Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

State of the Art in Residential Solar Hot Water Infrastructure: Toward Sustainable
Energy
--Manuscript Draft--

Manuscript Number:

Article Type: Review Article

Section/Category: Solar Heating and Cooling

Keywords: Solar-energy; solar collector; hot water; nanofluids; sustainable development

Corresponding Author: Md. Zaved Hossain Khan

Jashore University of Science and Technology
Jashore, -Jessore BANGLADESH

First Author: Md. Rashid Al-Mamun

Order of Authors: Md. Rashid Al-Mamun

Md. Zaved Hossain Khan

Sahina Kader

Mohamed Aly Saad Aly, PhD

Md. Shahinoor Islam, PhD

Abstract: In this literature survey, the current solar water-heating (SWH) systems are reviewed
with their design, development of experimental apparatus, thermal performance, and
applications. In recent years, SWH systems had extensive applications in not only
domestic but also industrial sectors. Several countries around the world have
experienced growth in SWH even without public incentives. For the improvement of
thermal effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, extensive research has been performed
in recent years. In addition, different heat transfer mechanisms, collector effectiveness
testing, storage-container, absorber plate with nanofluids, and heat exchangers
variability etc. have been studied on the development of the performance of SWH
systems. Recently, there are numerous literature surveys that focus on the
understanding of the collector preparation, production, thermal efficiency analysis,
applications, and scale of the solar water-heating.

Suggested Reviewers: Syed Imdadul Hossain, PhD

Researcher, Universita degli Studi di Firenze Laboratorio Europeo di Spettroscopie
Non Lineari
syedimdadul.hossain@uniba.it

Md. Ikram Hossain, PhD

Postdoc, Tohoku University: Tohoku Daigaku
hossain.mohammad.ikram.p6@dc.tohoku.ac.jp

M. A. Aziz, PhD
Postdoc, DGIST: Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology
aziz1234@dgist.ac.kr

Opposed Reviewers:

Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation
Cover Letter

Cover Letter
Dear Honorable Editor
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
Elsevier

We wish to submit our manuscript titled “State of the Art in Residential Solar Hot Water
Infrastructure: Toward Sustainable Energy” for publication in Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews.

We are aware about the Elsevier's ethical requirements and declaring that this article has
not been published previously and not under consideration in any form elsewhere.

In this review, we have summarized the most recent studies on SWH, including model
design, structural development, energy hybridization etc. It is also aimed to examine the
efficiency of the solar-energy system. An in-depth discussion on the efficiency of different
solar-collectors with their design is also included.

In this literature survey, the current solar water-heating (SWH) systems are reviewed with
their design, development of experimental apparatus, thermal performance, and
applications. In recent years, SWH systems had extensive applications in not only domestic
but also industrial sectors. Several countries around the world have experienced growth in
SWH even without public incentives. For the improvement of thermal effectiveness and
cost-effectiveness, extensive research has been performed in recent years. Therefore, we
have reviewed more than 150 papers related to this work.

We believe this finding can be beneficial in wide research fields including renewable energy,
sustainable development goad, environment, material and mechanical engineering etc. It can attract
broad attentions and contribute to real applications. Due to such an importance, we believe this
article should be published in a prestigious journal like Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews.

Sincerely,

Dr. Md. Zaved Hossain Khan

Associate Professor
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
Jashore University of Science and Technology
Jashore 7408, Bangladesh
Phone: +8801763387455
e-mail: zaved.khan@just.edu.bd
Manuscript Click here to view linked References

