal Revenue Service.

E.g. China - China does not recognize cryptocurrencies as legal tender and the banking
system is not accepting cryptocurrencies or providing relevant services. In June 2021, the
government in Sichuan announced it would close more than two dozen suspected
cryptocurrency-mining operations in the hydroelectricity-rich region. In the
meantime, China's central bank will issue its own digital currency.

d) Medical Science

What are the aims of medical science?

 Advance knowledge for the good of society
 Improve the health of people worldwide
 Find better ways to treat and prevent disease

However, there are other aims which may not be as ideal:

 Pharmaceutical companies and industry-sponsored research seek a maximum profitable
return on their investment.
 Academic institutions, which are increasingly expected to operate like businesses, think
about the economic benefit and the commercial potential of research, or about their
performance in a research assessment exercise.

Examples of breakthrough technologies in medical science

In recent years, numerous scientific breakthroughs and technological inventions have resulted
in an improved understanding of our bodies, disease and improved healthcare outcomes. In
the table below are some examples.

Gene editing Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer A. Doudna have discovered the
CRISPR/Cas9 genetic scissors. Using these tools of genetic technology,
researchers can change the DNA of animals, plants and microorganisms
with extremely high precision. This technology has had a revolutionary

14
 impact on the life sciences, is contributing to new cancer therapies and
may make the dream of curing inherited diseases come true.
A stem cell cure A major advance in the pursuit of a safe and effective treatment for type
for diabetes 1 diabetes has been made. Using stem cell technology, researchers
generated the first human insulin-producing pancreatic cell clusters able
to evade the immune system. These 'immune shielded' cell clusters
controlled blood glucose without immunosuppressive drugs once
transplanted in the body.
AI to read every BenevolentAI has created algorithms that scour research papers, clinical
science paper trial results and other sources of biomedical information in search of
previously overlooked relationships between genes, drugs and disease.
3-D digital hearts Charles Taylor, a former Stanford professor, started HeartFlow to help
patients avoid invasive diagnostic procedures and improve treatment
outcomes. The company’s system creates personalized 3-D models that
can be rotated and zoomed into, so doctors can simulate various
approaches on screens. In some cases, it can help avoid invasive
procedures entirely.

Benefits and Concerns of medical science developments/trends

As medical science advances, new ethical situations arise. This leads us to the question of
whether our ethics have progressed along with advancements in science.

Benefits Concerns
In-vitro IVF is a form of assisted reproductive Commodification of human life: This
Fertilization technology to help couples struggling is significant since it has implications
(as a with infertility become pregnant. IVF is on surrogacy services, or womb
treatment for not new and has been successfully rental services which are very
infertility) used since 1978, where the in-vitro common in countries such as the
fertilized embryo is then implanted in United States (A Perfect Match, Inc
the woman where it gestates till in California is just one of the many
delivery. The eggs and sperm may or clinics offering screened surrogacy
may belong to the parents, services for couples whom cannot
depending on the infertility and health conceive naturally).
issues involved.

Pre- Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis or Genetic discrimination: According

Implantation PGD is a highly sophisticated technique
genetic that tests embryos for a specific genetic
diagnosis or chromosomal abnormality. It allows us
to select embryos that are not affected
with the condition being tested for, prior
to implantation and pregnancy. PGD is
offered in conjunction with an IVF cycle.
to one commentator, pre-
implantation genetic diagnosis
gives prospective parents ‘the right
to shun a disabled child’ which
verges on ‘reproductive
discrimination’ and the resulting
child “would have a `closed’
future”. Another sees it as ‘a form of
selective breeding’ and asks:
“What happens to the embryos not
lucky enough to be chosen as a
tissue match?” At present, IVF and
tissue typing are only allowed for
couples who have a history of
genetic disease or infertility.

Saviour A saviour sibling is a child conceived Commodification of human life: The

siblings for the purpose of providing a tissue
match for an older sibling who is in
need of tissue transplants to treat a
life-threatening illness.
saviour child is treated essentially as
a “bank of spare parts,” ready to
be used when the ill child needs a
new treatment, piece of body
tissue or surgical transplantation.

15
 The savior sibling is conceived through
in-vitro fertilization. Fertilized zygotes
are tested for genetic compatibility
using pre-implantation genetic
diagnosis (PGD), and only zygotes
that are compatible with the existing
child are implanted and to make sure
they are free of the original genetic
disease. By using tissue typing in
conjunction with PGD, doctors are
able to pick a human embryo for
implantation which, if all goes well, will
become a “saviour sibling”, a brother
or sister capable of donating life-
saving tissue to an existing child. Some
people are saying this use of IVF
amounts to the creation of a
genetically engineered “designer”
baby.
Therapeutic Therapeutic cloning is another phrase
Cloning for a procedure known as somatic cell
nuclear transfer (SCNT). A scientist
takes an egg which holds the genetic
material for a human and extracts its
nucleus, creating a ‘blank egg’. The
scientist then takes a somatic cell,
which is any cell from a patient who
needs a stem cell transplant to treat a
health condition/disease, and also
extracts the nucleus from this cell. This
nucleus is then inserted into the blank
egg. The egg now contains the
patient's genetic material. It is
stimulated to divide, thereby
becoming an embryo and shortly
thereafter, forms a cluster of cells
known as a blastocyst.
This blastocyst has both an outer and
inner layer of cells and it is the inner
layer, called the inner cell mass that is
rich in stem cells. The cells in the inner
cell mass are utilised to create
embryonic stem cell lines, which are
infused into the patient where they
are ideally integrated into the tissues,
imparting structure and function as
needed.
A major benefit of therapeutic cloning
is that the cells removed are
pluripotent, meaning they can give
rise to all cells in the body giving them
the potential to treat diseases in any
organ or tissue by replacing damaged
and dysfunctional cells.
Disregarding the welfare of the
saviour child: The saviour child
might be subject to unnecessary
psychological and physical harm.
Opponents of the procedure argue
that if the child finds out that he or
she was wanted not for himself or
herself, but rather for the ulterior
purpose of assisting a sibling to live,
this may cause psychological harm.
Moreover, there may be risks
associated with the procedures
and the extent to which the body is
invaded. Bone marrow transplants
from young children to their siblings
have become widely accepted.
However, harvesting vital organs
from children is not acceptable in
light of the risks involved for the
donor child.
Violating the sanctity of human life:
One problem with therapeutic
cloning is that many attempts are
often required to create a viable
egg. The stability of the egg with
the infused somatic nucleus is poor
and it can require hundreds of
attempts before success is
attained.
Therapeutic cloning does result in
the destruction of an embryo after
stem cells are extracted and this
destruction has stirred controversy
over the morality of the procedure.
Some argue that the benefits of
treating various diseases effectively
outweigh the costs involved in a
process that others have likened to
an abortion. Still others state that
this doesn't change the fact the
embryo could potentially be a
human being and so destruction of
the embryo is no different than
destruction of a human life.
Goes against laws of nature: Some
people believe that therapeutic
cloning, or any cloning for that
matter, should be prohibited as it
tampers with the natural fabric of
life. Cloning forces something that
never happens naturally and
thereby invents a form of
reproduction which is entirely
unnatural for humans i.e. asexual
reproduction.
16
 Another distinct advantage to this
type of therapy is that the risk of
immunological rejection is alleviated
because the patient's own genetic
material is used, solving the most
major challenge of organ transplants,
alongside the fact that there is a huge
shortage of available organs for those
who require the procedure.
Gene Gene therapy is the use of DNA as a
therapy pharmaceutical agent to treat
disease. Gene therapy was first
conceptualized in 1972 and the first
FDA-approved gene therapy
experiment in the United States
occurred in 1990.
It is done by using DNA as a drug,
incorporating the DNA into the
patient's chromosomes and generally
by seeking to have the DNA express a
protein. The most common form of
gene therapy involves using DNA that
encodes a functional, therapeutic
gene to replace a mutated gene.
In germ line gene therapy, germ cells
(sperm or eggs) are modified by the
introduction of functional genes,
which are integrated into their
genomes. Germ cells will combine to
form a zygote where all the cells in the
organism will contain the modified
gene. This would allow the therapy to
be heritable and passed on to later
generations.
CRISPR and Gene editing involves making highly
gene editing specific changes in the DNA
sequence of a living organism.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a key gene-editing
technologies discovered in 2012 by
American scientist Jennifer Doudna,
French scientist Emmanuelle
Charpentier, and colleagues and
Potential abuse of technology:
Because reproductive cloning does
utilise SCNT as the primary step,
there is also still fear that given our
knowledge base to perform
reproductive cloning, a scientist
may attempt to move beyond
therapeutic cloning to the creation
of a human being. This goes against
religious doctrines as it shows Man
trying to ‘play God’.
Abuse of technology: There is a risk
that athletes might abuse gene
therapy technologies to improve
their athletic performance. This
idea is known as gene doping and
is as yet not known to be in use but
a number of gene therapies have
potential applications to athletic
enhancement.
Genetic discrimination and
eugenics: It has been speculated
that genetic engineering could be
used to change physical
appearance, metabolism, and
even improve physical capabilities
and mental faculties like memory
and intelligence. These
speculations have in turn led to
concerns that gene therapy could
open the door to a new form of
eugenics i.e. the belief that those
who are genetically weak are
considered inferior and should be
discouraged from reproducing.
Although this should, in theory, be
highly effective in counteracting
genetic disorders and hereditary
diseases, many countries still
prohibit this for application in
human beings, at least for the
present, for technical and ethical
reasons, including higher risk of side
effects, insufficient knowledge
about possible risks to future
generations and the moral problem
of designer babies.
Risk of dangerous mutations: The
main concern with CRISPR is the
potential ability to make genetic
modifications to human embryos
which may impact many
generations, result in mutations and
novel diseases.
17
 refined by American scientist Feng
Zhang and colleagues.

