THE STEERING SYSTEM - R2 – 23.

The front wheels of a vehicle are steered so that it moves in the desired direction. The condition and efficiency
of the steering therefore have a major effect on “Road safety”
Purpose of the steering system:
 The steering system is designed to - enable the driver to control and continuously adjust the
steered path of the vehicle.
OR
 Is to control the direction in which a vehicle travels.
A car with manual steering, the driver supplies all the steering effort, then through the steering box and the
linkage, the front wheels are pointed to the Left or Right as desired by the driver.
Steering system requirements:
1. The effort needed to operate the steering – should be as small as possible. (2). The steering –
should be responsive at all times. (3). There should be feedback without too much sensitivity. (4).
The steering system – should promote true rolling motion.
Steering main components:
1. Steering wheel - which the driver controls.
2. Steering box - changes the rotary motion of the steering wheel into straight line motion.
3. Steering linkages - which controls the road wheels direction.
Note:
 Most steering systems were manual – until a few years ago , then Power steering become popular.
 Automobiles – usually do not have full power steering – they have” power – assisted steering” –
which we call “Power – steering”
Types of steering system:
i). Axle beam steering system. (ii). Rack and pinion.
Axle – beam – steering system / stub axle steering:
Main components:
1. Steering box:
The steering gear box - provides the driver with a lever system to enable the driver to exert a large force at the
road wheel with the minimum effort, and to control the direction of the vehicle motion accurately.
 Functions:
1. Provides a gear reduction which makes it easier for the driver to turn the road wheels.
2. Converts rotary movement of the steering wheel into a linear movement at the steering
linkages
Note:
 Lorries and heavy vehicles are often equipped with - servo – assisted steering so that, by using an
auxiliary force the steering can be operated without the number of turns on the steering wheel
being high.
Types of steering box:
1. Worm and sector. (2). Screw and nut. (3). Recirculating ball. (4). Cam and peg. (5). Worm and
roller. (6). Rack and pinion.
Most common in use:
1). Worm and peg. ( 2). Recirculating ball. (3). Rack and pinion
2. Drop arm:
 It is a forged lever-arm which is bolted on to tapered steering box output rocker –shaft. It is splined
onto the rocker shaft.
Function:
 Connects the steering box rocker shaft to the drag link.
3. Drag link arm:
 The drag link connects the drop arm to the steering arm on the stub axle.
4. Steering arms:
 These connect both the drag links and track rod to the stub axle.
5. Track rod:
 This connects the two stub axle to each other via the steering arms.
6. Ball joints:
 The ball joints ( or track rod and drag link ends ) allows relative movement of the linkage as the
steering and suspension operate.
7. Stub axles:
 Each steered road wheel is mounted on a short axle – shaft commonly known as a “stub axle”
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STEERING ANGLES:
The steering geometry of a vehicle is purposely designed with certain steering angles, and these have an
important effect on how the vehicle steers and handles.
Types of steering angles:
1. Camber angle. (2). Castor angle. (3). King pin inclination (KPI) or Steering Axis Inclination
( SAI ). (4).Wheel toe ( Toe-in / Toe-out ).
1. CAMBER ANGLE:
What is camber angle?
 Is the tilting or leaning - “ in or out of the front wheels from the vertical”- when viewed from the
front of the vehicle.
Note:
 The amount of tilt (camber angle) is – ‘measured in few degrees ( initially 1.50 - 20 ) from the
vertical ’, and become to about 40 – 4.50 after being loaded at its max. capacity and cornering around a
turn.
Function:
 Camber angle – makes the road wheels easier to swivel, making the steering lighter and it
counteracts the effect of road camber and road shocks on the steering.
Types of camber angle:
a). Positive camber angle. b). Neutral camber. i). Negative camber.
i). Positive camber angle.
 If the wheel “tilts out” at the top – we speak of a “positive camber” angle.
Note:
 The ” top of the wheel will point out away from the vehicle and vertical axis”.
 Camber angle has every thing to do with the ” increasing contact between the tyre and ground to
improve grip”.
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ii). Neutral / zero camber:
Is used in applications where hard cornering is not common , such as road cars, etc.
 The wheel sits directly parallel with vertical, This zero camber – position puts the full width of the
tyre- tread on the road surface.
 When a tyre is in its Neutral position , the full tyre contact patch is in full contact with the ground
during zero roll situations.
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ii). Negative camber angle
 If the wheel “leans in / tilts in” at the top – the camber angle is “negative camber” angle
This is where the “bottom of the wheel – points out away from the vehicle and vertical axis”.
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Important:
 On many cars, the wheels are given a slight outward tilt when camber is correctly set.
