Topic+3+ +Conservation+Laws

LECTURE 13
B48BB/B58FB Conservation Laws:

FLUID MECHANICS A Conservation of mass
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS - Continuity Eq.
FLUID FLOW DEFINITIONS
§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time ü Steady Uniform flow

§ Uniform Flow: it does not change in space
§ Examples:
Steady uniform flow: homogeneous pipe with
constant in-flow/out-flow
Steady non-uniform flow: an expanding pipe with
Non-steady uniform flow: homogeneous pipe with
a slow change in in-flow/out-flow
Non-steady non-uniform flow: an expanding pipe
with a sudden change in in-flow/out-flow
© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 2

TRANSIENT FLUID FLOW DEFINITIONS
§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time ü Steady Non-Uniform flow

§ Examples:

ü Non-Steady Uniform flow

§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time
§ Examples:

ü Non-Steady Non-Uniform flow
§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time
§ Examples:

CONSERVATION OF MASS: CONTINUITY EQUATION
Consider the pipe below. We define

a “volume of control” VC as the
volume inside the pipe from 1 to 2
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3) #" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
$! Height (m) &̇ " Mass flow rate (kg/s)
&̇ ! Mass flow rate (kg/s) !!
OUTLET
!"
z=0

CONSERVATION OF MASS: CONTINUITY EQUATION
Mass accumulated Mass coming IN the Mass coming OUT Mass consumed in the VC
in the VC VC the VC
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3) #" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

MASS FLOW & VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
1
INLET
The fluid mass flow is defined as
%#
!! Pressure (kPa) #̇ = [()/+]
"! Density (kg/m3)
%&
#! Velocity (m/s)
$! Height (m) Δ/ = #̇ ! Δ&
&̇ ! Mass flow rate (kg/s)
The mass coming into the VC in a short time,
Δ&, will be equal to:
1 Δ/ = 0! -! Δ1 = 0! -! 2! Δ&
 Dt = rADx
m
so
-!
u ⇒ 4̇ # = 5# 6# 7# [kg/8]
u
∆"
and
%̇ !
⇒ 9# = &!
= 6# 7# [4' /8]
Dx

THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
For a steady flow Here, with 1 inlet and 1 outlet
#̇ & = %& && '& = %' &' '' = #̇ '
! #̇ !" = ! #̇ #$%
%&' = ()*+,-*,
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
$! Height (m) 2 &̇ " Mass flow rate (kg/s)
OUTLET
!"
z=0
THE CONTINUITY EQUATION
For a steady incompressible flow Here, with 1 inlet and 1 outlet
.& = && '& = &' '' = .'
! .!" = ! .#$%
&' = ()*+,-*,
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0
B48BB/B58FB
FLUID MECHANICS A Applying continuity
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS
CONSERVATION OF MASS
§ A steady flow is contracted from a circular section of 0.3m diameter to 0.1m
diameter. The velocity upstream is 10m/s; calculate the downstream velocity.
.& = && '& = &' '' = .'
/0.3' /0.1'
-! -" && = &' =
2! 4 4
2" ?
&& 5&'
:" '' = ' = '
:! &' & 5'' &
0.3'
'' = 10 = 90 #/+
0.1'
FLUID MECHANICS A Definition of
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS momentum
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
NEWTON’S 2ND LAW
2. Momentum flow = Force
1. Newton’s second law
We can apply a force to a fluid and
#(%&) #(&) change its momentum (e.g. pump it).
!'(')* = =% = %. *
#( #(
A moving fluid can apply a force on
an object and change its momentum
(e.g. push a wheel).
“Within a frame of reference that is
either fixed or moving with a constant
velocity, the momentum of a particle 3. In a VC with multiple inlets and outlets
will increase in the direction of, and in the total momentum change includes
proportion to, the net applied force.” that of all inlets and outlets:
%(#2)
;()(*+ = < ;, = <
%& ,

VOLUME OF CONTROL
§ Let’s consider a divergent pipe. We select as
0! #̇ ! volume of control VC all the volume inside
!! ?! without from a point 1 to point 2
-" 2"
-!
2! 0" #̇ "
!" ?"

VOLUME OF CONTROL
w
fl o
of
0! #̇ ! ec t ion
Dir
!! ?! !
-" 2"
-!
2! 0" #̇ "
!" ?"

THE CHANGE OF MOMENTUM TERM
2
%(#2) of
fl o
w !9
ion
;()(*+ = < ;, = < Dir
ec t
%& , !
1
The change of momentum is the !8
result of a change in velocity in
all the inlets and all the outlets.
z1 z2

2
1. For a steady flow of
fl o
w !9
c t ion
e
#(%&) + %& Dir
!
= = + %̇ &
#( +( 1
= %̇ +,-./- &+,-./- − %̇ 01./- &01./-
!8
2. If it has multiple inlets and outlets

((*+) z1 z2
= / *+
̇ "#$%&$' − / *+
̇ ()%&$'
(-
3. Momentum 4̇ 7 is a vector in the direction of 2. You need to

calculate its components, and direction decomposing the velocity
2 in 2- , 2. , 2/ at every inlet and every outlet

