Patterns of inheritance

Experiment/ lecture date: 03/23/2023

Student name, ID: Aria Foroughi, 2531465

Submitted to: Dersu sezginmert

Introduction:
Allele, the term used to refer to a specific gene copy, is one of two or more versions of a DNA sequence
at a given genomic location called the locus. In other words, a locus is the physical location of an allele
on a chromosome(BBC Bitesize AQA, 2022). Alleles can be divided into two major groups. Firstly,
dominant alleles, which show their full and complete expression in a population. Secondly, the recessive
alleles that don’t produce a trait at all when only one copy is present. In addition, phenotype and
genotype also should be considered key terms in mendelian genetics. A genotype is the collection of
genes in our DNA that determine a certain characteristic. A test cross is a tool for investigating an
organism's genetic makeup. The test cross was initially employed as an experimental mating test to
identify the genotype's allele composition. The genetic make-up of an organism is referred to as its
genotype, and it represents each of the alleles, or gene variants, that the organism carries. To ascertain
if a dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous for a particular allele, a test cross is useful(Goldman,
Michael A. Ph.D. et al., 2014).

The phenotypic results come from the chemical makeup of the DNA. Different genotypes are thought to
exist in organisms with even the slightest gene variation. What’s more, the term "phenotype" refers to
an organism's physical traits, which are the result of the genotype and environment's interaction, and it
is determined by the dominant genes. The phenotype of an organism is its appearance, size, color, and
behavior. On the one hand, blood group, eye color, height, and genetic diseases should be considered as
the genotype of an individual. On the other hand, weight and physique can be mentioned as phenotypes
of organisms (Lanka, 2017).

Moreover, character and trait are two of the key basic biology concepts that we should know. A
character is what makes a collection of creatures unique. Organisms receive them as genes from their
parents. While numerous genes might determine a certain character, a single gene can determine many
different characteristics. A trait is a particular variant of an organism's personality. It can then be
identified as a character state. An organism-specific characteristic is passed down from its parents, and
the environment has an impact on how it manifests. To conclude, the main distinction between
character and trait in genetics is due to their correspondence in the living species, and both help in the
identification of the organisms(Difference between Character and Traits in Genetics, n.d.).

While studying mendelian genetics we often confront punnet square, monohybrid cross, dihybrid cross,
and test cross. A monohybrid cross is the genetic mixing of two homozygous individuals that produce
opposite phenotypes. Dihybrids occur when two different genes with different observable properties
cross. It is a hybrid of two people who are heterozygous for two distinct characteristics. The number of
characteristics being examined in the offspring allows for the distinction between a monohybrid, and a
dihybrid cross. When the parents are homozygous in a monohybrid, a single gene is expected to be
inherited, but in a dihybrid, the parents differ in two distinct traits(Overview On Monohybrid Cross -
Definition & Example, 2021). A punnett square is a table listing all possible outcomes of a genetic cross
between two individuals of known genotypes. Punnett square is a square that has been divided into four
quadrants in its most basic form. At the top of the squares, one genotype per column, all possible
genotypes of the haploid female gametes are listed. On the left side of the square, one genotype is listed
for each row, along with all possible genotypes for the haploid male gametes(36+ Mendel Genetics
Punnett Square Gif - Phiral, n.d.). A pure line breed is a collection of identical individuals that, when
crossed, always result in children with the same phenotype. Only when they are homozygous does this
happen. In other words, true-breeding or pure breeding plants are those that have undergone self-
fertilization for a number of generations so that the qualities in question have remained unaltered. It is
one that produces offspring with the same characteristics when self-pollinated(A Pure Breeding True
Breeding Variety Means_, n.d.)

An experiment in breeding known as a reciprocal cross is used in genetics to investigate the impact of
parental sex on a certain inheritance pattern. All of the parent organisms need to be true breeders for
this experiment to be successful(J. Gai, 2013). In contrast to the test cross, which indicates zygosity, or if
a trait is heterozygous or homozygous, the reciprocal cross determines sex-linked inheritance, or
whether a trait relies on the sex of the parent.

Mendel’s four postulates and laws of inheritance can be divided into four key concepts. the first law is
about unit factors. Heritable factors, now known as genes, determine heritable characteristics. Next law
is about dominant and recessive alleles. One unit factor is dominant over the other, which is referred to
as being recessive, when two dissimilar unit factors that contribute to a single character are present in a
single person. The third rule is the law of segregation which means each egg or sperm cell receives just
one of the two gene copies present in the organism during gamete creation, and the copy assigned to
each gamete is determined at random. Last but not least, the law of independent assortment implies
that unique traits of individuals are caused by distinct genes that are inherited separately(Sirnibas
Kumar, n.d.)

A model organism is one that is researched to improve our comprehension of biological mechanisms.
Model organisms often have the following traits in addition to being well understood they mature
quickly, are simple to control, have a brief lifespan, produce a high number of offspring, and have a
sequenced genome. If at all feasible, model organisms should be non-pathogenic, convenient to
preserve in a lab, and have inexpensive sources. Insights into biological systems at the cell, tissue, organ,
and system levels may be gained via using model organisms. Model organisms are also helpful since they
have biochemical and physiological characteristics with human cells(Twyman, 2002). To sum up, the key
characteristics mentioned above are the most important reasons why we need model organisms and
what is the ideal model organism.

