Module 5 General Physics 2

Modern Physics: Nuclear Physics

Content
Subtopic 1: The Nucleus of an Atom
Subtopic 2: Radioactive Decay

The sun is a giant nuclear fusion reactor.
Much of its energy comes from the fusion of
deuterium, producing helium.
Learning
Outcomes
At the end of the module, the learner must
be able to:
• Describe the makeup of the nucleus
• Calculate mass deficiency and nuclear
binding energy.
• Describe the common types of radiation
emitted when nuclei undergo radioactive
decay.
• Calculate the half life of radioactive elements.
• Describe nuclear fusion and fission.
 Module 5 Subtopic 1

The Nucleus Of An Atom

Outline The Atomic Nucleus
Mass Deficiency
Nuclear Stability
Binding Energy
The Atomic Nucleus

Neutrons and protons together constitute the

nucleus. These particles are called nucleons

A nuclide is a nucleus containing a specified number

of protons and neutrons.

Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the

nucleus.
The Atomic Nucleus & Mass Deficiency
Experimentally, we observe that the masses of atoms are always less than the sum of the
masses of their constituent particles.

∆m = (sum of all the mass of e-, p+, n0) – (actual mass of the atom)

The mass deficiency, ∆m, for a nucleus is the difference between the sum of the masses of
electrons, protons, and neutrons in the atom (the calculated mass) and the actual measured
mass of the atom.
Sample Problem 1: Mass Deficiency
Calculate the mass deficiency for the chlorine-35 atom in
atomic mass unit (amu) The actual mass of a chlorine-35 atom
is 34.9689 amu

Given Sol’n & Answer

35 𝐴 Mass p+ = 17(1.0073) amu = 17.124 amu
17𝐶𝑙 𝑍𝑋 = 0.0093 amu
35
Mass e- = 17(0.00054858) amu
𝐶𝑙 = 34.9689 amu Z = atomic number
A = mass number Mass n0 = 18(1.0087 amu) = 18.157 amu
Required
35.290 amu
Mass deficiency p+ = Z = 17 ∆m = (e- + p+ + n0 ) – (actual mass)
Equation e- = Z = 17
∆m = 35.290 amu– 34.9689 amu
∆m = (e- + p+ + n0) – n0 = A –Z
(actual mass)
Why is there a deficiency in
= 35 – 17 = 18 ∆m = 0.321 amu
mass?
Nuclear Stability & Binding Energy
According to Coulomb’s law, The nucleus is composed of protons packed
particles with like charges repel each together, even though they are all positively
other. charged.

The purple spheres represent protons

|𝑞1 𝑞2 |
𝐹=𝑘 How are they not repelling each other?
𝑟2
Nuclear Stability & Binding Energy
In 1905, Einstein set forth the
Theory of Relativity, which stated
that matter and energy are
equivalent
E = mc2
E = amount of energy released
m = mass of matter transformed into energy
c = speed of light (3.00x108 m/s)
A portion of the mass of an atom is converted into
energy which we detect in the mass deficiency. This
energy is released when the nucleus is formed
BE = (∆m)c2
BE = Binding energy
∆m = mass deficiency
c = speed of light (3.00x108 m/s)
The binding energy provides a powerful short-range
force that holds the nuclear particles (protons and
neutrons) together.
Sample Problem 2: Binding Energy
Given the mass deficiency in the previous sample problem, calculate the binding energy of
35
𝐶𝑙 in kJ per mole

Given Sol’n & Answer

∆m = 0.321 amu
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
𝑔 1𝑘𝑔 −4
𝑘𝑔
∆m = 0.321 Δ𝑚 = 0.321 𝑥 = 3.21𝑥10
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 2
Required 𝐵𝐸 = 3.21𝑥10−4 3.00𝑥108
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
BE in kJ/mole
𝑘𝐽
Equation 𝐵𝐸 = 2.89𝑥1010 𝑜𝑓 35𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
BE = (∆m)c2
 Module 5 Subtopic 2

Radioactive Decay
Outline Neutron-Proton Ratio & Nuclear Stability
Modes of Radioactive Decay
Half-Life
Nuclear Fission
Neutron-Proton Ratio & Nuclear Stability

From experiments, we found that:

Most naturally occurring (and stable) nuclides have even
numbers of protons and even numbers of neutrons.

Nuclides with odd numbers of both protons and neutrons

are least common.

Those with odd–even and even–odd combinations are

intermediate in abundance
Neutron-Proton Ratio & Nuclear Stability
The stable nuclei (green dots) are located in an area
known as the band of stability.

All other nuclei in the white, pink, and blue regions are
unstable and radioactive.

Unstable nuclei above the band of stability are referred to

as neutron-rich nuclei.