2 !9,; of
fl o
w
c t ion
e
Dir
%(#2)
;()(*+ = < ;, = < !
%& ,
1
!9,<
!8,;
!8,<
1. The momentum change in x-direction,
2(4,)
= %̇ 7&7,9 − %̇ :&:,9
2- 6
3. His change must have happened
2. The momentum change in y-direction, because a force has acted on the fluid:
2(4,)
= %̇ 7&7,< − %̇ :&:,< %('()
2- ; "!"!#$,& = $ "',( =
%* &
%('()
"!"!#$,) = $ "',* =
%* )

B48BB/B58FB
FLUID MECHANICS A Calculating rate of
change of momentum
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS
APPLYING MOMENTUM BALANCE
A water stream flows along a pipe *
bending up at 60°. The pipe has a ,7
diameter of 50 mm before the bend,
and inlet and inlet and outlet +
velocities are 36 and 30m/s.
What is the diameter of the exit?
Which is the change in momentum r = 1000 kg m3
across the pipe section?
/ = 50&&
": = 36 &/( -.°

,:
"7 = 30 &/(

CALCULATING MOMENTUM
FLOW RATE & VELOCITIES
*
We can calculate the mass flow
rate in the inlet: ,7
+
D×0.05"
#̇ ! = 0-2! = 1000× ×36
4
= 70.69 kg/s
r = 1000 kg m3
Conservation of mass tells us :
/ = 50&&
< #̇ 012342 = < #̇ 5,342
-.°
,:
#̇ " = #̇ ! = 70.69 kg/s

What is the diameter of the pipe in the exit? *
,7
%̇ 7 = 6.:&: = 70.69 kg/s +
4̇ + >?.AB
.7 = = = 0.00235 %7
=,+ :??? .C?
r = 1000 kg m3
5377
.7 = .: =
4 / = 50&&
4.7 -.°
37 =
5 ,:
D . ?.??7CE
= = 0.055 %
F

LOOKING AT MOMENTUM COMING IN AND OUT
FROM INLETS AND OUTLETS
*
1(&,) ,7
= 7 &,
̇ +,-./- − 7 &,
̇ 01./-
14
+
Here there is only one inlet and one outlet so:
1(&,)
= &̇ 7 ,7 − &̇ : ,: r = 1000 kg m3
14
The term %̇ & is a vectors, so this
expression is actually two equations: / = 50&&
1(&,) -.°
= &̇ 7 ,79 − &̇ : ,:9 ,:
14 9
1(&,)
= &̇ 7 ,7< − &̇ : ,:<
14 <

*
Inlet velocity ,7
+
#
!O = !O,P = 36 m/s
$
r = 1000 kg m3
/ = 50&&
-.°
,:

*
# !Q Outlet velocity ,7
+
!Q,R
60°
$
!Q,P
r = 1000 kg m3
'',3 = '' cos 60 = 30 cos(60)
/ = 50&&
'',4 = '' sin 60 = 30 sin(60)
-.°
,:

*
,7
E(#')
= #̇ ' ''3 −̇ #̇ & '&3 +
E, 3
Fx = 70.69 ´ (30 cos 60 - 36 ) = -1484.40 N
= −1484.40 H r = 1000 kg m3
/ = 50&&
E(#')
= #̇ ' ''4 − #̇ & '&4
E, 4 -.°
,:
Fy = 70.69 ´ (30 sin 60 - 0) = 1836.58 N
= 1836.58 H

*
#(%&) ,7
= −1484.40 @
#( 9
+
#(%&)
= 1836.58 @
#( <
r = 1000 kg m3
but… WHY has the
momentum flow change?
/ = 50&&
The pipe has expanded. This
makes the velocity change but it -.°
also applies a net force on the ,:
fluid that changes its momentum.
In the next Lecture 14, we will
see the forces involved in this.

LECTURE 14

FLUID MECHANICS A Conservation of
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS momentum
THE ACTING FORCES
$(&')
2 !!,# of
fl o
w
ion
!!"!#$ = # !% = # Dir
ec t
$) %
!
1
!!,$
A change of momentum is the
result of the application of
!%,#
forces in the volume of control
!%,$
∑ "!,# contains many forces :
1. The forces exerted by the fluid upstream 3. The forces exerted by the container
and downstream of the container, Fp on the fluid, called reaction force FR
2. The force due to gravity, Fg

THE PRESSURE FORCE AT ONE INLET
w
fl o
$(&') ion
of
# !% = # Dir
ec t
$) %
!
1
!*,, = #,$,
"$ is always perpendicular to
the area and points to the !',& #
1
volume of control. It is a vector!
"
It has components .&
"$,%,# = $%%%cos(*)
"$,%,& = $%%%sin(*)
!',&
-&

THE PRESSURE FORCE AT ONE OUTLET
2 fl o
w
$(&') t i ono
f
# !% = # Dir
ec
$) % ! ' ,)
!
!*,/ = #/$/
"$ is always perpendicular to
the area and points to the # 2
volume of control. It is a vector!
"
It has components
! ' ,)
"$,',# = −$'%'cos(*)
"$,',& = −$'%'sin(*) .)
-)
THE WEIGHT OF THE FLUID
w
fl o
$(&') ion
of
# !% = # Dir
ec t
$) %
!
The weight !* has components:
!*,+ = −&1 = −231