D. melanogaster is a superb model organism due to its wide range of properties. To illustrate, short
lifespan, minimal culturing requirements, anatomical features, rapid generation time, having low cost,
and excellent genetic tools made d. melanogaster a suitable and observable case as a model
organism(Tolwinski, 2017).
Crosses, Results and Calculations:

A statistical technique called the chi-square test is used to compare actual outcomes with predictions.
The goal of this test is to establish if a discrepancy between actual and predicted data is the result of
chance or a correlation between the variables you are researching. The link between our two category
variables may thus be better understood and interpreted with the use of a chi-square test, which is a
great option(Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test_ Uses & Examples - Statistics By Jim, n.d.). In general, null
hypothesis in chi-square test means there is no relationship between categorical variables in the
population. When we reject the null hypothesis it shows we have strong evidence against our null
hypothesis that we can rely on that. Also, failing to reject the null hypothesis means there is not
sufficient evidence in our data. Thus, we cannot reject the null hypothesis. The area beneath this chi-
square distribution's density curve to the right of the test statistic's value is the P-value. If the value of
the chi-square test statistic is high enough to reject the null hypothesis, the chi-square test of
significance's last step. In other words, if your p-value is smaller than the significance level which is 0.05 ,
you reject the null hypothesis(Hopkins, 2018).

1) Autosomal Crosses: 1
a) WI female X ebony, vestigial male:

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2/E

+ 574 9/16 * 1016= 571.5 0.0109
VG 195 3/16* 1016= 190.5 0.1062
E 188 3/ 16 * 1016= 190.5 0.0328
VG, E 59 1/16* 1016 = 63.5 0.3188
Total: 1016 χ2 =0.76

 df= The degree of freedom indicates how many units inside a set may be chosen freely
while adhering to a certain rule governing the set. (df= 4-1= 3)
 χ2 =0.76, and 3df 7.81 (p=0.05)
 H0 = there is no statistically significant difference between the observed frequency and
the expected frequency.
 HA = there is a significant difference between the observed frequency and the expected
frequency.
 so, 0.76< 7.81 (based on chi-square table). The value for x2 of 0.76 does not exceed
the critical value of 7.81 (P = 0.05), so we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
 As we fail to reject the null hypothesis that there was no statistically significant
difference between the observed frequency of variables and the expected
frequency (the 9:3:3:1 ratio) then this supports the theory that phenotypes will be
inherited in the predictable ratios that we calculated from my Punnett square.

b) ebony, vestigial female X WI male:

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2/E

+ 580 9/16 *1042=586.1 0.063
VG 196 3/16* 1042=195.3 0.002508
E 208 3/ 16 * 1042=195.3 0.825
VG, E 58 1/16*1042 = 65.12 0.778
Total: 1042 1042 χ2 =1.67
 df= 4-1= 3
 χ2 =1.67, and 3df 7.81 (p=0.05)
 H0 = there is no statistically significant difference between the observed frequency and
the expected frequency.
 HA = there is a significant difference between the observed frequency and the expected
frequency.
 so, 1.67< 7.81 (based on chi-square table). The value for x2 of 0.76 does not exceed
the critical value of 7.81 (P = 0.05), so we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
  As we fail to reject the null hypothesis that there was no statistically significant
difference between the observed frequency of variables and the expected
frequency (the 9:3:3:1 ratio) then this supports the theory that phenotypes will be
inherited in the predictable ratios that I calculated from my Punnett square.
 If we didn’t ignore sex files, the whole phenotypic ratio and our x2 value will be
changed since the proportions will be changed.

2) X-linked crosses:

a) WT female X white-eyed male

According to the Mendelian principle, the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the F2
generation are 1:2:1 and 3:1, respectively. Mendelian principles also suggest that
whereas White Eye is the recessive one and will only express in the homozygous
condition, Red Eye is the wild type and is dominant, expressing in both the homozygous
and heterozygous form.
A monohybrid cross examines the inheritance of a single feature, such as height,
whereas a dihybrid cross examines the inheritance of two distinct qualities, such as
blossom color and stem length. For instance, in this example we just examined the eye
color. Hence, our test will be monohybrid.

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2/E

+ 746 3/4* 985= 738.75 0.071
W 236 1/4* 985= 246.25 0.426
 Total: 985 985 χ2 =0.5

 df= 2-1=1
 χ2 =0.5, and 1df 3.84 (p=0.05)
 H0 = there is no statistically significant difference between the observed frequency and
the expected frequency.
 HA = there is a significant difference between the observed frequency and the expected
frequency.
 so, 0.5< 3.84 (based on chi-square table). The value for x2 of 0.5 does not exceed
the critical value of 3.84 (P = 0.05), so we fail to reject the null hypothesis of
mendelian inheritance.

b) white-eyed female X WT male

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2/E

+ 445 3/4*945 =708.75 98.150
W 500 1/4*945 =236.25 294.45
 Total: 945 945 χ2 =392.601

 by ignoring sex files, we calculate the χ2 as 392.601.

 df= 2-1= 1
 we can strongly reject the null hypothesis that stated that there will be no relation and
preference between the variables as the p-value from chi-square table and with 0.05
significance level.
 392.601>3.84

According to the X linkage, genotypic ratio comes out to be 1:1:1:1 and phenotypic ratio
comes out to be 1:1. In the case of X linkage, the presence of the allele on the X
chromosome will decide the phenotype and the genotype. It has nothing to do with the
dominant or the recessive type.

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E) (O-E)2/E

Female: + 213 1/4* 945=236.25 2.28
 Male: + 232 1/4* 945=236.25 0.076
Female: W 251 1/4* 945=236.25 0.920
Male: W 249 1/4* 945=236.25 0.688
Total: 945 945 χ2 =3.97

 df= 4-1= 3
 χ2 =3.97, and 3df 7.81 (p=0.05)
 so, 3.97< 7.81 (based on chi-square table). The value for x2 of 4.22 does not exceed the
critical value of 7.81 (P = 0.05), so we fail to reject the null hypothesis.

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