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State of the Art in Residential Solar Hot Water
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9 Infrastructure: Toward Sustainable Energy
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M. R. Al-Mamunǂa,b, M. Z. H. Khanaǂ*, S. Kaderb, M. Aly Saad Alyc, M.
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14 S. Islamb
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a
16 Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Jashore University of Science and Technology, Jashore 7408,
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18 Bangladesh
19 b
20 Dept. of Chemical Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka
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1000, Bangladesh
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23 c
Department of New Biology, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science & Technology (DGIST),
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25 333 Techno jungang-daero, Daegu 42988, Korea
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27 *Corresponding author: Dr. M. Z. H. Khan, Email: zaved.khan@just.edu.bd
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Abstract
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36 In this literature survey, the current solar water-heating (SWH) systems are reviewed with their
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38 design, development of experimental apparatus, thermal performance, and applications. In recent
39
40 years, SWH systems had extensive applications in not only domestic but also industrial sectors.
41
42 Several countries around the world have experienced growth in SWH even without public
43
44 incentives. For the improvement of thermal effectiveness and cost-effectiveness, extensive
45
research has been performed in recent years. In addition, different heat transfer mechanisms,
46
47 collector effectiveness testing, storage-container, absorber plate with nanofluids, and heat
48
49 exchangers variability etc. have been studied on the development of the performance of SWH
50
51 systems. Recently, there are numerous literature surveys that focus on the understanding of the
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53 collector preparation, production, thermal efficiency analysis, applications, and scale of the solar
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55 water-heating.
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60 Keywords: Solar-energy; solar collector; hot water; nanofluids; sustainable development
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Both authors contributed equally in this review paper
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6
7 1. Introduction
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9 At present the whole world is now moving towards the application of renewable energy sources
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11 due to the shortage of fossil fuel. The renewable energy is considered as one of the most promising
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alternative energy resources, sustainable, and eco-friendly such as solar energy, wind energy, wave
14 energy, tidal energy, hydropower, biomass and bio-energy, geothermal energy etc. Among those,
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16 SWH systems have good solar radiation potential, thus they are very commonly used systems and
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18 they are extensively utilized in many countries. Solar water-heating is a non-complicated and
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20 efficient method of using solar-energy for household purposes. In SWH system, an instance solar-
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22 energy is inverted to thermal energy and then sent to a transmission media like water [1]. Due to
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24
the rising need of global energy demand in one third and the growing price of petroleum products
25 (such as crude oil, coals, and natural gas), solar-energy is an appealing source of sustainable energy
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27 that can be utilized in heating water for household and commercial applications [2-6]. For an
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29 average-income family, almost fifth the overall energy consumption goes for heating water. SWH
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31 system is the less expensive and most effectively reasonable clean energy accessible to residents
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33 that may supply the required hot water for home usage that can be operated in any climate and has
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no impact on environment. [7-12]. Warm water rising by a thermosiphon solar water heater is
36 known as natural convection that circulates water through the storage-container and the solar-
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38 collector. SWH systems use direct- heating by the collector and have been employed by the effect
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40 of thermosiphon as the principle heating component [13-15]. In this case, if the hot water removal
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42 pattern is changed, a thermosiphon stimulated current is generated due to the incident solar
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44 radiation. A thermosiphon SWH system uses a fuzzy model to estimate the temperature of the
45 outlet water was recently reported [16]. The diverse applications such as space heating, air
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47 conditioning, power generation, and home water-heating systems are being harnessed by utilizing
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49 solar and alternative energy resources [17]. The solar thermal collectors known as photovoltaic