!*,+
!*,, = 0

THE REACTION FORCE (FORCE ON FLUID) :
FROM THE BOUNDARY ON THE FLUID
w
fl o
of
$(&') c t ion
# !% = # Dir
e
$) %
!
$!,$
5- : The reaction force that the $!,#
walls exert on the fluid
The changes in pressure, weight and

momentum do not balance magically.
They create a force that the moving
fluid applied on the boundaries. This
can make the pipe move or break, ∑ '!,# = '$,%,# + '$,&,# + '',# + '(,#
but if it resits it, it will respond with an
equivalent reaction in the opposite
direction, !( , applied on the fluid. ∑ '!,) = '$,%,) + '$,&,) + '',) + '(,)

THE FORCE ON THE WALLS (FORCE ON PIPE):
FROM THE FLUID ON THE BOUNDARIES
w
$%&'',$ of
fl o
$(&') c t ion
# !% = # Dir
e
$) % $%&'',# %
!
$!,$
%
$!,#
!( is the reaction force the

pipe exerts ON the fluid.
!,-.. = −!( is the force & + '& *),*

'( = '(,# (,) * = arctan( )
that the fluid exerts ON the *),+
pipe (causing a reaction).

OVERALL BALANCE
w
$%&'',$ of
fl o
c t ion
e
Dir
$(&') $%&'',# %
# !% = # !
$) %
$!,$
%
1. Including all the forces that are $!,#
acting on the pipe we can write

the momentum balance :
+(-.)
∑ '!,# = '$,%,# + '$,&,# + '',# + '(,# =
+0 2
+(-.)
∑ '!,) = '$,%,) + '$,&,) + '',) + '(,) =
+0 1

Careful !! Equations will be
different for each problem !!.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM You must understand how to
perform a momentum balance.
OVERALL BALANCE
w
$%&'',$ of
fl o
c t ion
e
Dir
$(&') $%&'',# %
# !% = # !
$) %
$!,$
%
1. Substituting the expressions for $!,#

each force and the momentum
change from Lecture 13:
2% 3% cos(6) − 2& 3& cos(6)+ '(,# = 9̇ & :&,# − 9̇ % :%,#

2% 3% sin(6) − 2& 3& sin(6) − <=> + '(,) = 9̇ & :&,) − 9̇ % :%,)

FLUID MECHANICS A Calculating the force
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS of reaction in an elbow
0.23m3/s of water flow through a
pipe section of volume = 0.085m3 1 300mm
that bends down 120º. The section
has an inlet diameter of 300mm, 120°
and an outlet of 150mms that is
located 1.4m below.
Inlet and outlet water pressures
are 140kPa and 74.26kPa. 1.4m
Calculate the force that is being

applied on the pipe.
2
150mm

APPLYING MOMENTUM BALANCE
Pressure forces are
always perpendicular to
the flow area and always
pointing towards the VC
1
/ "! = / 12
̇ /01.21 − / 12
̇ 3!.21
"$,% 120° 60 °
!. !*
"$,%,# + "$,',# + "4,# + "(,# = 1̇ '2',# − 1̇ %2%,#
"$,%,& + "$,',& + "4,& + "(,& =1̇ '2',& − 1̇ %2%,&
!',) 2

1- Continuity
6& = 6) = 0.23 &/ /;

&̇ & = ρ6& = 1000. 0.23 = 230 =1/;
&̇ ) = &̇ & =230 =1/;
1 300mm
:% 120°
2- Velocities.
Q 4 ´ 0.23
inlet u1 = =
A1 p ´ 0.32
= 3.254 m s 1.4m
Q 4 ´ 0.23
outlet u2 = = = 13.02 m s
A2 p ´ 0.15 2
:& 2
150mm

3- Momentum change
Change in Momentum in X-Direction
2%,# = +2% = 3.25 1/9
2',# = −2':;960 = −6.511/9 1
1̇ '2',# − 1̇ %2%,# = :% 120° 60 °

230 −6.51 − 230(−3.25) =
−2245 C
1.4m
Change in Momentum in Y-Direction
2%,& = 0
2',& = −2'9?@60 = −11.27 1/9
1̇ '2',& − 1̇ %2%,& =
230 −11.27 − 230( 0 ) =
60 °
−2293 C
:& 2

4- Pressure forces
1
.& = 140=.A !',&
120° 60 °
FG '
"$%,# = $%%% = E%
4
p
Fpx1 = p1 A1 = 140 ´10 3 ´ ´ 0.32 = 9896 N
4 1.4m
"$%,& = 0

4- Pressure forces
1
.) = 74.26.A !',&
120° 60 °
FG '
"$',# = $' :;960
4
p 1.4m
FFpxpx22 == pp22A22 cos 60 = 74.27 ´10 ´
3
´ 0.15 2 ´ cos 60 = 656.2 N
4
FG '
"$',& = E' 9?@60
4
p
Fpx 2 = p2 A2 cos 60 = 74.27 ´10 3 ´ ´ 0.15 2 ´ cos 60 ==656
sin60 1136.6
.2 N =
4
!',) 60 °

1
:% 120° 60 °
5- Weight
!*
!D,E = %& = '(&
1.4m
= −1000 x 0.085 x 9.81
= −833.5 +
:& 2

6- Apply momentum balance
"(,# + "$,#,' + "$,#,% + "4,# = 1̇ '2',# − 1̇ %2%,# 1

120° 60 °
"(,# = 1̇ '2',# − 1̇ %2%,# − "$,#,% − "$,#,' − "4,#
"(,# = −2245 − 9896 − 656.2 − 0 = −12797N

F
"(,& + "$,&,' + "$,&,% + "4,& = "5 = 1̇ '2',& − 1̇ %2%,& G
"(,& = 1̇ '2',& − 1̇ %2%,& − "$,&,% − "$,&,' − "4,&
"(,& = −2593 − 0 − 1136.6 − (−833.5) = −2896 N

2

7- Total reaction force and angle
1
"(,# = −12797NN "/! $3$2,# = 12797NN ?!" #$#%
"/! $3$2,& = 2896 N !.,,

"(,& = = −2896 N >
>
"( = ' + "'

"(,& (,# !( !.,+
= (−2896)'+(−12797)'= 13120 N = "/! $3$2
L 2896 2
* = JK@6% = JK@6% ~13 OPQ
M 12797
!. is the force acting ON the fluid.