 When the car is loaded and wheels rolling along the road – the “wheels should run straight up and
down in a true vertical position”.
Excessive camber:
Can cause :
 Vehicle to pull to one side.
 The tyre tread to wear on one side – inward or outward.

2. CASTOR ANGLE:
What is caster angle?
  Caster angle – is the angle (measured in degrees) formed by the forward or rearward tilt of the
steering axis from vertical , when viewed from the side of the wheel.
 One of the characteristics of a steering system is that the steered wheels should be able to “self-
centre” after turning a corner.
Note:
 Self – centre - means the steered wheels return to their positions after turning a corner.
Funnction:
 Is to enable the vehicle to return to its straight – ahead motion after cornering .
- Note the term – “Self – centre”
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How castor angle is obtained?
 Castor angle – “ is obtained by tilting the kingpin (KPI) or steering axis inclination (SAI)” or
“the steered wheel pivot axis forward at the bottom in relation to the road surface”
Types of caster angle:
1. Positive castor. 2). Neutral caster. 3). Negative caster.
Positive caster angle:
 The caster angle is positive – when the steering axis tilts backward.
How positive caster is obtained?
 With positive caster , the” upper ball joint is behind the lower ball joint” - (SAI)
Functions ( Positive caster ):
 Aids directional stability.
 Tends to keep the wheels pointed straight ahead.
 It tends to overcome any tendency for the car to wander or steer away from the straight ahead position.
 Increases steering – wheel returnability, - “therefore cars with power – steering often have slight
more positive caster than manual-steering cars.”
Neutral / zero castor angle:
 Neutral / zero castor angle – is when the “upright mounting points are on the same vertical
plane” as each other as well as being on the same vertical plane as the centre line of the hub and
wheel.
Characteristics of Positive and Negative Caster angle:
Positive and Negative caster – have different effects on the actions of the wheels and car body.
 When both front wheels have positive caster, the body leans toward the out side of turn.
 But if the front wheels have Negative caster – the car tends to lean into the turn.
Negative caster angle:
 Caster angle is Negative – when the steering axis tilts forward.
How Negative caster is obtained ?
 The “upper ball joint is ahead of the lower ball joint” ( ASI ).
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Disadvantages of Negative Caster:
 Negative caster – does not aid directional stability.
 Caster also affects the tendency - of the steering wheel to return to its center position after making a
turn. This is called “Returnability”
Note:
 The caster angle – is adjustable (except on some cars with Macpherson struts).
 Caster – has little effect on tyre wear.
Reasons why caster is used:
(i). To maintain direction stability and control. ( ii). To increase steering returnability (feed back).
( iii). To reduce steering effort.
Excessive castor:
Can cause:
1). Steering shimmy. 2). Wobble steering wheel. 3). Heavier steering.
3. WHEEL TOE :
Toe-in and toe – out:
Purpose of toe-in or out:
 Static toe-in or toe-out :-
  is to ensure that the steered wheels run parallel to each other when the vehicle is traveling in a
straight line.
Toe – in:
 Is the amount by which the front – wheel rims are closer together at the front than at the rear
with the wheels in a straight – ahead position when the vehicle is stationary.
 It is measured in millimeters (mm) or degrees.
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Toe – out:
 Is the amount by which the front wheels rims are set farther apart at the front than at the rear.
Or a wheel that has Toe-out – points as it rolls outwards
Note:
 The tyre on a wheel that rolls – with Toe-in or Toe-out will wear rapidly. But if the tyre has toe-in or
toe-out, it is dragged sideways – as it rolls forward.
 The more the Toe-in or Toe-out the tyre has – the more it dragged sideways and the faster it
wears.
Hence:
 Ideally, the wheel rolls straight ahead with neither Toe-in nor Toe-out.
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Toe – Out On Turns ( TOOT ):
When the steering wheel is turned, “ the inner steering arm will move the inner road wheel through a
greater angle than the outer” .
 The difference between them is called “Toe-out on turn”– ( TOOT ) – and is normally between “20
and 30”.
Toe – out on turns – relates to the diverging in the forward direction of the front wheels when the stub axles
are rotated about their kingpins.
 The different between the angles of turn imparted to the front steered wheels gives the
magnitude of the toe-out in degree.
Note:
 The amount of toe- out on turns is obtained by the inclination or set the track-rod arms and will
depend on
(i). The track-rod arm length. (ii). Its angular set. (iii). The track width.
4. KING PIN INCLINATION ( KPI ) OR STEERING AXIS INCLINATION ( SAI ):
In older cars - all steering systems had a King pin – that attached the steering knuckle to a support .
 Then ball joints were adopted , allowing the steering knuckle and steering knuckle support to be
combined into a single part.