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51 (PV) thermal technology and use photovoltaic cells as an essential part of the absorber plate, they
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53 generate at the same time electrical and thermal energies [18-19]. Various Indian stations reported
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55 on the development of solar water heaters that can supply 100 L (liter) of hot water at an average
56 temperature of 50-70°C that can be continuously obtained and used overnight [20-21]. The
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58 worldwide installed solar-collector area is now anticipated to be 58 km2 (square kilometer). For
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60 instance in Lebanon, 5% of houses employ gas, wood, solar and other energy sources, 25% use
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4 diesel and 70% use electricity to heat water [9, 22-23]. In Jordan, the total energy demand for solar
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6 water heater was 1.7% in 2002 [24]. On the contrary, in Europe the installed solar-collector was
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8 about 100 km2 in 2010 and the major share came from wood, while in 2002, the share of solar-
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10 energy was only about 1.1%. In 2015, the total energy consumptions for households, heating and
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12 hot water purposes were 70.6% that was lower than developing countries [25]. By increasing this
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percentage, the current total petroleum products related carbon dioxide emission of 61.7 metric
15 ton and the emission rate of 0.87 ton per capita will be decreased. In Turkey, a collector surface
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17 area of 11 million m2 (square meter) was installed with a hot water capacity of 0.4 Mt (metric ton)
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19 in 2005 [26], while in Austria, Greece, and Cyprus were 0.23 m2 in 2002, 0.28 m2 in 2002 and
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21 0.82 m2 in 2003, respectively [27-28]. The present manufacturing capacity in Turkey for the solar
22
23 heater was one million m2 per year and the market development was anticipated to continue
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growing, therefore the installation of collector quality and quantity were in continuous increase
26 [29]. In Taiwan, the installation rate by household was about 4.32% in 2005 [30] and the average
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28 yearly installation rate between 1995 and 2000 was 0.2% in Greece, 1.8% in the UK, 3.4% in
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30 Netherland, 4.0% in Italy, 5.05 in France, 5.2% in Germany and 6.6% in Spain [31]. According to
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32 an experimental study, the solar household water-heating unit can supply yearly heat recovery of
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34 789 kWh (kilo watt) of electrical enegry [32]. SWH system performance is extremely reliant on
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its optical and geometrical properties, orientation, geographical position, macro and microclimate
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37 conditions, parameters related to the operation mode and the life time [29, 33-38]. The design and
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39 experimental performance of the water current in the collector was created by a natural circulation
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41 that was depended on the current rate through the collector or the incident solar radiation.
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43 Furthermore, it exhibits optimum current rate of 100 g/s.m2 (gram per second and square meter)
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45 [39] and evaluates the influence of the thermal performance of a solar household water-heating
46 system [40]. An experimental performance of a flat plate collector was conducted with laminar
47
48 current to investigate the current circulation within the collector [41]. The performance of an
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50 annual simulation was obtained to examine the thermal performance of a direct- solar household
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52 hot water system run under numerous controlled plans [42]. It was reported that it gives a superior
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54 current rate which results in advanced collector effectiveness factor.
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56 In this review, we summarise the most recent studies on SWH, including model design, structural
57
58 development, energy hybridization etc. It is also aimed to examine the efficiency of the solar-
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4 energy system. An in-depth discussion on the efficiency of different solar-collectors with their
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6 design is also included.
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10 2. Scenario of Solar Water Heating System
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12 Generally in SWH system, at first the sunlight is utilized to heat the water, as it causes the
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14 temperature of the fluid to rise, where a working liquid is getting into contact with a dark surface
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16 that is facing sunshine. It transfers solar energy to thermal energy which is stored in working fluid.
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It generates more energy than all home appliances combined and represents the second largest
19 residential energy use. The greenhouse gas emission (GHG) is one of the major problems in energy