The force applied to the pipe BY the fluid is the opposite (up and to the right)

LECTURE 15

TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS on a drain
A large pipe drains into a lake. The final section includes a cylindrical pipe with an
entry diameter of 1m tilted θ1 = 15 º into a wider diffuser (2m in diameter) tilted
θ2 = 45 º. The volume of this section is 4 m3 and the inlet pressure is P1 = 116052
Pa. The flow rate is 1 m3/s. What is the force sustained by the support ?
y
y
DRAIN PIPE
DRAIN PIPE
x
x
1.5 m
1.5 m θ2
θ2
θ1
θ1
POOL
POOL LAKE

!!
!!
1- Continuity
!! = !" = 1m3/s
!"
%̇ ! = %̇ " = & !"
""
= 1000 . 1 = 1000 )*/s
2- Velocities
## 1 +
!# = = $ = 1.27
$# &1 ,
4
#$ 1 +
!$ = = $ = 0.32
$$ &2 ,
4

!!
!!
!! "!
!" !#,& = !# cos 2# = 1.27 cos 15 = 1.23m/s

""
!#,' = ! sin 2# = 1.27 sin 15 = 0.33m/s
!" !$,& = !$ cos 2$ = 0.32 cos 45 = 0.23m/s
"" !$,' = !$ sin 2$ = 0.32 sin 45 = 0.23m/s

!!
3- Momentum change
!! Change in Momentum in X-Direction
"̇ $#$,& − "̇ ###,& =

!"
1000 0.23 − 1000(1.23) =
""
−1000 -
Change in Momentum in Y-Direction
"̇ $#$,' − "̇ ###,' =

1000 0.23 − 1000(0.33) =
−100 -

"! 4- Pressure forces
"!
)#!
We need to draw the pressure forces in
)$
all the inlets and the outlets
)#"
"" ##!
"!
71$
.(# = /#0# = 116052 = 91147-
4
.(#,& = /# 0#cos 4# = .(#,' = /# 0#sin 4# =
= 91147 cos 15 º = 88041- = 91147 sin 15 º = 23590-

"! 4- Pressure forces
"!
)#!
)$
)#"
"" ##!
"!
72$
.($ = /$0$ = 101325 = 318322-
4
.($,& = −/$ 0$cos 4$ = .($,' = −/$ 0$sin 4$ =
= −318322 cos 45 º = −225087- = −318322 cos 45 º = −225087-

"! 5- Weight
"!
)#!
)$
)#"
""
#$
.*,& = 0 .*,' = >?@ =
= 1000 . 5 . 9.81 = −39240 -

"! 6- Apply momentum balance
)#!
)$
)#"
""
In the X direction .*,& + .(#,& + .($,& + .+,& = "̇ $#$,& − "̇ ###,&
.+,& = "̇ $#$,& − "̇ ###,& − .*,& − .(#,& − .($,& =
.+,& = −1000 − 0 − 88041 − −225087 = 136046-

"! 6- Apply momentum balance
)#!
)$
)#"
""
In the Y direction .*,' + .(#,' + .($,' + .+,' = "̇ $#$,' − "̇ ###,'
.+,' = "̇ $#$,' − "̇ ###,' − .*,' − .(#,' − .($,' =
.+,' = −100 − (−39240) − 23590 − −225087 = 240637-

)+ !!
7- Total reaction force and angle
"
)%& '())* " !!
#.,, = 136046 +
!" #.,- = 240637+

""
.' 240.6
B = CDCE = CDCE = FG. H °
.& 136
.+ = 136.0$ + 240.6$ = JKF. LM NO
-# is the reaction force from

the walls, acting on the fluid.
The force acting on the walls -$% &'(() or the #%& '())*,, = −136046 +
supports is the opposite of the reaction force -# . #%& '())*,- = −240637+

TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS on a split
A pipe of 10cm in diameter carries oil 890 kg/m3 with pressure P1 = 2
bar. The flow is split in two before discharging to atmosphere in points
2 and 3. The flow rate Q1 = 15.7 l/s and Q3 = 3.14 l/s. Calculate the
force acting on the split. You can neglect the weight of the fluid.
() 3
!) = 4&'
1
2
!" = 10&' !, = 8&'

)#,
!,
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!" )#!
!!
)#"
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
Draw all velocities and all pressure forces in all inlets and outlets. In this case
there is one inlet 1, and two outlets 2 and 3, each with their own mass flow rate,
their own momentum flow, and their own velocity, and their own pressure force
We can write the general force balance as
.(#,& + .($,& + .(,,& + .+,& = "̇ $#$,& + "̇ ,#,,& − "̇ ###,&
.*,' + .(#,' + .($,' + .(,,' + .+,& = "̇ $#$,' + "̇ ,#,,' − "̇ ###,'