CRISPR-Cas9 can function with

precision, allowing researchers to
remove and insert DNA in the desired
locations.
RISPR-Cas9 systems also enabled the
creation of animal models for human
disease and the removal of HIV from
infected cells. In a mouse model of
human disease, CRISPR-Cas9 was
used to successfully correct a genetic
error, resulting in the clinical rescue of
diseased mice.

In 2015, reports from China indicated

that gene-editing experiments had
been performed on human embryos.
In late 2018 a Chinese scientist
announced the birth of the world’s first
gene-edited human babies; the
infants, twin girls, were said to carry an
edited gene that reduced the risk of
becoming infected with HIV.

Precision Precision medicine allows healthcare Exacerbate unequal access to

medicine to be tailored to a patient’s unique
needs. For instance, based on the
genetic make-up of the patients,
doctors can select medicines and
therapies to treat diseases far more
effectively.
medical treatment: while the
wealthy can afford to cure their
illnesses with specially designed
drugs, on the opposite end of the
spectrum there are low-quality and
counterfeit pharmaceuticals which
often result in further medical
complications.

Regulation

E.g. Biomedical research in the U.S.

Over the years, regulations have been extended to encompass animal welfare and research
misconduct. The federal government also monitors the production and sale of the results of
biomedical research such as drugs and biopharmaceuticals. The FDA and the Department of
Health and Human Services oversee the implementation of these regulations.

The Dickey–Wicker Amendment prohibits the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)
from using appropriated funds for the creation of human embryos for research purposes or for
research in which human embryos are destroyed.

E.g. Regulation on genetic engineering

The regulation of genetic engineering varies widely by country. For safety, ethical, and social
reasons, there is broad agreement among many scientists, ethicists, policymakers, and the
public that germline editing (where changes are made to the DNA in embryos, sperm or egg
cells) is a red line that should not be crossed.

Using germline editing for reproduction is prohibited by law in more than 40 countries and by
a binding international treaty - Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of

18
the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine (or Oviedo
Convention in short) which was signed in 1997 in Oviedo (Spain). It draws on the principles
established by the European Convention on Human Rights, in the field of biology and medicine.
It also deals specifically with biomedical research, genetics and transplantation of organ and
tissues.

As of 2017, the U.S. restricts the use of germline modification and the procedure is under heavy
regulation by the FDA and NIH. The American National Academy of Sciences and National
Academy of Medicine indicated they would provide qualified support for human germline
editing "for serious conditions under stringent oversight", should safety and efficiency issues be
addressed.

5. Science VS Religion

i. The nature of religion

The word Religion may have come from the Latin word Religare meaning to tie something
tightly. The term is used to refer to beliefs, behaviours, and social institutions to do with:
 the origin, end, and significance of the universe
 the purpose of mankind’s existence
 what happens after death
 the existence and wishes of powerful, non-human beings such as spirits, ancestors, angels,
demons, and gods
and the manner in which all of these shape human behaviour.

ii. Functions of religion

Across history, many have theorised about the functions of religion. Religion has been
understood to be:
 a pacifier that deadened oppressed people’s sense of pain and alienation, while
simultaneously preventing them from doing something about their lot in life –Karl Marx
 sets of beliefs and practices to enable individuals who engaged in them to form a shared,
social identity– Émile Durkheim
 a means to vent antisocial anxieties in a manner that does not threaten their place within
the group– Sigmund Freud

iii. How they conflict

There is an assumed adversarial relationship between science and religion.

The general sense is that religion is seen as something that is backward, non-progressive.
Religion is therefore a hindrance to change and progress that Science is capable of bringing
about. The reasons for such a perception include:

a) Inherent differences between the nature of religion and science

Religion Science
Makes reference to an invisible (that is, Based on concrete observable phenomena
non-empirical) world

Truth is fixed and non-negotiable Truth is subject to constant challenge and

revision
Truth is accepted on the basis of blind faith Truth is understood through factual tests and
and is not open to rational debate proof and can be subject to rational debate
Matter of personal belief Public and universal concern

19
b) Professional expectations within the field of science

A 2018 study conducted by Rice University found that while only 18 percent of people in the
United Kingdom said they do not believe in God, 45 percent of UK scientists responded the
same way. In addition, the researchers discovered that scientists in elite departments (a
categorization based on the number of publications per department, published department
rankings, and insider knowledge) are about twice as likely to never attend religious services
than scientists in non-elite departments. Lead author Elaine Howard Ecklund, professor of
sociology and director of the Religion and Public Life Program at Rice University notes that

“Individuals who are at the most elite institutions may disproportionately feel the cultural
pressure to secularize,” Ecklund says. “So, if those methods and mindset are inherently in
conflict with religion, then these successful scientists would experience the greatest erosion of
religious faith.”

c) Tensions between science and religion stemming from ethical concerns

One of the key causes of the tension between science and religion is the debate over the
sanctity of human life. While religion condemns the violation of sanctity of life, many modern
scientific practices may require some degree of infringement of this principle. Some examples
include:

Stem cell Stem cells can develop into many The destruction of an embryo for cells
research different cell types in the body. Stem is controversial because this embryo
cell research is used to help could potentially become a viable
understand the biology of disease, living human organism. A less
test drugs and develop cell-based controversial alternative would be to
therapies such as tissue engineering. harvest adult stem cells from skin,
Research on embryonic stem cells bone marrow, brain cells, which have
can also improve the safety of drugs. similar characteristics to embryonic
stem cells.
The most common source of stem
cells for research are human
embryos. As with all stem cells,
embryonic stem cells are
unspecialised cells that have the
ability to self-renew for long periods of
time and differentiate into
specialised cells with specific
functions. Embryonic stem cells have
perhaps the greatest therapeutic
potential compared to other sources
of stem cells because they are able
to differentiate into all derivatives of
the main germ layers, including over
220 types of cells in the human adult
body.

Abortion The expulsion of a fetus from the
uterus before it has reached the
stage of viability (in human beings,
usually about the 20th week of
gestation).
Euthanasia Euthanasia, also called mercy killing,
is the act or practice of painlessly
putting to death persons suffering
from painful and incurable disease or
Abortion and Euthanasia are
ethically controversial due to the
redefinition of life and death. The
advancement of science has
allowed for different, sometimes
conflicting definitions of when life
begins. These may be i) upon
conception, ii) upon detection of
brain activity iii) when there are
reflexes and iv) upon birth. There are

20
 incapacitating physical disorder or also implications on the meaning of
allowing them to die by withholding life and quality of life.
treatment or withdrawing artificial
life-support measures.