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21 generation from household sector. The total household GHG emission in Spain for 20.4% while
22
23 in EU and USA were 7.5% and 20% at 2014 respectively. Thus, the choice of appropriate
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25 household water heating system can be widely reduce total energy consumption, operating and
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27 maintenance cost, and save the environment from GHG emissions. The actual share of energy
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consumption for home water-heating differs according to the given year and source of information.
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30 Recently, about 84% of heating and cooling is generated from fossil fuel and the remaining 16%
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32 comes from the renewable energy [43-45]. Figure 1 shows the energy consumption data in
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34 residential homes [46]. In home applications, it often replaces fossil fuels and electricity [47]. It is
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36 the most popular and economical model of solar-energy applications [48]. SWH is appropriate for
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38 low-temperature applications that are below 80°C for it's few system elements and low investment
39 and operation costs [49-50]. The optimal size of the fin used in a heat-exchanger in solar-energy
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41 systems was investigated [51]. For this, classic system and other with fin were planned and
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43 produced. It was found that the system with fin is 7% more efficient than the classic system which
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45 and it lasted for six days. Fin size is an important parameter in solar-energy application. The
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47 investigation of spiral current absorber collector at temperature of 55°C has reveled that it can
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generate a joint photovoltaic–thermal effectiveness of 64% with 11% of electrical effectiveness
50 and a value of utmost power of 25.35 W (watt). Furthermore, it can achieve the best mass current
51
52 rate at 1.1 g/sec (gram per second), while a single pass rectangular collector absorber achieved the
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54 best mass current rate at 7.5 g/sec. It was noted that at a surface temperature of 392°C, the joint
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56 generated photovoltaic–thermal effectiveness was 55% with 10% of electrical effectiveness and
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58 greatest power of 22.45 W [17-18].
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4 In a number of cases, SWH systems harvest solar-energy and are complemented by ambient energy
5
6 to heat water. Figure 2a represents the typical thermosiphon line diagram of a SWH system [52].
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8 The name “Climax” was the first commercial solar water heater that was patented in United States
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10 by Clarence Kemp [53]. In the 1900s, numerous scientists worked on improving the durability and
11
12 effectiveness of the SWH systems by improving their design. In the early 1960s, it was
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commercialized on a wider scale. With regard to circulation techniques and applications, several
15 SWH systems are reviewed and categorized with the discussion on the modifications and designs.
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17 To find the principle equation of the collector system, it is very essential to define the singular heat
18
19 current equations [47, 54-55]. The Figure 2b describes an uncomplicated representation of a
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21 classic solar plate system utilizing a storage-container and flat-plate solar-collector [56].
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23 A solar collector is a heat transfer material that used to convert solar energy to thermal energy by
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25 absorbing solar radiation. By changing the position/angle of solar-collector cause the sun to be
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27 rotate. This is a function of the build-in control system. Furthermore, this prototype of a SWH
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29 system that tested and studied. The solar-collector should be covered by dark paint to absorb more
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31
sunshine once it is exposed to the sun. The glass cover is built of low iron tempered glass that is
32 placed over the absorber. Figure 3a represents the experimental apparatus of the design and
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34 development of water-heating systems [11]. An economical and simple solar water heater design
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36 is constructed out of soft drinks plastic bottles by connecting the plastic pipes, so they run up
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38 through the midpoint of each line of bottles. These bottles work as glazers and reflectors as
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40 depicted in Figure 3b. Figure 3 demonstrates the most simple and economical solar water heater
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42
that was recently reported [57]. A solar water heater with a thermal insulation was arranged to
43 keep the temperature of the water throughout the night or cloudy days with small temperature loss.
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45 The container consists of two metallic cylinders with an interface that has a thermal insulation with