)#,
!,
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!" )#!
!!
)#"
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
Calculate all flow rates:
.! = 15.71/3 ." = ./ − .! = 15.7 − 3.14 = 12.56 1/3 ./ = 3.14 1/3

)#,
!,
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!" )#!
!!
)#"
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
Calculate all velocities:
!!,, = 4.! ⁄56!" !",, = 4." ⁄56"" !/,, = 0

!!,- = 0 !",- = 0 !/,- = 4./ ⁄56/"
Calculate all pressure forces:
##!,, = 7! 8! ##",, = −7" 8" ##/,, = 0

##!,- = 0 ##",- = 0 ##/,- = −7/ 8/

)#,,/
!,,/
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!",. )#!,.
!!,.
)#",.
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
Calculate all velocities:
!!,, = 4×15.7 × 100/ ⁄50.1" = 2:/3 !",, = 4×12.56 × 100/ ⁄50.08" = 2.5:/3
!/,- = 4×3.14× 100/ ⁄50.04" = 2.5:/3
Calculate all pressure forces:

50.1" 1 1
50.08"
##!,, = 2×10 × = 1570.8+ ##",, = −1.01325×10 × = −509.3+
4 4
1
50.04"
##/,- = −1.01325×10 × = −127.3+
4

)#,,/
!,,/
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!",. )#!,.
!!,.
)#",.
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
.(#,& + .($,& + .(,,& + .+,& = "̇ $#$,& + "̇ ,#,,& − "̇ ###,&
.+,& = "̇ $#$,& + "̇ ,#,,& − "̇ ###,& −.(#,& −.($,& − .(,,&
.+,& = 11.18×2.5 − 0 − 13.97 ×2 − 1570.8 − (−509.3) − 0
.+,& = −1061.5 -

)#,,/
!,,/
3
!, = 4&'
1
2
!",. )#!,.
!!,.
)#",.
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
.(#,' + .($,' + .(,,' + .+,' = "̇ $#$,' + "̇ ,#,,' − "̇ ###,'
.+,' = "̇ $#$,' + "̇ ,#,,' − "̇ ###,' −.(#,' −.($,' − .(,,'
.+,' = 0 + 2.76×2.5 − 0 − 0 − 0 − (−127.3)
.+,' = 134.2 -

)#,,/
!,,/
3
)+
!, = 4&'
" "
)%& '())*
1
2
!",. )#!,.
!!,.
)#",.
!" = 10&' !* = 8&'
3-The force on the walls is the opposite to FR

.+,& = −1061.5 -
.-. /0112,& = 1061.5 -
.+,' = 134.2 -
.-. /0112,' = −134.2 -
#- 134.2
= = >?>@ = >?>@ = A. B °
#, 1061.5
##$ %&''( = 134.2" + 1061.5" = EFGH. H I

LECTURE 16

FLUID MECHANICS A Conservation of
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS Energy – Bernoulli Eq
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• Consider the pipe below. We draw a volume of
control containing all the fluid from 1 to 2. Energy The 1st law of
comes into it with the fluid flowing in at point 1, and thermodynamics:
exits with the outlet flow at point 2. This is a fairly
simple one. More complex ones involving fittings, ∆" = 0
contractions, pumps are covered on Topics 4 and 5.
1
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
" Density (kg/m3) #" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
!!" = !#$%
!&'()* + $+, = !-.*()* + %+,
">0 "<0
W<0 W>0
1
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

STEADY FLOW ASSUMPTION – MASS ELEMENT
∆' = )∆*
̇
In time Δ( , a mass ∆* enters the VC at In steady flow, during the same time
(1) carrying a certain amount of energy. Δ( , an equivalent amount, ∆*, exits
the VC at (2) carrying certain energy.
1
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

ENERGY WITH THE INLET FLOW - !!"#$%
1
INLET !&'()* = !+,-,/+ !012,/ + !3-2,/

!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3) .#$
#! Velocity (m/s) !&'()* = )∆*
̇ +)∆*
̇ + ,+ + )∆*
̇ - .+
$! Height (m) ,
&̇ ! Mass flow rate (kg/s)
Kinetic Energy: Potential Energy: Internal Energy:

This energy (i.e the The energy by virtue of its The energy contained the
ability to do work) by position in the gravitational fluid internal structure in the
virtue of the fluid field. It is equivalent to the form of the fluctuation of its
motion. It is proportional work that is required to raise atoms/molecules. It is
to the average velocity u the fluid to a height above proportional to temperature
squared an (arbitrary) datum level. and specific heat capacity C

ENERGY WITH THE OUTLET FLOW - !&'%#$%
!" Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
!-.*()* = !+,-,4+ !012,4 + !3-2,4

#" Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
&̇ " Mass flow rate (kg/s)
.$$
OUTLET !-.*()* = )∆*
̇ +)∆*
̇ + ,, + )∆*
̇ - .,
,
!"
Kinetic Energy: Potential Energy: Internal Energy:

This energy (i.e the The energy by virtue of its The energy contained the
ability to do work) by position in the gravitational fluid internal structure in the
virtue of the fluid field. It is equivalent to the form of the fluctuation of its
motion. It is proportional work that is required to raise atoms/molecules. It is
to the average velocity u the fluid to a height above proportional to temperature
squared an (arbitrary) datum level. and specific heat capacity C

