NS REVIEWER

400BC

Democritus
- Greek Philosopher
- Named the smallest pieces of matter “atomos” meaning “not to be cut”
- His theory is that matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever.

Atoms
- Are infinite
- Small
- Different shapes and sizes

 Democritus are not friends with Aristotle and Pluto.

Aristotle and Pluto

- Has a more respected, (and ultimately wrong) theory.
- Aristotle and Pluto believed that Fire, Air, Earth, and Water are matter
- This theory was believed on for 2000 years

1803

Dalton Model
- Chemist John Dalton experimented different ideas of atoms
- English, from England (London/UK)

Dalton Theory
- All elements are atoms
- Atoms are indestructible
- Atoms of the same element are alive

- Atoms of different element are different

- Compound are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements

 Dalton’s theory became one of the most “Foundations of modern Chemistry”

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

1897 Electrons (e-)
- British physicist John Joseph Thomson (J.J Thomson) provided the first hint that atoms are
made of even smaller particles.
- Discovered by using the Cathode Ray Tube

Raisin Bun Model

- Atom as a positively charged sphere with negative charges embedded to balance the
charge
- This was often called the “Plum-pudding” or the “Raisin Bun” theory because the electrons
were scattered like raisins in a raisin bun.
Ernest Rutherford
1920 Proton (P+)
- A physicist from New Zealand and one of the students of J.J Thomson
- He used the Gold-Foil Method
- His experiment was about electrical discharge in the modified Cathode Ray Tube.

 From his experiment he concluded that atoms are mostly empty space with a small
solid positively charged nucleus.

 Cannot be easily removed from nucleus, unlike the atoms that can be transferred.

James Chadwick
1932 Neutron (Neutral)
- Awarded the 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics
- Using Beryllium Foil Experiment

Neils Bohr

- A danish physicist who hypothesizes that there are fixed circular orbits around the nucleus
- Circular orbits where electrons are placed

LEVELS OF ORGANISM

Atoms -> Molecules -> Organelle -> Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ System -> Organism

CARBOHYDRATES * All sugar are carbohydrates / Carbohydrates are not all sugar
- Most common organic molecule
- We get 4 kilo-calories per gram of carb

STRUCTURE - Ring Shape (not always)

FUNCTIONS - Primary energy source our body needs

ELEMENTS - C,H,O (1:2:1 ratio)

MONOMER ( building blocks) - Monosaccharides ( Glucose is most common)

POLYMER - Polysaccharides ( Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and Chitin)

EX: Chocolate, Bread, Pasta, Fruits, Vegetables, (all kinds of plants)

SUGARS THAT MAKE UP CARBS:

Monosaccharides
 Glucose - Chief source of energy for living organism
 Fructose - Also known as “fruits sugar”
 Galactose - Odourless white solid

Disaccharides
 Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose
 Galactose + Glucose = Lactose
 Glucose + Glucose = Maltose

Polysaccharides
 Cellulose - Provides structural support in plants (found in the cell wall). Gives us fiber
 Starch - Used for energy storage in plants.
 Glycogen - Used for energy storage in animals
 Chitin - Found in exoskeletens of arthropods (insects, spiders)

LIPIDS *Hydrophobic
- Fats
- We get 9kcals per gram

STRUCTURE - Long strands of carbon and hydrogen ( called hydrocarbons )

FUNCTION - Store energy , Insulates your body, and make up cell membrane

ELEMENTS - C-H-O

MONOMER - Glycero and 3 fatty acids

POLYMER - Phospholipids, Triglycerides

EX: Steroids, cholesterol, fats, Oils, Nuts, Waxes, and make up part of the cell membrane!