Cryonics The process of storing a dead body
by freezing it until science has
advanced to such a degree that it is
able to bring that person back to life.
The stated rationale for cryonics is
that people who are considered
dead by current legal or medical
definitions may not necessarily be
dead according to the more
stringent information-theoretic
definition of death. It is proposed that
cryopreserved people might
someday be recovered by using
highly advanced technology, such
as nanotechnology.
The ethical issue surrounding Cyronics
include the problematic legal status
of the cryo-preserved patients (cryo-
preservation only takes place after
legal declaration of death by a
physician or nurse, and legal battles
have taken place between the
family, the cryonics organization and
the state regarding the disposal of
the deceased’s remains). There are
also questions about the legal status
of the cryo-preserved patients when
they are ‘revived’ one day.
There is also a troubling question
about whether it is ethical to spend
millions on R&D providing a doubtful
last grasp at life for a few when it
could be used to save countless 3rd
World patients has been raised. Is
there also room for cryopreserved
bodies in a world that is grossly
overpopulated at present, and is
headed for a more serious
population crisis in the future?

THINK: Does Science always conflict with religion?

Conflicts Complements / does not conflict

 The differing basis of Science (logical
and quantifiable testing) and Religion
(intuitive faith and a religious narrative)
has resulted in Science supplanting
religion in explaining the natural order of
things.
 Science and religion have conflicting
answers to life’s biggest questions: Where
did it all begin? How were we created?
What’s out there? (the Higgs boson
which now seemingly validates the Big
Bang Theory which created the universe,
negates the religious narrative of God
being the Creator).
 Religion complements science,
providing the moral direction to an
amoral tool with immense destructive
power if used selfishly. In fact, the more
advanced Science gets, the more it
needs religion to provide a moral
compass.
 Science cannot answer life’s bigger
questions meaningfully – humans still
need to make sense of their short
existence and science cannot totally
eradicate this yearning for meaning.

 Science tells us that of genetic  According to the biologist Stephen Jay

determinism – that our genes dictate not
only our physical makeup/ appearance,
our sexual preferences, our level of
aggression and character traits, taking
that ability away from God. With
Germline Gene Therapy, we are able to
intervene in the flow of genetic
Gould, Science and religion are two
separate domains of human existence
and are exclusive of each other. Hence,
they do not conflict because they have
always operated in different realms.
Many prominent scientists, from Einstein
to Gould, were either religious, or

21
 information from one generation to the acknowledged there is no fundamental
next. Man apparently is now in control of contradiction between them.
his own evolutionary destiny and it is no
longer up to God’s ultimate design.

 With the advances in biomedical field,

Man is able to give rise to a Promethean
hyperagency; the urge to thwart the
gods by remaking nature according to
their will; and, to give and take away life
according to human will.

 Scientific knowledge broke religion’s  Religious doctrines have evolved to

hold on political power – the more incorporate scientific theories; religion is
scientific rationality took hold of the not static, nor monolithic. Many religions
world, the more secular it became are moderate and amenable to
scientific narratives.

iv. How they can co-exist

In fact, religion and science can not only coexist but complement each other too. This notion
is encapsulated in the words of the former leader of the Catholic Church, Pope John Paul II.
He argues that “Science can purify religion from error and superstition; religion can purify
science from idolatry and false absolutes. Each can draw the other into a wider world, a world
in which both can flourish.”

Science can help eradicate archaic religious beliefs and practices by proving them
unfounded. At the same time, modern science needs to be tempered by religion. The
consideration of ethics principles in scientific pursuits and the development of new
technologies is important in ensuring advancement is for the benefit of the human community
and not the harm of humanity.

6. Science and Business

i. Aims of business

A business is an organized effort of individuals to produce and sell goods and services for a
profit. Profit is the money that remains after the costs of a business (expenses and taxes) are
subtracted from the revenue received from the sales of goods and services.

To maximise profits, businesses have a few secondary aims:

 provide goods and services that satisfy consumers’ and businesses’ needs and wants
 market their goods and services to make them known to potential customers
 maintain the trust and support of the marketplace and their existing and potential business
partners and customers by applying moral standards to business decisions and actions
 being responsive to changes in the world to ensure business survival by focusing on the
evolving concept of sustainability, which is a focus on the triple bottom line: economic
viability, environmental integrity, and social equity
 exercise corporate social responsibility by making a difference in the economic well-being
of the people in the community

ii. Rationale for collaboration

Many firms and industries (e.g. semiconductor, electronics, communications, bioengineering)

use scientific knowledge to create innovative products and solutions. A science-based

22
business actively participates in the process of advancing and creating science and hence,
there is a blurring between the intrinsic value of science (science for its own sake, or for purely
academic purposes) and the economic value of its advancements.

Case study 1: Lab-grown meat

In order to create a sustainable food future and meet demand for resource-intensive food
such as meats, science needs to collaborate with businesses. The companies developing lab-
grown meat have the means to fund research and development and the distribution channels
to get the products to consumers. Scientific expertise is required in the actual cultivation of
meat which relies on stem cell technology.

Case study 2: Artificial intelligence and big data

Data scientists work with businesses to understand and predict trends in consumer habits. By
mining internal and external data about customers, merchants can gain insights about the
preferences of similar individuals, allowing them to create offers, incentives, and a shopping
experience that appeal to a specific set of people. This enables businesses to not only better
plan product offerings, but also be able to direct customers to those products. Ensuring the
options that customers view are
curated to their needs improves the customer experience and reduces the likelihood of an
unexpected shock to inventories.

Case study 3: Private enterprises contributing directly to the advancement of basic biomedical
science.

Private companies have become more involved with basic science by commissioning and
funding research. In addition, universities and academic medical centres have become more
involved in the business aspects of science, turning to industry partners or commercial activities
to pump up their shrinking funding from government sources. Virtually all major research
universities and teaching hospitals have industrial liaison and technology licensing operations
to bring in research funding and to appropriate returns on intellectual property.

iii. Problems / how the goals of science and businesses are in conflict
The needs of a science-based business is no different from any other business:
a) need to secure capital
b) allocation of scarce resources (human, financial, intellectual)
c) assets need to be valued and managed
d) contracts with partners must be designed and executed
e) Profit is the most important, if not the only priority

 Scientists are to be given total freedom; otherwise their creativity and intellectual curiosity
could be stifled.

 However, there are contradictions between the scientific method, the aims of science and
the interest of business. There is increasing pressure for science to gravitate towards
commercial gains and allow business to take precedence as the financial stakes for
scientific R & D are high.

Incompatible
 Academic autonomy is threatened as it is
difficult for scientists to stay objective
when their research results may threaten
the image of their corporate sponsors
 There may be a research topic bias as
corporate sponsors may dictate that
Compatible
 In a climate where public funding has
become insufficient to support the
scale of scientific and technological
development, partners from business
world are crucial.