WORK DONE BY THE FLUID - "( & ")
1
§ At (1) the fluid has to do work to get in the VC:

INLET
5! = −8Δ9 = −:! ;! <! Δ(
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3) using >̇ = ?;! <! , we can re-write as
#! Velocity (m/s)
$!
:!
Height (m) 5! = −>̇ Δ(
&̇ ! Mass flow rate (kg/s) ?
1 § At (2), the fluid has to do work to get out of the VC:

 Dt = rADx
m
:"
5" = >̇ Δ(
u ?
u
∆'
§ So, there is a certain amount of work on our VC:
:! :"
Dx 5% = −>̇ Δ( + >̇ Δ(
? ?
OTHER SOURCE OF WORK - "*
§ Inside the VC, we may have a sources of mechanical energy
(e.g. a pump moving the fluid). For now, let call any other
work done on the fluid “mechanical work” /(
5& = >Δ(
̇ A&
1
Pump: Puts work into
the fluid W<0
Turbine: Extracts work
INLET from the fluid W>0
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

HEAT EXCHANGE - #()
§ Heat may also enter or exit the volume § When is very small (2) = 0), the
of control through is boundaries. It is system is called “adiabatic”.
written as function of a specific heat 0).
2) = 5Δ7̇ 0)
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
" Density (kg/m3)
#! Velocity (m/s)
2 $" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

THE STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
!!"#$% + # = !&'%#$% + %() + %*
&!"
§ Energy flowing into the volume of control, !!"#$% = $∆&
̇ '"
+ $∆&
̇ ' (( + $∆&
̇ *) +(
&"
§ Energy flowing out the volume of control, !*&%#$% = $∆&
̇ + $∆&
̇ ' (' + $∆&
̇ *) +'
'
+! +"
§ Work done by the fluid entering and exiting, ,) = −$Δ&
̇ ,
+ $Δ&
̇ ,
§ Net mechanical work done by fluid. ,- = $Δ&

̇ 1-
§ Heat exchanged with the environment, / = $Δ&
̇ 0('
§ Substituting and gathering indices gives:
2(' 2'' 4' 4(

$Δ&
̇ + '(( + *+( + $Δ&0
̇ (' = $Δ&
̇ + '(' + *+' + $Δ&
̇ − + $Δ&
̇ 1-
2 2 5 5
:! <!" :" <""

+ + C!! = + + C!" + D E" − E! − F!" + A&
? 2 ? 2

SFEE - STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
:) =)* :* =**
+ + ?@) = + + ?@* + A B* − B) − 0)* + D(
; 2 ; 2
The energy of the The energy The energy that The net energy The net work
fluid in a point 1 contained in the
upstream of a flow has been used in exiting the fluid done by the fluid
given by its fluid by its new increasing the (negative) as heat between 1 & 2
pressure its velocity pressure, velocity fluid temperature between 1 & 2 (e.g. in a turbine)
and its elevation and elevation.
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

SFEE - STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION
:) =)* :* =**
+ + ?@) = + + ?@* + ℰ+,-- − 0)* + D(
; 2 ; 2
The energy of the The energy Energy Losses” The net energy The net work
fluid in a point 1 contained in the
upstream of a flow fluid by its new (used by friction to exiting the fluid done by the fluid
given by its
pressure, velocity increase the fluid (negative) as heat between 1 & 2
pressure its velocity between 1 & 2 (e.g. in a turbine)
and its elevation and elevation. temperature)
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

IDEAL BERNOULLI EQUATION
:) =)* :* =**
+ + ?@) = + + ?@* + A. B* − B) − 0)* + D(
; 2 ; 2
The energy of the The energy NO LOSSES

fluid in a point 1 ADIABATIC NO SOURCE OF
contained in the WORK
upstream of a flow fluid by its new (F = G)
given by its
pressure its velocity pressure, velocity e.g. pumps or
and its elevation and elevation. turbines
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH ENERGY LOSSES (NON-IDEAL)
:) =)* :* =**
+ + ?@) = + + ?@* + ℰ+,-- − 0)* + D(
; 2 ; 2
The energy of the The energy Energy Losses”

fluid in a point 1 ADIABATIC NO SOURCE OF
contained in the WORK
upstream of a flow fluid by its new (used by friction to (F = G)
given by its increase the fluid
pressure its velocity pressure, velocity e.g. pumps or
and its elevation and elevation. temperature) turbines
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

IDEAL BERNOULLI NON-IDEAL BERNOULLI
H/ J0/ H0 J00 H/ J0/ H0 J00

+ + LM/ = + + LM0 + + LM/ = + + LM0 + ℰ+,--
I K I K I K I K
In a steady incompressible and adiabatic In a steady incompressible and adiabatic flow
flow under no mechanical work, the under no mechanical work, the energy contained
energy contained in the fluid flow given in the flow given by its pressure, velocity and
by its pressure, velocity and elevation elevation reduces downstream by energy loss +
remains constant between any two points. due to skin and form losses.
INLET
!" Pressure (kPa)
!! Pressure (kPa)
"" Density (kg/m3)
"! Density (kg/m3)
#" Velocity (m/s)
#! Velocity (m/s)
$" Height (m)
OUTLET
!"
z=0

BERNOULLI EQUATION
SPECIFIC ENERGY, HEADS OR PRESSURE
+! .!" +" .""