 Saturated
- The bonds between all the carbons are single bonds.
- Solid at room temperature
- Mainly animal fats (bacon grease, lard)

 Unsaturated
- There is at least one double or triple bond between carbons present.
- Liquid at room temperature
- Mainly plant based fats (olive oil, peanut oil) as well as oily fish (Tuna, Sardines)

PROTIENS
- Builds us
- We get 4kcals per gram
- Makes up the structure of living things

FUNCTION - Transport molecules in and out of the cell, Control the speed of chemical
reactions, Used for growth and repair

ELEMENTS - C-H-O-N

MONOMER - Amino Acids (20 different ones)

POLYMER - Proteins (Tons)

EX: hemoglobin in red blood cells, albumin in eggs, enzymes that control reactions in the
body, and antibodies
FOUND IN - Fish, Eggs, Meat

STRUCTURE - “R” groups represent one of the 20 Amino Acids! (so, each amino acid has
something different in that spot)

WHY ARE AMINO ACIDS IMPORTANT:

 When groups of amino acids are joined together a protein is formed

 There are 20 kinds of amino acids

 They consist of a carboxyl group (COOH) and an amino group NH2

 Peptide bonds form between amino acids

(polypeptide = many peptide bonds = protein!)

NUCLEIC ACIDS *These biomolecules are not necessarily from food

FUNCTION - Provides our genetic information, Holds the instructions to make protein

ELEMENTS - C-H-O-N-P

MONOMER - Nucleotides (made up of sugar, phosphate, Nitrogen base: A, T, G, C, or U)

POLYMER - DNA, RNA, and ATP (Genetic Code, Recipe for Protein, and Energy Carrier)

BIG BANG THEORY AND THE FORMATION OF LIGHT ELEMENTS

Physical Science - Branch of natural science that studies non-living things

Big bang Theory - It explains how the elements were initially formed

Nuclear Fusion - It is where two or more atomic nuclei come very close together
and collide at very high speed

Nuclear Fission - it is the process in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
smaller parts

Radioactive Decay - Breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release

of energy

The three cosmic stages

1. Bigbang Nucleosynthesis
2. Stellar Formation and Evolution
3. Stellar Explosion or Supernova

Examples of elements that was formed in Bigbang Nucleosynthesis

1. Hydrogen
a. Deuterium
b. Tritium
i. Are considered as Isotopes
 2. Beryllium
3. Helium

Elements heavier than Beryllium to Iron was formed in the cosmic stage of
Stellar Formation and Evolution

Heavy elements were formed after billions of years

In the first seconds of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis - The surrounding temperature

is at 5.5 billion degrees Celsium

In the first minutes, the sub atomic particles are moving freely and did not come
together.

After 3 minutes later, the surrounding temperature cooled down or

gradually decreases

After that, new atomic nuclei whas formed

The 3 subatomic particles are

1. Protons
2. Neutrons
3. Electrons

ISOTOPES
How to get elements, atomic number, number of protons:
Elements dictates the atomic Number
Atomic number dictates the Number of Protons Example:
Element: Carbon
Atomic number: 6
Number of Protons: 6
Note: Atomic number and protons should always be the same number or value

How to get mass number:

Mass number = Number of Protons + Number of Nuetrons
Example:
Number of protons: 12
Number of Neutrons: 14
12 + 14 = 26
26 is the mass number

How to get the number of neutrons:

Number of neutrons = Mass number - Number of protons Example:
Mass number: 35
Number of protons: 17
35 - 17 = 18
18 is your number of neutrons

How to get the charge:

Charge = Number of protons - Number of electrons Example:
Number of protons: 12
Number of electrons: 14
12 - 14 = -2
Your charge will be -2
Note: Always think that if the protons is larger than the electrons, it would be
positive. If the electrons is larger, the charge will be negative

How to get the number of electrons:

Number of electrons is dependent on the charge and number of protons
Example:
Number of protons: 26
Charge: +3
You will make the positive charge to subtract symbol 26 - 3 = 23
23 is your number of electrons

Another example:
Number of protons: 88
Charge: -5
You will make the negative charge to addition symbol 88 + 5 = 93
93 is the number of electrons