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47 a thermal conductivity of 340 W/mK as depicted in Figure 3c. This figure presents the impact of
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49 the insulation on SWH systems [58].
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51
52
53 3. Solar Thermal Collectors
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55 A solar thermal collector is a device that is used for converting solar energy to heat energy by
56 absorbing sunlight. The solar thermal collector is considered as one of the most important element
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58 that is absorbed by the sunlight through the passes of working fluid. The utilization of solar thermal
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60 energy and its application mainly relies on the solar-collector for instance flat-plate, evacuated
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4 tube, compound parabolic, direct absorption, parabolic trough, Fresnel lens, parabolic dish, hybrid
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6 photovoltaic thermal collector, and heliostat field collectors [59]. These solar-collectors are widely
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8 utilized for residential, commercial and industrial applications. These include SWH that consists
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10 of direct- and indirect- systems, thermosiphon, integrated collector storage, space heating, and
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12 cooling. The evaluation of various types of solar-collector is given in Table 1. The design factors
13
14
such as volume fraction (𝜑 ), density (𝜌), specific heat, thermal conductivity, specific mass,
15 dynamic viscosity, heat removal factors (𝐹𝑅 ) and effectiveness (F') are considerably reducing the
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17 empiricism related to the design of the solar-collector [60].
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19 By using a trapezoidal cross-section, the design of a solar-collector is inclined (37°C) and has a
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21 matte dark front face. Keeping a 2.5 cm air opening between the dark-painted surface, the unit is
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23 covered with glass and all other sides of the container are blocked with 5.0 cm of styrofoam sheets.
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25 A thermal diode is connected in parallel to the coated surface and forms a 2.5 cm channel that is
26 made of plexiglass with a strip of insulation behind it for water to pass through. Moreover, the
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28 thermal diode is utilized to avoid any reverse circulation of water current overnight. Figure 4a
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30 shows the use of the thermal diode in preventing the reverse circulation during the night time [61].
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32 The energy produced in just 14 second (s) by the sunshine is equivalent to the energy captured by
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34 the Earth in a year. On the contrary, the energy formed by the sun in just 14 s is equivalent to the
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36
solar-energy captured by the Earth over a 1000 years time period [62]. PVT system is considered
37 for household hot water-heating and has a analogous layout of a classic system for solar residential
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39 hot water-heating as deepicted in Figure 4b. It also represents the relationship between the primary
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41 and secondary circuits [63]. Efforts have been made to invistigatre quality of absorping solar
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43 ratiation on the effeciency of flat-plate solar-collector of a water heater [64]. Direct--absorption
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45 solar-collector is another type of solar-collector where the heat transfer fluid is utilized as the
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47
absorbing media for the solar emission as an alternative of restricting the absorption to the absorber
48 plate [65-68]. In direct--absorption solar-collector, the working liquid streams between the base
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50 and the glass sheet located at the top-surface. Figure 4c shows the schematic of the flat-plate solar-
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52 collector test setup [69].
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60 3.1 Flat-plate collector
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4 Flat-plate solar collectors are the most basic essential component and widely used in household
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6 water-heating purposes. It is very well known and inexpensive to fabricate, maintenance and
7
8 installation. Flat-plate collectors are composed of riser tubes that are attached to the header tube
9
10 and are located under the absorber plate, transparent glazing cover, a black solar absorption
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12 surface, and an insulated metal or wooden box [70-71]. The principle procedure of a flat-plate
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solar water heater is that the solar-energy goes through the glass before the absorber plate and hits
15 the flat dark-painted surface of the absorber plate at which the solar-energy is captured as a form
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17 of heat by raising the inner energy [42]. It requires little technical support due to its inherited
18
19 simplicity and because it does not have any moving parts. They consist of an insulated and