+ + 01! = + + 01" + 3
["/$%] , 2 , 2
x 1/# x ρ
4# 7$# 4$ 7$$
+ + 9# = + + 9$ + :%
['] 56 86 56 86
, .!" ,.""
+! + + ,01! = +" + + ,01" + Δ+&
[()] 2 2

%) )))
["] + + +) + ℎ#
&' 2'
Static Head
Dynamic Head
Hydrostatic Head
Total or
'* +**
Stagnation +
() 2)
+ -* + Head ℎ+
Loss
Head

&)))
[P%] %) + + &'+) + Δ%#
2
Static Pressure
Dynamic Pressure
Hydrostatic Pressure
Total or ?+**
Stagnation '* +
2)
+ ?C-* + Pressure
Δ'+
Losses
Pressure

LECTURE 17

FLUID MECHANICS A Applying Bernoulli
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS to a vertical pipe
Water (!! = 1000 kg/m3) flows from a pressurized tank to a vertical pipe.
Water discharges to the atmosphere at point (C). The pressures at points (S) and
(B) are PS= 22150 gauge and PB = 20000 Pa gauge. DB = 0.2 m and h = 0.7.
You may neglect any energy losses. Calculate:
(a) Volumetric flow rate through the system
(b) %" (diameter of the pipe from B to C). D
(%
ℎ$%
P"
DC ℎ'$
S
(% ($ ℎ
$% ℎ&'
P"
C ℎ'$
S B
($
(&ℎ&'
B
(&

D
(%
ℎ$%
A) Columetric flow rate through the system. P"
DC ℎ'$
S
(% ($ ℎ
0 $% ℎ&'
P"
&# (#$ &% (%$ S
C ℎ'$
+ + *+# = + + *+% ($
B
! 2 ! 2
(&ℎ&'
B
&# − &% (&
(% = 2
!
22150 − 20000
(% = 2× = 2.07 2 /4
1000
6%%$ 3.1416×0.2$ 23
5 = (% = 2.07× = 0.065 = 65 : /4
4 4 4

D
(%
P"
DC
B) !" (diameter of the pipe from (S) to (C)) S
(% ($ ℎ
$%
P"
0 C ℎ'$
0 S B
($
&# (#$ &" ("$ (&ℎ&'
+ + *+# = + + *+"
! 2 ! 2
B
(&
&#
(" = 2 + 2*(+# − +" )
!
&# 22150
(" = 2 − 2*ℎ = 2 − 2 ×9.81×0.7 = 44.3 − 13.7 = 5.522/4
! 1000
'!" 45 0.065
Q = A& (" = 6 (" %" = %" = 4× = 0.122 2
( 6(" 6 5.52

FLUID MECHANICS A Combining Bernoulli
TOPIC 3 – CONSERVATION LAWS with manometers
Water ("# = 1000 kg/m3) flows through a pipe (D1 = 1m) that contracts as described
in the figure below (D2 = 0.6 m, D3 = 0.3m). The pressure in Point 2 is P2 = 100kPa
gauge. A manometer filled with mercury ("$% = 13600 kg/m3) connects Point 1 and
Point 2 and displays ℎ& = 6 cm. The pipe discharges to atmosphere in Point 3. You may
neglect any energy losses through the section. The volumetric flow rate is Q = 0.68 m3/s.
Calculate z3.
3 !#
1 2
!$
!" z3
hm

(1) Bernoulli between 1 and 3 because z3 is the difference in height between them
&) ()$ &* (*$ We know that )( = 0 gauge and

+ + +) = + + +*
!* 2* !* 2* that .' = 0, so we can simplify it
&) ()$ (*$

+ = + +*
!* 2* 2*
(2) We know from continuity that:

45) 4. 0.68
5) = 0.68 = () A) () = = = 0.87 2/4
6%)$ 61$
So:
(* A* = () A) %)$ 1$
(* = $ () = = 9.67 2/4
%* 0.3$
(3) The manometer tell us the value of )'

&) = &$ + !+ *ℎ+ = 100000 + 13600B9.81B0.06 = 108005 &C
Substituting back on Bernoulli:
3 !#
1 2
!$
!" z3
&) ()$ (*$ hm
+ = + +*
!* 2* 2*
108005 0.87$ 9.67$

+ = + +*
1000 . 9.81 2 . 9.81 2. 9.81
108005 0.87$ 9.67$

+* = + − = 11 + 0.04 − 4.76 = 6.282
1000 . 9.81 2 . 9.81 2. 9.81

LECTURE 18
B48BB / B58FB Conservation Laws:

FLUID MECHANICS A Flow regimes -
TOPIC 2 – CONSERVATION LAWS Turbulent vs Laminar
LAMINAR VS TURBULENT FLOW
Open up the tap and the

“glassy” appearance
disappears, giving way to a
rough surface texture and
Water coming slowly an “opaque” appearance –
out of a tap has a this is turbulent flow.
smooth surface and a
“glassy” appearance
– this corresponds to
laminar flow.