 With ball joint, no king pin is used, instead the steering knuckle is supported through ball joints
– by upper and lower control arms or upper and lower wishbonds
 A line drawn through the centres of the ball joints – is called the “the steering axis”
What is steering axis?
 Is the around which the front wheel swings for steering. OR – Is the inward tilt of the ball joint
center lines from the vertical.
Note :
 Steering Axis Inclination (SAI) – is also called “Ball joint inclination” ( on old cars – king pin
inclination – KPI.) that have king pin.
 SAI or KPI – is measured in degrees, between the vertical and a line drawn through the centres
of the ball joints – when viewed from the front of the vehicle.
Functions
 King pin inclination or SAI - provides a self - centring action.
 Combined with camber angle – king pin inclination ( KPI ) - reduces the effect of braking on
steering,
 Makes the steering easier.
 Reduces wheel bearing road.
Excessive KPI:
 Heavier steering.
 Wear on the inner edge of the tyre tread.
Steering ball joints:
 To transmit the movement of the steering gear box to each stub axle, a number of ball joints are
required.
Purpose:
 The purpose of the ball joint - is to link together two components but at the same time allow both
angular and rotational movement between them.
5. INCLUDED ANGLE:
In front end geometry, the included angle is the “ Camber angle – plus the SAI / KPI angle”.
 This can be written as : Included angle = Camber + SAI / KPI.
 The included determines the point of intersection of the tyre centre line – with the steering axis or ball
joint centre line.
 This point determines whether the rolling wheel tends to Toe-in or Toe-out.
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POWER ASSISTED STEERING (PAS):
Purpose:
 To make steering as easy as possible many vehicles are now fitted with power-assisted steering
(PAS).
Functional Requirements:
1. The system should reduce the amount of driver effort needed to the steering wheel.
2. The system should be “Fail Safe” – this enables the driver to steer the vehicle safely if a fault develops
in the power assistance.
3. The system should be perfectly be speed sensitive, it must give maximum assistance at low speed but
reduce it as the vehicle speed rises.
Types of (PAS):
1). Integral type. 2). External Ram (in –line cylinder). 3). Semi – integral type.

Advantages of PAS:
1. Reduction in the number of turns of the steering wheel from lock to lock, i.e. - quicker steering,
especially at high speed.
2. Reduction in effort to be made by the driver, especially during low – speed manoeuring.
3. Reduction of wheel wobble.
4. Increased safety- an extreme road shock or a burst tyre cannot deflect the steering to a dangerous
extent.
5. More responsive and sensitive steering, together with an almost complete absence of steering –wheel
shock and vibration.
Disadvantages:
1. Increased complication , weight, and cost.
2. Increased maintenance.
3. Additional power source required for pressuring fluid or air.
WHEEL ALIGNMENT / TYRE ALIGNMENT:
 Helps the tyres to perform properly and help them last longer, and also improve handling and keep
the vehicle from pulling in one direction or vibrating strangely on the road.
Purpose:
 To ensure that true rolling motion occurs in the straight ahead position – the steered wheels
must be set to run parallel as they rotate.
The need for front – wheel alignment:
 For the front wheels to roll freely and with the minimum of effort, opposite wheels must be
approximately parallel to each other when the vehicle is in motion along a straight path.
Each wheel will want to follow a path perpendicular to its own axis or rotation.
 Front wheel drive vehicles - normally require “ toe-out” – because the wheels pull inward to a
parallel position under power.
 Rear wheel drive vehicles - commonly use “ toe-in ” setting – because the wheels pull back when
the vehicle moves forwards.
How do you know if your wheels need alignment ?
 Your vehicle may need an alignment if you notice any of the following:
 i). The car is pulling to one side of the road. (ii). The tyre treads are wearing out prematurely or
unevenly. (iii). The tyres are squealing.
Why is wheel alignment important ?:
 Is essential to avoid unnecessary wear on the tyres , steering , suspension , and brakes.
What happens if wheels are not aligned ?
 Driving a vehicle with improper wheel alignment can cause :
i). Uneven wear on the tyres.
Note: - If the problem is not corrected soon enough a vehicle tyres – could suffer “premature wear and
tear – making them unsafe”.
Adjustment of front wheel ( Wheel alignment ):
Preparations needed before doing wheel alignment:
i). Place the vehicle on a level surface- to ensure that the alignment readings are accurate.
ii). Search the Manufacturer’s specifications.
iii). Check the tyres pressure – ensure all tyres are inflated to the Manufacturer’s recommended level.
iv). Check the tyres for wear and tear.
v). Make sure the steering wheel is in a straight position – it should neither be turned to Left nor Right.
vi). Inspect front wheel bearings for wear.