23
 researchers focus on only the applied
sciences relevant to their specific
agendas.
 Scientists may tweak findings to please
their paymasters; who may also control
the way the study is designed.
Eg: Research on second-hand smoke by
privately funded researchers was more
likely to find it harmless. In addition,
studies commissioned by major
pharmaceutical companies comparing
the efficacy of various cholesterol drugs
were 20 times more likely to return findings
that showed the superiority of the
corporate sponsor’s drug
 Scientists who want to maintain their
academic or ethical integrity may find
themselves pressured to conform through
the threat of legal action.
 Corporate funding is understandably
dedicated to the projects that have
higher potential for commercial
application and on areas that can be
quickly monetized.1
 Marginalization of non-profitable areas of
science, or pure sciences – loss for
academia and mankind. In fact, it is
research into the pure sciences which
drives the discovery of new scientific
discoveries and theories, such as the
redefinition of Pluto’s status as a planet.
This may constitute a loss for science as a
discipline.
 Corporate sponsors will claim ownership
over the knowledge generated through
R&D. While this is understandable as
secrecy is key to profit-hoarding, the pool
of shared public knowledge is ultimately
reduced.
1 Biochemistry, genetics, synthetic chemistry and thermodynamics are now driving big profits
in industry. Biotechnology in particular has proven itself a lucrative commercial endeavor.
New discoveries can lead to highly marketable commodities. Some examples include
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), herbicide-resistant genetically modified crops, and
bioremediation.
 Despite the potential for irregularity
given the obligation of the scientific
community to pander to their
corporate sponsors/bosses, it doesn’t
mean that academic or publicly
funded research is necessarily always
above reproach, or free from bias.
 Competition enhances the quality of
research, spurs innovation and quality
products, boosting the scientific
industries as a whole, driving the
innovations which benefit mankind.
 Guidelines can be imposed on
institutions receiving corporate
funding.
Eg: Harvard University, while expanding
partnerships with business industries, has all
their research projects led by their faculty
instead of their business partners
 Not true that scientific discoveries are
always hoarded by one company. The
entire industry can benefit from one
company’s scientific research.
Eg: The largest Japanese pharmaceutical
companies were studied and it was found
that they made much more returns from
R&D done by other companies instead of
their own
 Translates scientific knowledge into
economic growth.
24
  The economic gains from applied
science flow back to pure science;
businesses do give back to the
scientific community
Eg: Rich businessmen who have made
scientific innovation possible include David
Packard from HP who donated billions to
his research foundation, the John
Rockefeller Foundation. It founded the
discovery of DNA as the genetic
messenger
 When science and its applications are  Applying science for financial gain
used mainly for profiteering, they ensures good use of resources. It seems
inevitably will be out of reach to those dubious if public funds should be
who need it, widening social and utilized on areas of scientific R&D which
economic disparities (info- have no immediate benefit to people’s
communications technology, agricultural lives.
and industrial scientific applications,
energy research and application,
medical science and technology).
 May result in misuse.
o Example: RU486 abortion pill was
developed to help rape victims
but it is used in India as a means of
birth control to abort unwanted
female foetuses.
 The profit incentive may encourage  Attractive remuneration will attract the
unethical practices for profit most talented scientists and
maximization. researchers because they are allowed
to share in the royalties and profits from
Monsanto, the US agri-biotech giant, has academic patenting, licensing and
been mired in numerous scandals throughout stock holdings.
the years from the dumping of toxic waste,
manufacturing toxins for biochemical
warfare, presenting fraudulent scientific
findings to vindicate itself, mislabeling of its
herbicides and the latest scandal: GE wheat
belonging to Monsanto not approved by the
authorities was found growing in a farm in
Oregon.

In 2015, Martin Shkreli, an American

entrepreneur and CEO of Turing
Pharmaceuticals, was named the most
hated man on the Internet for raising the cost
of a life-saving HIV drug by 4,000 per cent
overnight - from around £11.63 a pill to
£484.56.
 Negative environmental externalities –
highly lucrative areas of science may be
pursued for profit despite their
environmental cost. Mostly related to
genetic engineering in agriculture and
energy research / harnessing.
 May render governments being
beholden to the industry they are
required to regulate. Private and

25
 corporate research is also less subject to
scrutiny and regulation than publicly
funded research.
Eg: The FDA in America depends on the
pharmaceutical industry for more than 50% of
its drug review budget. Such leverage from
the pharmaceutical industry may have
dangerous implications on the objectivity of
the regulatory agency

7. Science and Politics/Governance

i. The role of science in governance

a) Scientific findings used to inform policy

Case study 1: Climate change

Whether or not governments choose to recognise the findings and recommendations of
scientists is a highly politicised issue. For instance, in the United States, perceptions of the
severity of climate change and therefore the need for government action varied according
to political affiliations. Specifically, trust in climate scientists was low among republicans and
higher among liberal democrats. These perceptions mirrored and contributed to different
policies. Under the Obama administration(democrat), The Climate Action Plan, an
environmental plan was rolled out. The plan included preserving forests, encouraging the use
of alternate fuels, and increased study of climate change in order to reduce carbon emissions.
When Trump, a republican was elected president, he signed an executive order to nullify the
plan. Later in 2021, Biden (democrat), reinstated the plan.

Case study 2: Covid-19 response

The response to the Covid-19 pandemic is different across countries and this in part due to the
degree to which scientific recommendations are acted upon by the government. For instance,
mask wearing was made mandatory in Singapore after it was ascertained that the virus could
be spread via droplets and that mask wearing could mitigate the transmission of the virus.
Subsequently, when new variants of the virus were found to be airborne, the Singapore
government revised its recommendations to encourage citizens to don masks with high
filtration efficiencies.

b) Science as a tool for diplomacy

Science diplomacy is the use of scientific collaborations among nations to address the
common problems facing 21st century humanity and to build constructive international
partnerships. – Nina V. Fedoroff, Science and Technology Adviser to the Secretary of State
and to the Administrator of the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 2009.
International cooperation can be at the governmental level such as when deciding on
strategic priorities for research as well as cooperation between individual scientists and
researchers.

Case study 1: Joint ventures and collaborative research efforts for clean energy
The U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Energy Resources (ENR) works to address climate
change by engaging and assisting countries to increase decarbonization efforts and
catalyzing market forces that are driving the global shift toward decarbonization and a more
diversified energy mix. This includes increasing the deployment of clean energy technologies
and services, including renewables and energy storage; promoting energy efficiency; and
developing an enabling environment for transparent and sustainable sourcing of critical
minerals necessary for the clean energy transition in resource-rich countries.

26
ENR foreign assistance promotes reliable, solvent, and competitive power sectors, and
advances renewable energy (RE) solutions in order to support decarbonization, energy
security, and energy access and development goals. For instance, in Vietnam, under the
Japan-U.S.-Mekong Power Partnership (JUMPP), ENR helped to integrate more than 16 GW of
new solar generation as well as solutions to address the challenges and opportunities of
increasing variable wind and solar generation.

Case study 2: Vaccine diplomacy

Vaccine diplomacy refers to the use of vaccines to nurture diplomatic relationships and
heighten influence in other countries. In the current context of Covid-19 vaccines, the term is
used to refer to the distribution of vaccines. In the earlier stages of vaccine development,
vaccine diplomacy involved joint research and development. For instance, China and Russia
have been sending millions of doses of coronavirus vaccines to developing in bid to strengthen
their global presence and boost relations with these countries. Assistance in the form of
vaccines will often come with economic or political strings attached resulting in a long term
relationship with these countries. Russia and China are aiming to take advantage of the
absence of Western powers like the EU and the US from the vaccine diplomacy scene.

ii. The role of the government in science

a) Government funding

In 2021, the Japanese government made plans for a new fund, the University Fund to increase
public financing for scientific research. The endowment fund is projected by to reach JPY10
trillion (US$95 billion) over time, which, if achieved, would make it one of the world’s largest
endowment funds to support science research. In America, a large proportion of research in
basic science. Entities such as the National Institutes of Health, the Department of Defense, the
Department of Energy, and the National Science Foundation are the biggest funders of
science in the US.

Furthermore, decisions about funding allocation are often made at the governmental level.
Every five years, the Singapore government unveils a new Research, Innovation and Enterprise
(RIE) plan. In this plan, key areas of focus are identified to which funds and other resources are
channelled to support research and by extension build industries. In the latest RIE 2025 plan,
Singapore aims to deepen its capabilities in Manufacturing, Trade and Connectivity by
tapping on frontier technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) to maintain its position as a global
manufacturing hub.

b) Government legislations impact the operations of scientific research

i) Rationale – Why should the government regulate science?

The regulation of science refers to the use of law or the establishment of guidelines by
academic or governmental bodies to allow or restrict science from performing certain
practices, or researching certain scientific areas.