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21 weatherproof box that is located below one or more transparent covers containing a dark absorber
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23 plate. They gather both diffused and direct- emission. Due to their non-complicated production
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25
and technical support, their preliminary cost is fairly low. In general, a metal absorber plate and
26 coves are used in classic flat-plate solar-collectors to transform solar-energy into thermal energy
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28 [72]. In a flat-plate solar-collector, the incident solar emission is reverted into heat and then
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30 transferred to a transport media such as water [73]. The main component of SWH systems is the
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32 solar-energy-collectors and therefore their thermal effectiveness is vital in evaluating their
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34 performance. The efficiencies of a number of flat-plate solar-collector have been studied under
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steadystate and quasidynamic test conditions following EN 12975-2 and ASHRAE 93-86
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37 standards [74]. A study that focuses on the design simplicity, fabrication, and effectiveness of flat-
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39 plate solar-collector is specified in Table 2.
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42
Numerous scientists have worked on the progress and design of flat-plate collectors. The structure
43 of the collector plays a significant task in evaluating its thermal effectiveness [82]. The thermal
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45 analysis consists of a two-step process which is assessed depends on the fin effectiveness factor
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47 and the transfer of heat to the liquid at which the thermal energy transmits from the plate to the
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49 current duct was predicted depend on the heat removal parameter [75]. The thermal effectiveness
50
51 based on the material properties and on the design related factors and the core components of the
52 absorber plate [83-87]. Figure 5a shows the operation of a flat-plate solar-collector in conjugation
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54 with a closed-end alternating heat pipe. The collector system supplies a practically effective and
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56 cost-efficient option technique by using a closed-ended alternating heat-pipe (CEOHP), where the
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58 classic solar-collector system uses heat pipe. This system could achieve a 62% effectiveness which
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60 is similar to the heat pipe effectiveness [76]. The flat-plate solar-collector is the most broadly
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4 utilized solar-collector for the application of SWH systems in residential and solar space heating.
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6 The glazing and the dark-colored absorber plate are parts of a classic flat-plate collector that is
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8 covered metal box with a glass or plastic sheet as depicted in Figure 5b. The mechanism of
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10 producing hot air or heating the water by flat-plate collectors was intensively investigated at
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12 temperatures less than 80°C [88-89]. Flat-plate collectors are utilized for hydraulic space heating
13
14
installations and household water-heating. In flat-plate solar-collector, about 80% of the sunshine
15 is captured in the collector plate. The radiant heat is reflected and the heat losses in the collector
16
17 surface are about 10-35% as depicted in Figure 5c.
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19
20
21 3.2 Evacuated-tube collector
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23 Evacuated-tube collectors are used in producing high-temperature applications. The production
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25 cost of evacuated tube collector has considerably lower and gives higher efficiency than flat plate
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27 tube collector. It has classified into two broad categories, one is Dewar tube and another is single
28
29 walled glass evacuated tube. The heat energy can be used for commercial and domestic water
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31
heating, space heating, air conditioning, and pool heating. However, it represents easy
32 transportability and installation that makes it comfortable for unsuitable weather. They have better
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34 effectiveness as contrast with the flat-plate collectors, but because of their high initial costs, they
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36 are not competitive. It consists of copper (Cu) heat pipes for rapid heat transport, evacuated tubes
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38 (glass-glass seal) to reduce heat dissipation and aluminum (Al) casing to supply robustness and
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40 structural integrity to the system. Heat can be transported into the working fluid from the evacuate
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42
tube made of metal materials. In this system, the heat dissipation is because of convection and
43 emission [56]. The shape of the absorber tube is one of the significant design factors for the glass
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45 evacuated tube collector [81]. For instance, about 16% more energy is absorbed using evacuated-