Method of adjustment:
 The method of adjustment consists of - “increasing or decreasing the length of the track- rod or
tie-rods until the correct track – alignment setting is obtained”.
Performing Wheel alignment:
 To do this – ‘track rod and lock nuts are slackened and the track rod is rotated to screw-in or out
of the track rod end’.
 On Independent Front Suspension ( IFS ) - arrangements – it is essential that both short track rods
(tie-rod ends) are adjusted to the same length to maintain correct toe-out on turn.
 With one piece track rod (HGV) – care must be taken to align the track rod ends before final locking.
Effects of incorrect wheel alignment:
Incorrect wheel alignment causes “ abnormal tyre wear”,
 Wear on one side of the tread.
 Feathering of the tread.
RACK AND PINION STEERING:
Rack and pinion steering gear is fitted to many modern vehicles.
 The steering wheel turns the pinion on the end of the steering shaft, which slides the toothed rack to
and fro in the housing.
 Tie rods, sealed by gaiters , link the rack to the wheel assemblies.
Temperature tyre spreads:
 Too much camber - Excessively hot on the inside and coolest on the outside.
 Too little camber - The outside is the hottest and the inside is the coolest.
 Over inflated – Centre has the higher temperature while both outside and inside of the tyre is cooler
 Under inflated tyre –Both inside and outside of has higher temperature while centre is lowest
temperature.
STEERING SYSTEM TROUBLES:
1 Car wander:
What is car wander?
 Is the tendency of a car to veer away from a straight path without driver control.
Frequently steering wheel movements are necessary to prevent the car from weaving from one side of the road
to the other.
Example: - The driver must continually move the steering wheel back and forth – to keep the car on the
right side of the road in the proper lane of traffic.
Causes of car wander:
i). Low or uneven tyre pressure. ii). Improper front – wheel alignment. iii). Binding or excessive play
in the linkage or the steering gear.
2. Hard steering:
If hard steering occurs, it is probably due to excessively tight adjusts in the steering gear, or the linkages.
Causes of hard steering:
 i). Low or uneven tyre pressure. ii). Abnormal friction in the steering gear , linkage, or at the ball
joints. iii). Improper wheel or frame alignment.
Note: - If the car has Power steering , its failure – causes then steering system to revert to straight mechanical
operation.
Note: - A much greater steering effort is then required from the driver. If this happens , the power steering
gear and the pump- should be checked.
3. Car pulls to one side during normal driving:
Sometimes a car pulls to one side , so that force must constantly be applied to the steering wheel to
maintain straight – ahead travel.
Causes: - i). Uneven tyre pressure. ii). Uneven caster or camber angle. iii). A tight wheel bearing. iv).
Uneven springs. v). Uneven torsion – bar adjustment. Vi). Wheel not tracking.
4. Car pulls to one side when braking:
The most likely cause of pulling to one side – when braking – is grabbing brakes. This happens when the
brake lining on the shoes or pads – become soaked with oil or brake fluid.
 When brake shoes are unevenly or improperly adjusted, or when a stuck wheel cylinder or caliper
piston – causes the shoes at one wheel to apply less braking on the side of the axle.
5. Sway on turn:
Sway of the car body on turns or on rough roads – may be due to a loose stabilizer bar , or sway bar.
 Weak or sagging springs – could also cause excessive sway.
Check: - Stabilizer attachments to the frame , axle housing , or suspension arms should be checked.
Maintenance Tips of steering system:
1 Maintain good fluid level:
 Power steering fluid or hydraulic fluid – is the key to an effective power steering system, thus it is
important to ensure the correct fluid level is maintained, and also clear of any dirt.
2. Change filter regularly.
 To ensure that the hydraulic fluid is kept clean and free of contaminants , change filter regularly.
3. Conduct inspection of the power steering pump and other steering parts:
 Within a power steering system, the power steering pump – is driven by a belt , By pumping hydraulic
fluid, this pump provides the pressure the system needs to supply power to the steering wheels and
turn the vehicle’s wheels. Ensure that the belt tension is at the correct tension.
4. Check /monitor the High and Low pressure hoses:
 Hoses are essential for helping the hydraulic fluid to flow smoothly throughout the power steering
system. Check both High and Low pressure hoses for cracks, wear, and other forms of damages.
5. Check the free play of the steering wheel:
 Examine the free play of the steering wheel – if it is excessive adjust.
6. Check the ball joints and swivel joints:
 For excessive free play or damaged dust covers.
7. Check wheel alignment:
 Perform pre - wheel alignment checks.

Prepared by:
S.M. Magwata.