The government should regulate science because it bears the responsibility of:
 Protecting its citizens and environment, and preventing their exploitation
 Setting and enforcing moral/ethical standards for society by regulating research that could
be controversial/divisive
 Protecting national security by ensuring unauthorised people (e.g. scientists) are not
allowed to access critical, sensitive state research
 Ensuring judicious and efficient allocation of national resources/taxpayers’ money into
lucrative/beneficial research

ii) Government regulation of science includes:

 regulations on what/who to research on

 restrictions on who can engage in scientific research

27
 restrictions on whether scientific research can be monetised
 restrictions on who has access to the scientific findings
 regulation intended to protect the well-being and rights of society at large
o protection of the environment
o health and safety both in the process of scientific research and the outcomes of arising
from scientific applications
 regulations on the research process
 regulations to do with intellectual property rights

Case study: Regulation of scientific research in Singapore

 Singapore generally does not dabble in controversial research

 Before any research can take place, it needs to get ethics approval from the appropriate
Institutional Review Board (IRB) and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
for their research.
 Researchers must also conform to the highest standards and strict scientific and ethical
guidelines governing biomedical sciences research issued by the Ministry of Health in
Singapore and the Bioethics Advisory Committee.

Bioethics Advisory Committee in Singapore

 Established by the Singapore Cabinet in December 2000.
 Tasked to address the ethical, legal and social issues arising from research on human
biology and behaviour and its applications; and to develop and recommend policies on
such issues
 A policy advisory body, not an executive body
o No supervisory or regulatory power.
o Supports and implements public education initiatives in bioethics, alone or in
collaboration with other agencies

 Ensuring biomedical sciences remains ethical: 5 principles

1. Respect for persons:
o Informed consent to participation in research
o Respect for privacy
o Safeguarding confidentiality
o Proper regard for religious and cultural diversity

2. Solidarity
o Balance to be struck between the interests of the public and the rights of individual
participants;
o Respect for individuals can be subordinate to the public interest, but only in certain
minimal risk research, typically public health and epidemiological research

3. Justice
o The benefits of research, and the burden of supporting it, should be equitably shared in
society.
o It should not, for example, be considered ethical to exempt a class of otherwise suitable
patients from participation in research by virtue of economic status.
o Researchers and their institutions incur some responsibility for the welfare of participants
and their compensation and treatment in the event of adverse outcomes arising directly
from their participation

4. Sustainability
o Biomedical research should not jeopardise or prejudice the welfare of later generations.
o For example, research leading to permanent change to the human genome might not
be considered ethical, even if immediately beneficial, on the grounds that the long term
implications are unforeseeable and could possibly be harmful.

28
5. Research integrity
o Anything which undermines the objectivity of the research and the validity of the results
can be regarded as a threat to research integrity
o For example, plagiarism, selectivity in the publication of results, or if the independence of
scientists is undermined by their obligations to their employers or to the funders of their
research.

Singapore’s ethical stance towards science

Issue 1: Use of animals in scientific research

 The research community in Singapore does use animals, such as rats for purposes of
scientific research
 In 2003, the National Advisory Committee on Laboratory Animal Research (NACLAR) was
formed to establish national guidelines for the use of animals for scientific purposes, based
on the principles of the 3 Rs in order to ensure humane and responsible care in the use of
animals for scientific purposes in Singapore.
o Replacement of animals with alternative methods
o Reduction of the number of animals used
o Refinement of projects and techniques used to minimise impact on animals.
 Partnership between (A*Star) and the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to
develop an animal-free procedure that can accurately predict the toxic effects of
chemicals on the kidney
 They will replace animals with cutting-edge biomedical and computational tools, such as
stem cell culture and machine learning, to predict the effects of chemicals on the organs

Issue 2: Genetic Modification (Gene therapy)

 Gene therapy is designed to introduce genetic material into cells to compensate for
abnormal genes or to make a beneficial protein. A carrier called a vector is genetically
engineered to deliver the gene, which can be injected or delivered intravenously.
 Gene therapy is currently focused on treating individuals by targeting the therapy to body
cells such as bone marrow or blood cells.
 This type of gene therapy cannot be passed to a person’s children hence is fairly non-
problematic in an ethical sense
 Research teams from A*Star and other institutes such as National Neuroscience Institute and
Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine are all conducting research into various gene therapies
for diseases such as cancer.
 Germline Gene Therapy is another matter, as the inserted gene could be targeted to egg
and sperm cells (germ cells), or even embryos, leading to the modified genes to be passed
to future generations.
 The idea of germline gene therapy is controversial
 While it could spare future generations from the scourge of genetic disorders, it might affect
the development of a foetus in unexpected ways.
 It could alter the gene pool permanently.
 Because people who would be affected by germline gene therapy are not yet born, they
can’t choose whether to have the treatment.
 There is also the ever-present fear of a therapy being abused for purposes of unfair
enhancement.
 Singapore and other countries such as Japan, China, S.Korea, USA and many parts of
Europe have prohibited germline gene therapy.

Issue 3: Stem Cell research

 Stem cell research, involving the derivation and use of stem cells from adult tissues is
permissible, subject to the informed consent of the tissue donor.

29
 It is also possible to use stem cells from dead foetal tissue (aborted foetuses) with informed
consent.
 Research involving the derivation and use of embryonic stem (ES) cells is permissible only
where there is strong scientific merit in, and potential medical benefit from, such research.
 Where permitted, ES cells should be drawn from sources in the following order:
o (1) existing ES cell lines, originating from ES cells derived from embryos less than 14 days
old; and
o (2) surplus human embryos less than 14 days old that were created for fertility treatment.
 The creation of embryos specifically for research might be allowed on a highly selective
case-by-case basis where no acceptable alternative exists.
 The commerce and sale of donated materials, especially surplus embryos, must be
prohibited
 Outright ban on human reproductive cloning
 Scientists seeking to carry out human stem cell research in Singapore will have to go through
a stringent procedure to obtain appropriate licences for their work. They will also have to
adhere to strict regulatory guidelines and expect their research to be subjected to close
scrutiny by the authorities

8. Science and Technology Development in Singapore

Impetus for Singapore’s development of the scientific area

Time Situation Strategy
period
1960s  Singapore was facing the problems  Develop a labour-intensive
of a poorly educated workforce, economy, with a focus on low-
labour strife, high unemployment, tech manufacturing
and a rapidly growing population  Train labour force in technical and
industrial expertise
1970s  Changes in the global economic  Phase out labour-intensive industry
environment.  Focus on skills-intensive, high–
 Singapore faced increasing value-added, technology-
competition from other developing intensive industries such as
countries in low-tech industries. electronics manufacturing, data
 Meanwhile, developed countries storage, ad petrochemicals.
were moving into high-tech  Expand engineering education
manufacturing. while providing funding for older
workers to upgrade their skills.
1980s  Singapore’s first major recession in  Market Singapore as a place to do
1985. business
 This spurred the country to look for  Encourage MNCs in Singapore to
new areas of economic growth. move beyond production and into
areas such as supply chain
management, R&D.
 Encourage MNCs to establish
operational headquarters in
Singapore to support their regional
operations.
1990s  Singapore began to face greater  National Technology Plan 1995 to
competition in its traditional focus on economically driven
economic strengths, including Research and development in
electronics manufacturing and nine sectors: information
petrochemicals. technology; microelectronics;
 As a country with a population of electronic systems; manufacturing
fewer than 4 million then and few technology; materials technology;
natural resources, the only resource energy, water, environment and
available was its people. resources; food and agro