Those below the band of stability are called neutron-poor

nuclei (pink shading).
Neutron-Proton Ratio & Nuclear Stability
An unstable nuclei (referred to as radioactive) will
attempt to reach stability by emitting radiation: ejecting
nucleons or other particles, or by releasing energy.

Natural radiation associated with radioactive decay can

be placed into three classes:

Alpha particles are identical to helium-4 nuclei

Beta particles are high-speed electrons
Gamma rays are very high-energy photons
Nuclear Equations
When a nuclide decays, it forms a daughter
nuclide of lower energy. 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑨 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑨
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒁𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒁𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔

The excess energy is carried off by the emitted

232 228
radiation
90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 42𝛼
The decay process is represented by a balanced
nuclear equation.

Both the total charge and the total mass must be

balanced.
Modes of Radioactive Decay & Balancing Nuclear Reactions

Alpha (α) decay involves the loss of an α particle (2 protons & 2 neutrons) from the nucleus

226 222 𝟒
88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 𝟐𝜶
Modes of Radioactive Decay & Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Beta (β) decay is a general class of radioactive decay that encompasses 2 modes: β+
emission & β- decay. β decay happens when a neutron is converted into a proton, & vice
versa.

When a nucleus emits a β- particle, its When a nucleus emits a β+ particle

atomic number increases by 1 and its mass (positron), its atomic number decreases by 1
number remains unchanged. and its mass number remains unchanged.
Modes of Radioactive Decay & Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Beta (β) decay is a general class of radioactive decay that encompasses 2 modes: β+
emission & β- decay. β decay happens when a neutron is converted into a proton, & vice
versa.

 
231
90 Th  231
91 Pa  β 0
1
23
12 Mg  23
11 Na  β 0
1

When a nucleus emits a β- particle, its When a nucleus emits a β+ particle

atomic number increases by 1 and its mass (positron), its atomic number decreases by 1
number remains unchanged. and its mass number remains unchanged.
Modes of Radioactive Decay & Balancing Nuclear Reactions
Gamma (γ) Emission: In all nuclear reactions, the nucleus changes from a state of higher
energy to a state of lower energy.
Gamma rays are pure electromagnetic energy. Results in no change in mass or atomic
number.
Sample Problem 3: Nuclear Reactions
Fill in the appropriate nuclide for the X in the following nuclear
reactions:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑨 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑨
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒁𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝒁𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔

214 234
𝑋→ 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼 90𝑇ℎ → 𝑿 + −10𝛽
𝟐𝟏𝟖 214
𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝛼 234
90𝑇ℎ → 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟏𝑷𝒂 + −10𝛽
Rate of Decay & Half Life
The rates of all radioactive decays are independent
of temperature and obey first-order kinetics

N0 = initial amount of substance

𝑁0 N = Final amount
ln = 𝜆𝑡 λ = Decay constant
𝑁 t = time

half-life (t1/2)is the time required for the amount of

radioactive nuclei to decrease to one-half the
original amount

𝑙𝑛2
𝑡1/2 =
𝜆
Sample Problem 4: Half Life
The “cobalt treatments” used in medicine to arrest certain types of cancer rely on the ability of gamma rays to
destroy cancerous tissues. Cobalt-60 decays with the emission of beta particles and gamma rays, with a half-
life of 5.27 years. How much of a 3.42-μg sample of cobalt-60 remains after 30.0 years?

Equation Value of N can now be determined

Given 𝑁0 3.42𝑥10−6 𝑔
𝑁0 𝑁= =
𝑁0 ln = 𝜆𝑡 50.9 50.9
t1/2 = 5.27 years ln = 𝜆𝑡
𝑁 𝑁
N0 = 3.42x10-6 g 𝑙𝑛2 𝑵 = 𝟔. 𝟕𝟐𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎𝒔
𝑁0
𝑡1/2 = ln = (0.131𝑦𝑟 −1 )(30.0 yr)
t = 30.0 yrs 𝜆 𝑁

Required Sol’n & Answer 𝑁

ln 𝑁0 −1 )(30.0 yr)
𝑒 = 𝑒 (0.131𝑦𝑟
N after 30 yrs Determine decay constant λ
𝑙𝑛2 0.693 𝑁0
𝜆= = = 50.9
𝑡1/2 5.27 𝑦𝑟 𝑁
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝒚𝒓−𝟏
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission involves the splitting of
large nuclei into smaller nuclei, using
neutron bombardment to start the
process.
Fission releases energy and generates
more high-energy neutrons, which cause
further fission to occur.
The fission process becomes self-sustaining
by a chain reaction. The mass required to
achieve this is called the critical mass.
Nuclear Fission
Schematic of A Nuclear Power Plant