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47 tube collector with a flat-plate-shaped absorber tube a glass with a semi-cylindrical shaped
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49 absorber tube is used [90]. The effectiveness of filled type evacuated-tube collector of a U-shaped
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51 tube design was studied. Diverse filling substances such as graphite and air were tried. The
52 outcomes revealed that the thermal effectiveness of the filling kind evacuated-tube collector were
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54 comparable. The thermal conductivity of the filling layer was about 0.01 KW/mK (Kilowatt per
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56 meter and kelvin), while if the filling substance is graphite, thermal conductivity was about 0.1
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58 KW/mK, which is 12% increase of performance as depicted in the Figure 6a. In this evacuated
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4 tube collector, each tube contains metal absorber and a glass outer tube that is attached to a fin
5
6 which is absorbed by the solar-energy and inhibits radioactive heat losses [91].
7
8
9 The heat losses coefficient and the heat effectiveness factor were evaluated utilizing a 1D (One
10 dimensional) logical solution. The investigation reported on the effect of the air layer on the heat
11
12 effectiveness and a raise of 10% was noticed when the air layer thickness was improved such that
13
14 its resistivity was at 0.4 KW/mK, solar-collector effectiveness enhanced by 10% and the
15
16 temperature of the liquid outlet increased by 16%. Figure 6b shows a very widely used solar-
17
18 collector in current time which is an evacuated-tube solar water heater. This is a very efficient way
19
20
to collector hot water using the heat that absorbed from the sun, but it is also costly to set up [92].
21 The study of design, fabrication, and effectiveness of different types of evacuated-tube solar-
22
23 collector are summarized in Table 3.
24
25
26
27 3.3 Compound-parabolic concentrators
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29 Compound parabolic concentrators (CPC) has been obtaining ever increasing attention for higher
30
31
effeiciency from the industrial developers and academic researchers. Flat-plate and evacuated-tube
32 collectors are extensively utilized in solar thermal applications mostly to supply low to
33
34 intermediate temperature range (20°C to 120°C). But, concentrators/reflectors have to be
35
36 implemented to make best use of the incident emission and thus produce high-temperature values.
37
38 Non-imaging concentrators are the parabolic (dome-like) concentrator’s solar-collectors that have
39
40 the capability to bounce the majority of the incident emission back to the absorber which does not
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42
make the image of sun lover the concentrator. The ratio of usual concentrator is 2-3. The most
43 common type is depicted in Figure 7a, where the lower part of the reflector is circular-shaped (BC
44
45 and BA) and the upper parts (CD and AE) are dome-shaped [38]. In recent years, other kinds of
46
47 non-optical concentrators were developed. An original type of compound parabolic concentrators
48
49 which composes of several rounded surfaces that can supply forward bouncing and optical light
50
51 ray was recently developed. Figure 7b shows th diagram of this recently developed system that
52 consists of dome-shaped and a flat contours that are known as an optical concentrating parabolic
53
54 collectors. In this system, the bouncing beam is transferred forward from the entry opening to the
55
56 exit opening as an alternative of being transmitted in the opposite direct-ion, as the case in
57
58 traditional parabolic concentrator [97]. The study of design, fabrication, and effectiveness of the
59
60 compound parabolic concentrators are summarized in Table 4.
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7 4. Storage-container and its Effectiveness
8
9 Storage-container is a significant part of the SWH system, as it does a main function in evaluating
10
11
the system effectiveness. Storage-container is generally utilized to store the accumulated solar
12 thermal energy to provide the necessary hot water at the favored temperature to the end users [102].
13
14 Generally, it is constructed using concrete, steel, plastic, fiberglass or other suitable materials that
15
16 is suitable for storing hot water. Steel is the most commonly employed material among the
17
18 aformentionmed materials, because steel containers are easy to install [56]. The details of a study
19
20 that focuses on the design, fabrication, and efficiency of the storage-container is provided in Table
21
5. Diverse inlet designs of the storage-container were put forward to enhance stratification. The
22
23 consequence of 12 diverse obstructions on the thermal stratification in a cylinder-shaped storage-
24
25 container by forecasting the heat allocation inside the container was studied. Figure 8 illustrates
26
27 the details of studying the geometry of the 12 different obstacles. It was seen that putting an
28
29 obstruction in the container improved the thermal distribution compared to having no obstruction.
30
31 The obstructions that have a space in the center (number 7, 8 and 11 respectively) also enhanced
32 thermal distribution than those that had a space close to the container wall. In terms of hot water
33
34 supply, the study concluded that obstruction 11 offered the greatest thermal distribution in the
35
36 container [102].
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38
39
40 5. Heat-exchanger and Transfer Mechanism
41
42 The captivated solar thermal energy from the working liquid to the storage-container works as heat
43
44 transfer tool that is utilized to transport heat for the indirect- type of SWH system. Generally, it is
45
46 fabricated from thermally conductive materials such as stainless steel, Al, cast iron, steel, Cu, and