30

2000s  The Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome (SARS) outbreak occurred
in 2003.
 Developing capabilities to deal with
medical crises was seen as
important.
 The 2008 Global financial crisis led to
job losses.
2010s  The 1962 pact between Singapore
and Malaysia regarding the supply
of water from across the Causeway
expired in August 2011. This left
behind only 1962 and 1990
agreements in force resulting in a n
overall reduction in the supply of
water.
 In bid of a more sustainable future,
investments in science and
technology are important.
 Such investments could also provide
good jobs for Singaporeans, and
enhance the nation's GDP growth.
2020s  Singapore recorded its first case of
Covid-19 in January 2020. The
situation rapidly worsens worldwide
resulting in what is known as the
Covid-19 pandemic.
technology; biotechnology; and
medical sciences.
 Biomedical sciences was identified
as an area with tremendous
growth potential.
 2005 marked the marked the start
of Singapore’s pursuit of
Biomedical Sciences (BMS) as its
fourth pillar of the manufacturing
economy (alongside Electronics,
Engineering and Chemicals).
 Establish core scientific biomedical
research capabilities by focusing
on building up its human,
intellectual, and industrial capital.
 In 2007, A*STAR established the
Centre for Molecular Medicine,
later to become the Institute of
Medical Biology, focusing on
research which can be translated
into practical applications and
which encourages collaborations
between hospitals and disease
centres.
 Fusionopolis was set up to take
physical sciences and engineering
research to higher peaks. Together
with the biomedical hub Biopolis, it
is at the heart of Singapore's R&D.
 Build a knowledge-based,
innovation-driven economy.
 Environmental and Water
Technologies sector and the
Interactive and Digital Media
sector were identified as rapid
growth areas for development.
 Deeper integration of science and
tech within economy focusing on
urban solutions and digital
capabilities.
 2016 (RIE2020) Plan: The Singapore
Government committed S$19
billion to research, innovation and
enterprise over five years from 2016
– 2020 to support and translate
research, and to leverage science
and technology to address
national challenges, and build up
the innovation and technology-
adaptation capacity of
companies to drive economic
growth through value creation
 Research, Innovation and
Enterprise (RIE) 2025 plan
 The five-year blueprint will focus
on four key areaas namely:
manufacturing, trade and
31
  Science, technology and innovation
seen as critical to overcoming
Covid-19 and in enabling the
country to emerge stronger.
 Recognition of the existence of new
opportunities at the intersection of
AI, 5G and cyber security, and in
digital tools.
 Importance of harnessing Science
and Technology to meet future
challenges such as climate change
and the demands of a rapidly
ageing population.
connectivity (MTC); human health
and potential (HHP); urban
solutions and sustainability (USS);
and finally, Smart Nation and
digital economy (SNDE)
 Research into manufacturing will
now also include studies into the
air and sea links that connect
Singapore with the rest of the
world, while urban solutions and
sustainability will now include
research into the new challenges
posed by climate change.
 Health and biomedical sciences
had been expanded to focus on
geriatric health.

Key strategies adopted to develop Science in Singapore

Devise a holistic talent strategy to attract and develop world-class scientists, both local and
international, at all levels and in all areas of the R&D landscape

1. Attract internationally renowned scientists over

 Help jump-start the country’s biomedical sciences efforts
 Provide leadership to the research institutes
 Mentor young local scientists.

2. Launch the A*STAR Investigatorship Programme

 Nurture the next generation of international scientific leaders
 Promising international postdocs are allowed to do research at Singapore’s research
institutes
 Given funding for setup costs and research staff
 Given access to state-of-the-art equipment and facilities.

3. Provide A*STAR scholarships

 For the most capable and committed young Singaporeans
 To pursue undergraduate and graduate scientific training at top universities locally and
abroad.

4. Attract many foreign students to its shores

 Singapore’s autonomous universities, the National University of Singapore (NUS) and
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), have been ranked among the top universities in
the world.

5. Provide a favourable business environment for businesses and investors

 Efficient regulatory environment that encourages vibrant entrepreneurial activity
 Commercial operations are handled with transparency and speed
 Corruption is perceived to be almost non-existent
 Legal system is efficient and highly protective of private property
 Very competitive tax regime
 Highly flexible labour market
 These factors enhance Singapore’s attractiveness for R&D and business.

Key institutions and organisations within Singapore’s scientific community

1. A*STAR
 Statutory board under the Ministry of Trade and Industry of Singapore
 Formerly known as the National Science and Technology Board (NSTB) until January 2002

32
 Primary mission to advance the economy and improve lives by growing the knowledge-
intensive biomedical, research, scientific and engineering fields.
 Supports R&D that is aligned to areas of competitive advantage and national needs for
Singapore
 Spans the four technology domains of
o Advanced Manufacturing and Engineering
o Health and Biomedical Sciences
o Urban Solutions
o Sustainability Services and Digital Economy
o
2. Biopolis
 In 2003, Biopolis, the jewel of Singapore's biomedical scene, was launched to take
biomedical R&D to the next level by encouraging private-public collaboration.
 The Genome Institute of Singapore proved its worth soon after being set up, by playing an
active role in the fight against SARS. Former executive director Edison Liu is given an award
by then-President S R Nathan for his contributions in the SARS effort.
 Initial focus on supporting the pharmaceuticals and biologics industry
 Diversified to medical technology, personal care, and food and nutrition
 A*STAR’s biomedical research institutes and centres exist alongside other corporate
research labs by companies such as Novartis, Danone, Abbott and Procter & Gamble
 The biomedical sector in Singapore has expanded in tandem with Biopolis.
o In 2000, the sector contributed 10 per cent to Singapore's manufacturing value-add.
o In 2017, biomedical manufacturing was the second largest contributor to total
manufacturing value-add at 19.6 per cent.

3. Private companies
Chugai Pharmaceutical
 one of Japan’s leading biopharmaceutical companies
 Announced in 2015 that it will invest S$476 million in total by 2021 into its Singapore research
institute, Chugai Pharmabody Research
 This centre is focused on research on the generation of novel antibody drugs
Nestle
 Nestlé's R&D Centre in Singapore was the first in Asia when it was set up in 1980.
 Some 120 experts from 20 different nationalities work on tailoring products to suit local health
needs, such as reducing sugar, fat and salt in food, without losing their locally-adapted
tastes.
 The facility also houses Nestlé’s global and regional training centre for food scientists and
engineers, as well as its Quality Assurance Centre.
 In 2016, the Nestlé Research Centre Asia, which will have a strong focus on Healthy Ageing,
was set up. It is an extension of Nestlé’s strategic innovation partnership with A*STAR
Procter & Gamble
 Opened its S$250 million Singapore Innovation Centre at Biopolis in 2014
 The second of only two such centres in Asia.
 Support the company's product development in the areas of beauty, home care, as well
as personal health and grooming.
 Research done here is incorporated into producing products for brands such as Pantene
and SK-II.

Strategic applications of science in Singapore

1. Economic role of science in Singapore

Case study 1: Biomedical manufacturing value-add

 The manufacturing output in the BMS sector rose from S$6.3 billion in 2000 to $21.5 billion in
2014.
 In 2012, the Value-Add (VA) of the BMS industry rose to $15.3 billion, contributing 25.5% of
total manufacturing VA. In April 2017, biomedical manufacturing was the second largest
contributor to total manufacturing value-add.

33
 BMS is now the largest VA contributor to the manufacturing sector in Singapore and has
rapidly grown to become the fourth pillar of the economy. In fact, eight of the top 10
pharmaceutical companies have facilities in Singapore, with four of the top 10 medications
by global revenue manufactured there.
 Other than developing cutting-edge innovations to lead our biomedical manufacturing
sector, Singapore’s biomedical science (BMS) sector also provides much employment for
highly-skilled labour.
 A*Star has embarked on an aggressive talent development programme to attract
Singaporeans to join the BMS through scholarships and fellowships

Case study 2: Medical tourism

 Singapore has a robust public-private healthcare system that comprises a number of world-
class hospitals, allowing it to become the region’s preferred destination for those seeking
advanced medical care
 550000 overseas patients visit the city-state every year to seek medical treatment. In
2014,medical tourists injected S$994 million into the economy.
 One reason that medical tourism has been such a success is that the Singapore Tourism
Board has a number of programmes to promote private healthcare companies.
 Hospitals like Farrer Park Hospital and Mt Elizabeth are some of the most popular hospitals
receiving foreign medical tourists