SHEAR STRESS IN PIPE FLOW
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid Moving at velocity !
Stationary
Pipe wall Starts with a constant fluid
velocity along the radius (a
flat velocity profile)

Pipe wall
!"#$$ Stationary
!"#$$ Stationary
Pipe wall Imagine staggered
“liquid layers”
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
!"#$$ Stationary
!"#$$ Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
!"#$$ Stationary
!"#$$ Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
!
Moving at velocity !
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
!
Moving at velocity !
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
$%
!=#
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary

!
!
Stationary
Pipe wall
Finishes with a decreasing
fluid velocity along the radius
$% (a parabolic velocity profile).
!=# This will be studied in Topic 4
$&

Pipe wall
Stationary
Stationary
Pipe wall
Known as Laminar Flow
$%
!=#
$&

REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION
Reynolds experiment consisted of a long horizontal glass tube:
• The inlet end of the tube was inside a larger glass tank.
• The outlet end of the tube projected outside the tank .
• The flow through the tube was controlled using a valve.
• A thin filament of dye was introduced into the centre.

Reynolds experiment consisted of a long horizontal glass tube:
• The inlet end of the tube was inside a larger glass tank.
• The outlet end of the tube projected outside the tank .
• The flow through the tube was controlled using a valve.
• A thin filament of dye was introduced into the centre.


1- At a low flow rate in the tube, the dye
filament passes along without being disturbed
Laminar Flow
(the filament highlights a single “streamline”).
2- No macroscopic fluid mixing in the radial

direction. Layers slide past each other smoothly.
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
Laminar Flow

Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
Laminar Flow

Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary

1- At a higher flow rate, this filament starts to oscillate
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
1- At even higher flow rates the oscillations become
unstable and the dye filament breaks up entirely
Pipe wall
Pipe wall
1- Rapid macroscopic fluid mixing in the
radial direction driven by turbulent eddies. Turbulent Flow
2- No more layers sliding past each other. 3- Flow was no longer smooth and glassy,
The individual layers have become eddies. but rough and clearly more opaque.
Pipe wall
Stationary
Stationary
Pipe wall
1- Rapid macroscopic fluid mixing in the
radial direction driven by turbulent eddies. Turbulent Flow
2- No more layers sliding past each other. 3- Flow was no longer smooth and glassy,
The individual layers have become eddies. but rough and clearly more opaque.
Pipe wall
Stationary
Fluid
Stationary
Pipe wall
Laminar Flow ↓↓↓ u low velocities Turbulent Flow ↑↑↑ u high velocities
Parcels of fluid move entirely in The paths of a fluid parcel is

well defined streamlines. no longer ordered, but random.
Since the fluid may be construed For such a flow, we need to use
to be moving in layers or “average” properties such as
laminae, this type of flow is mean velocity.
referred to as Laminar Flow.

REYNOLDS NUMBER
§ The transition from one flow to another Re < 2000 : flow is laminar.
depend on a dimensionless quantity,
now called the Reynolds Number Re. Re >4000 : flow is turbulent.
)%$ 2000 < Re < 40000 : flow is

'( = [−] transitional, it can be laminar or
# turbulent or change back and forth.
Flow velocity, ! [#/%] Fluid density, + [,-/#! ]
Fluid viscosity, ' [(). %] Pipe diameter, .[#]

REYNOLDS NUMBER
§ If we do not look at a pipe, Re is § Re compares the relative magnitude of

defined with a characteristic length inertial and viscous forces
(equivalent hydraulic diameter- Topic 4) High Re ⇒ Inertia dominate
Low Re ⇒ Viscosity dominates.
)%$
'( = [−] § It is a key characteristic. Under geome-
# tric similarity, two flows of different size,
Flow velocity, ! [#/%] Fluid density, + [,-/#! ] different velocity and different
Fluid viscosity, ' [(). %] Pipe diameter, .[#] properties will behave in the exact same
way if they have the same Re

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LECTURE 13

B48BB/B58FB Conservation Laws:

§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time ü Steady Uniform flow

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 2

§ Steady Flow: it does not change in time ü Steady Non-Uniform flow

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 3

ü Non-Steady Uniform flow

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 4

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 5

Consider the pipe below. We define

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 6

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 7

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 8

.& = && '& = &' '' = .'

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 15

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 16

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 17

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 18

2. If it has multiple inlets and outlets

3. Momentum 4̇ 7 is a vector in the direction of 2. You need to

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 19

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 20

": = 36 &/( -.°

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 22

#̇ " = #̇ ! = 70.69 kg/s

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 23

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 24

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 25

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 26

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 27

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 28

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 13 29

B48BB/B58FB Conservation Laws:

∑ "!,# contains many forces :

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 2

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 3

The weight !* has components:

!*,+ = −&1 = −231

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 5

The changes in pressure, weight and

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 6

!( is the reaction force the

!,-.. = −!( is the force & + '& *),*

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 7

1. Including all the forces that are $!,#

acting on the pipe we can write

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 8

1. Substituting the expressions for $!,#

2% 3% cos(6) − 2& 3& cos(6)+ '(,# = 9̇ & :&,# − 9̇ % :%,#

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 9

Calculate the force that is being

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 12

"$,%,& + "$,',& + "4,& + "(,& =1̇ '2',& − 1̇ %2%,&

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 13

6& = 6) = 0.23 &/ /;

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 14

1̇ '2',# − 1̇ %2%,# = :% 120° 60 °

© Heriot-Watt University 2023/2024 B48BB / B58FB- TOPIC 3 – LECTURE 14 15

!,-.. = −!( is the force & + '& ),

.,& = 0 .,' = >?@ =