2. Role of science in defence and crime fighting

Case study 1: Detection/interception of CBRNE threats

 Weapons of mass destruction—Chemicals, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and
Explosives—are the greatest threat to public safety
 As the probability of a national security incident increases, the need for swift, effective
CBRNE (Chemicals, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosives) detection capabilities
will be integral to a nation’s defence.
 The Home Team Science and Technology Agency (HTX) has a fully operational CBRNE team
working closely with the Immigrations and Checkpoints Authority to buttress Singapore’s
border security operations as the first line of defence against the entry of threats, both
civilian and terrorist.
 HTX runs a network of laboratories located at the borders of Singapore to detect and
intercept CBRNE threats. These checkpoint laboratories at Changi, Woodlands and Tuas
also provide support and intel to the Singapore Police Force Land Divisions
 HTX runs a network of laboratories located at the borders of Singapore to detect and
intercept CBRNE threats. These checkpoint laboratories at Changi, Woodlands and Tuas
also provide support and intel to the Singapore Police Force Land Divisions
 HTX runs a network of laboratories located at the borders of Singapore to detect and
intercept CBRNE threats. These checkpoint laboratories at Changi, Woodlands and Tuas
also provide support and intel to the Singapore Police Force Land Divisions

Case study 2: Forensic Science

 The Home Team Investigation Laboratory (HTIL) at Police Cantonment Complex was
completed in 2016, providing DNA forensic support for criminal investigations.
 With sampling done at key operational areas and rapid analytical capabilities that enable
frontline officers to act, this network of labs is a vital component of the Home Team’s
operations.
 Research is also central to HTIL’s work. The HTIL has developed a rapid DNA analyser, an all-
in-one system which helps identify suspects or victims of crime by matching them to their
next-of-kin within two hours, compared to the usual six to eight hours required by other
systems.
 Another tool that the HTIL team developed is a DNA Phenotyping Lab-on-chip. This consists
of two separate kits; the first analyses gender, blood type and blood group while the second
checks for bio-geographical grouping.

34
3. Environmental sustainability

Knowledge and application of biochemistry, materials science, thermal physics is integral to

our waste and resource management plans, allowing our civil and materials engineers to
effectively design plans to manage waste, water and resources in our land-scarce nation.

Case study 1: Waste management

 Incineration plants, such as Tuas and Tuas South Incineration Plant, and Senoko Waste-to-
Energy Plant generate heat from the combustion of trash, which generates superheated
steam in boilers, and the steam drives turbo-generators to produce electricity
 In accordance with our pledge under the Paris Agreement, Singapore is committed to
enhancing our waste-to-energy capabilities, culminating in the Tuas Nexus project - a new
mega incineration plant in Tuas, which will integrate water management with waste-to-
energy power generation
 Built side by side, the Integrated Waste Management Facility and Tuas Water Reclamation
Plant are completely energy self-sufficient, where energy generated at the waste facility
through incineration of trash will be supplied to the water treatment plant for its operations.
Treated water from the water treatment plant will be piped to the waste management
facility to be used for cooling purposes. It aims to treat 40% of Singapore’s water and waste
by 2027

Case study 2: Circular economy

 At Sembcorp Materials Recovery Facility, waste is processed, separating recyclables from
non-recyclables
 PET bottles are broken down into reusable plastic chips
 LHT Holdings in collaboration with SimTech (A*Star) has invented a composite material by
mixing recycled wood and recycled plastic chips, known as Eco Block, which can be used
in pallet manufacturing
 Could recycle an estimated 76.8 tonnes of plastic packaging waste per year.

Case study 3: Food waste management

 The Food Science and Tech Programme at NTU has a long-standing mission to reduce food
wastage by converting it to useful products or returning it to the food chain
 It is teaming up with food and beverage company F&N for the next four years to develop
new ways to reduce food wastage
 The F&N-NTU F&B Innovation Lab wants to look at more effective methods of recovering
food nutrients from manufacturing and industrial food waste

Case study 4: Resource sustainability

 The NEWater process recycles our treated used water into ultra-clean, high-grade
reclaimed water.
 There are five NEWater plants supplying up to 40% of Singapore's current water needs. By
2060, NEWater is expected to meet up to 55% of Singapore’s future water demand.
 Ensuring our water security has great strategic potential as it implies that water reliance
cannot be used to gain either diplomatic or economic leverage over Singapore.
 It also cushions our water supply against dry weather and moves Singapore toward water
sustainability.

Singapore’s key scientific breakthroughs/ achievements

1. Autism research
 In 2016, scientists, including a team from Singapore, discovered common patterns in the
way DNA is “packaged” in the brains of autistic individuals that distinguish them from non-
autistic people
 They found that autistic people shared a common set of about 5,000 changes in the layer
of molecules called the epigenome, which sits on top of their DNA.
 This is despite autistic people not sharing common DNA (or genetic) mutations.

35
 Discovery means the potential to develop drugs which could treat the majority of autistic
individuals
 No drugs now to treat autism as its causes are poorly understood.

2. FluServer
 Scientists at A*STAR’s Bioinformatics Institute worked with international counterparts and the
World Health Organisation (WHO) to develop the FluSurver as part of the worldwide
surveillance network
 Help clinician scientists and researchers rapidly screen patient-specific influenza genome
sequences for mutations.

3. Replicate Covid-19
 Duke-NUS Scientists cultured the virus using infected patient’s clinical sample
 Worked closely with clinicians and scientists from:
o SingHealth Duke-NUS Academic Medical Centre
o Singapore General Hospital (SGH)
o National Centre for Infectious Diseases (NCID)
o Ministry of Health (MOH).
 Singapore is the third country outside of China to successfully replicate the virus.

4. Covid-19 testing
 The HTX COVID-19 test kit has an accuracy of more than 99 per cent and is able to test for
a result in three hours
o The test kit was collaboratively developed in March 2020 by the Home Team Science &
Technology Agency (HTX) and Veredus Laboratories, a Singaporean biotech company
o The Kit is a portable lab-on-chip application and is
o One of the first commercially available kits in the world with the capability to detect,
differentiate and identify all three coronaviruses (Covid-19, SARS and MERS) in a single test.
 In May 2021, the BreFence Go COVID-19 breath test system was approved for use
o The COVID-19 breath test can generate results within one minute
o The test was developed by Breathonix, a spin-off company of the National University of
Singapore (NUS)

5. Cancer drug
 PRL3-zumab antibody drug was discovered in 2019 by Singapore scientists
 Targets cancer cells and has less side effects compared to traditional cancer drugs
 This new antibody drug could potentially be used as an alternative for chemotherapy in
treating cancer. Chemotherapy targets cells that grow and divide quickly. This means that
it kills cancer cells and other fast-growing healthy cells, like those of the hair, skin, intestines
and bone marrow.

Usage of Different Types of Technology in Singapore

 Singapore is usually an early adopter of any type of technology that brings economic
benefits and/or sustainable development.
 Tapping on technology helps firms to reduce their dependence on labour in the tight labour
market.
 The following are examples of how Singapore has used technology to her benefit:

A. Environment technology
 Singapore has built up an enviable track record in environmental management and is
known for its clean and green reputation.
 As a progressive user of environmental technologies in Asia, Singapore is known to have
struck a balance between economic development and environmental protection.

36
 Through the years, companies in Singapore that provide environmental services (such as
SembCorp Industries Ltd) have developed technical expertise in the areas of water
technology, waste and wastewater treatment, clean air, consulting and engineering
services.
 Unlike other countries in the Southeast Asian region, Singapore is equipped with the
necessary funds, technology, and administrative capacity to maintain a favourable living
environment and improve its quality.
o Singapore wants to develop itself as an environmental technology hub that can add value
to the economy through the generation of new businesses, products, services, capabilities
and jobs.
 Singapore takes a holistic approach to involve all stakeholders, such as the industries and
general public, in enhancing environmental protection efforts. However, the success so far
achieved in environmental management is largely dependent on the strong initiative of the
government.

o Development of green precincts

 Treelodge@Punggol – Singapore’s first eco-precinct
o Use of green technologies
 Use of solar panels which are installed on the roofs to generate energy to meet the demand
of common area services such as lifts and lighting in the corridors  reduce dependency
on fossil fuel
 Use of integrated wash basin-toilet pedestal system which allows residents to use the water
for hand-washing before they are re-directed to the pedestal cistern for the next toilet
flushing. This helps reduce the use of water
o Use of passive design strategies
 Blocks designed such that they are strategically orientated to face the prevailing winds to
maximise natural cross-ventilation and natural lighting, and minimise solar radiation from the
sun  less need to turn to fans and/or air-conditioners to cool rooms, therefore less
electricity will be used
o Use of Clean Technology to better manage resources and reduce pollution at source
 Incineration plants aka waste-to-energy (WTE) plants: Heat from the combustion process is
used to generate superheated steam in boilers. The steam is in turn used to drive
turbogenerators to produce electricity. An excellent solution that not only reduces waste
to mere ash but in the process, generates electricity as well
o Promotion of energy efficient practices in the industries
 Mandatory energy management practices for large users have been introduced in 2013
under a new Energy Conservation Act (ECA).
 Under the ECA, large energy users in the industry and transport sectors are required to
appoint an energy manager, monitor and report energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
and submit energy efficiency improvement plans.
 Come 2030, Singapore will be much greener than today when 80 per cent of its buildings is
certified green - that is, energy and water efficient, with a high quality and healthy indoor
environment, integrated with green spaces and constructed from eco-friendly materials.
Possible features in such buildings:
 Use low emissivity glass and shading devices to reduce solar heat gain through windows
 Use of natural daylight, motion sensors and energy efficient lighting to reduce energy
consumption for lighting
 Have advanced building management system to control, monitor and manage all
equipment installed in the building, so as to optimise energy use

37
o Promotion of energy and water efficient practices in the households
 Under the Mandatory Energy Labelling Scheme, all home appliances have to have labels
to show their energy and/or water efficiency.

B. Water technology
By investing in water technology, Singapore has now a sustainable supply of water for her
people. In 2007, Singapore was awarded the Stockholm Industry Water Award for innovative
water management.

NEWater
 High-grade reclaimed water
 Produced from treated used water that is further purified, making it ultra-clean and safe to
drink.

Desalinated water
 Sea water goes through a treatment process after which it is blended with treated water
before it is supplied to homes and industries in the western part of Singapore

C. Defence technology
As Minister Chan Chun Sing once said, defence science is the fourth pillar of the armed forces.
ST Engineering and Defence Science Technology Agency (DSTA) design and produce military
communications systems, command and control systems, naval vessels, and weapons and
munitions among other things to primarily suit the needs of the Singapore Army.

Ultimax 100 light machine gun

 At 4.9 kg, the Ultimax 100 is one of the lightest recoil 5.56mm calibre machine guns in the
world.
 Sold to more than 25 countries in the world including Indonesia and Brunei

D. Transport technology
Perhaps the most well-known, most visible form of technology used in the transport sector is
the Electronic Road Pricing System (ERP) used in managing road congestions.
 A dynamic system whereby ERP rates can vary for different roads and time periods
depending on local traffic conditions.
 No need for auxiliary police officers to carry out visual checks and record any violations at
the gantries like what they did when the Area Licensing Scheme was in place. This
represents more productive use of limited manpower.

E. Medical technology
 All Singapore hospitals are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment and facilities
to enable accurate diagnosis and faster treatment.
o World Health Organisation recognises Singapore as among the top ten medical service
provider in the world.
 Medical technology companies in Singapore contribute about S$4.3 billion in output and
about 9,000 jobs
o The Singapore government remains committed to growing the medical technology industry
by investing in further research. Biomedical sciences R&D remains a priority in Singapore’s
long-term strategy to boost its economic competitiveness, achieve sustained growth and
establish the country as Asia’s innovation capital.

38
Glossary of Key Terms
Note that some of these key terms are found in other topics as well. While the definition is
essentially the same, consider different applications and examples in different topics.

1. Accountability (Research)

Accountability is the state of being accountable, which means to be responsible for something
or answerable to someone. In scientific research, it refers to the obligations the researcher has
to the various stakeholders in the research process such as the research participants, the
funding body, and the researcher's employing organization. The main difference between
responsibility and accountability is that responsibility can be shared while accountability
cannot. Being accountable not only means being responsible for something but also ultimately
being answerable for your actions.

2. Bioethics

The application of ethics to the field of medicine and health-related life sciences. Bioethicists
foster public knowledge and comprehension of moral philosophy and scientific advances in
medical science. They note how medical technology can change the way we experience
the meaning of health and illness and, ultimately, the way we live and die.

3. Commercialisation of research

Research commercialisation refers to the process through which ideas or research are
transformed into marketable products, capital gains, income from licences and/or revenue
from the sale of new product.

4. Commodification of human life

Where the human body and its parts are given monetary value and regarded as an object to
be bought and sold.

5. Designer baby

A designer baby is a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often to
include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with a disease.

6. Dilution of human-ness/authenticity

The process of de-humanisation which involves the removal fundamental human qualities from
a person, usually biological/physical in nature e.g. via xenotransplantation (the process of
grafting or transplanting organs or tissues between members of different species).

7. Eugenics

A set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population,
historically by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or promoting those judged
to be superior. In recent years, the term has seen a revival in bioethical discussions on the
usage of new technologies such as CRISPR and genetic screening.

8. Genetic discrimination

Genetic discrimination occurs when people are treated differently by society because they
have or are perceived to have a gene mutation that causes or increases the risk of an inherited
disorder, or they have a familial history of a specific health condition. This issue could determine
whether someone gets hired or fired and could mean the difference between receiving
comprehensive insurance coverage.

39
9. Genetic modification or manipulation

A technique to change the characteristics of a plant, animal or micro-organism by transferring

a piece of DNA from one organism to a different organism. This is done through targeted
removal of the desired genes from the DNA of one organism and adding them to the other
organism.

10.Integrity (Research)

Research integrity means conducting research in such a way that allows others to have
confidence and trust in the methods and the findings of the research. It relates both to
the scientific integrity of conducted research and to the professional integrity of researchers.

Key elements of research integrity include:

 Honesty
 Rigour
 Transparency and open communication
 Care and respect of all participants
 Accountability

11.Objectivity

Scientific objectivity expresses the idea that scientific claims, methods, results—and scientists
themselves—are not, or should not be, influenced by particular perspectives, value judgments,
community bias or personal interests, to name a few relevant factors. Objectivity is often
considered to be an ideal for scientific inquiry, a good reason for valuing scientific knowledge,
and the basis of the authority of science in society.

12.Patient autonomy

The right of patients to make decisions about their medical care without their health care
provider trying to influence the decision. Patient autonomy does allow for health care
providers to educate the patient but does not allow the health care provider to make the
decision for the patient. Recognition of the vulnerability of patient’s rights in health care
contexts led to the inclusion of respect for autonomy as a key concern in biomedical ethics.

13.Playing God

The idea that we are intervening with what is the natural order of things or what ought to be
e.g through genetic modification.

14.Pragmatism

Pragmatists contend that most philosophical topics—such as the nature of knowledge,

language, concepts, meaning, belief, and science—are all best viewed in terms of their
practical uses and successes. Applying such a belief to scientific research would imply that
only research that provides practical benefits to society, e.g. improving quality of life,
improving health, is considered valuable.

15.Reliability

Refers to the quality of being able to be trusted or believed because of working or

behaving well. Accepted scientific ideas are reliable because they have been subjected to
rigorous testing.

16.Utilitarianism

40
Utilitarianism is defined as a system of ethics according to which the right or wrong of an action
should be judged by its consequences. The goal of utilitarian ethics is to promote the greatest
happiness for the greatest number. Scientists and governments weigh daily the resulting
benefits and harms of scientific research when deciding, for example, whether to invest
resources in a certain research project, whether to approve a new drug, or whether to ban
certain experiments.

17.Sanctity of life

The phrase sanctity of life refers to the idea that human life is sacred holy and precious. The
sanctity of life is inherent as man cannot create life. Therefore, man has no authority to
destroy life.

41