47
48 bronze. Copper is commonly utilized in the SWH system that ensures high-quality thermal
49
50
conductivity and corrosion immunity. For indirect- water-heating storage-containers, several
51 configurations of heat exchangers have been designed. The widely used designs are the soaked
52
53 coil-in-container, the shield and tube, and the mantle thermal energy exchangers [109]. The details
54
55 of a study of that focuses on a simple design, the fabrication and performance of diverse kinds of
56
57 heat exchangers are summarized in Table 6.
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
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 1
2
3
4 Numerous designs of the coil-in-container heat-exchanger were investigated and the performance
5
6 of an original distributed (Container A), and the two typical containers (Container B and C) were
7
8 examined as depicted in Figure 9. In this system, an improved inner storage design for an original
9
10 distributed storage-container (A) was selected and contrasted with the widely utilized design B
11
12 and C. The thermal energy exchanger contains container B that was twisted from the bottom to the
13
14
top of the container. While container C that contains the heat-exchanger was twisted from the
15 bottom to the top of the container and then U-turned downwards the bottom of the container.
16
17 Finally, the distributed container was improved by 32% more when contrasted to the commercially
18
19 obtainable container [108].
20
21 To accumulate the thermal energy from the collector and then transport it to the storage-container
22
23 either with the help of thermal energy exchanger or directly, a thermal energy transfer liquid is
24
25 utilized. With the purpose of enhance the effectiveness of the SWH system design, the liquid must
26
27 have an elevated thermal conductivity, high precise thermal energy capacity, low viscosity, anti-
28
29 corrosion property, low thermal growth factor and cost-efficient. Water, silicone oil, glycol and
30
31
hydrocarbon oils are the common heat transfer fluids, where water is the most used fluid, because
32 it is the least expensive and the most easily obtainable and thermally competent liquid, except it
33
34 can cause corrosion [71]. In SWH, heat-transferring fluid sends the heat through the thermal energy
35
36 exchanger to the water in the storage-container by absorbing the energy from the collector. For
37
38 example, a heat-transferring fluid that has a high boiling temperature and a low freezing
39
40 temperature in both cold and hot weathers, respectively, it requires a SWH system. Water,
41
42
hydrocarbon oils, air, water mixture/glycol, and refrigerants/phase-change liquids are the most
43 commonly used heat-transferring fluids [112].
44
45
46 Water and air are the most commonly used heat transferring fluids in SWH systems. Air is
47
48 advantageous over water because it is corrosive-immune and it does not have freezing/boiling
49
50 issues. It is not utilized for household water-heating applications; because it has an extremely low
51
52
thermal energy capacity and it is very limited for applications operatee at low temperature. That
53 is, water is considered the most popular working fluid in SWH systems, because it is low-viscous,
54
55 non-toxic, and cost-efficient liquid. However, at high temperature, it possesses a difficulty in the
56
57 configuration of collector plumbing and tubing, because of its corrosive nature as well as scaling
58
59 and freezing issues. Generally, a glycol is utilized with water to function as antifreeze to overcome
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 high freezing point relatively. In heat pumps, air conditioners and refrigerators, refrigerants are
5
6 generally utilized as a thermal energy transfer liquids. The significant improvements in the heat
7
8 pump and solar technology are the use of solar-collectors that is filled with refrigerant in a heat
9
10 pump system. Particularly throughout cloudy weathers due to their low boiling temperature and
11
12 high thermal energy capacity, more effective than other fluids are the refrigerants. Several research
13
14
groups investigated the possibility of introducing two-phase heat transfer process as an effort to
15 enhance the operating conditions of SWF systems. The basic thermal effectiveness of two
16
17 thermosiphon solar-collectors with the assistant of acetone and benzene (pet ether) was
18
19 investigated [113-114].
20
21
22
23 6. Absorber Plate and Absorbing Materials
24
25 Coating (selective or non-selective) layer is applied to the exterior of the absorber sheet to boost
26
27 the heat captured capability and decrease the radiation from the plate. The selective coatings have
28
29 very high absorbance in the solar radiation range and very low emittance in the long-wave range.
30
31 While the non-selective coatings have very high absorbance in the solar radiation range and very
32 high emittance in the long-wave range. The goal of the absorber is to enhance the solar heating
33
34 capabilities. It is considered as a high-quality thermal conductor and made of a metallic sheet that
35
36 is sheltered by a dark coating and carbon powder. The coating has to be an excellent conductor
37
38 and have an uneven-surface to bounce the beams that are not captured. The absorption coefficient
39
40 α is based on the kind of materials utilized for the absorber cover and it is most of the time between
41
42
90% and 98%. The absorber plate (collector plate) is typically made of Cu, Al, galvanized iron, or
43 mild steel. Copper is considered the most suitable material for the absorber plate, because of its
44
45 high thermal conductivity, however it is very pricey. However, Al is alternatively utilized, because
46
47 it is comparatively less expensive (with comparison to Cu) and has a high-quality adhesion to other
48
49 materials, besides its low joinability activity. Furthermore, it has high-quality thermal conductivity
50
51 [41]. Three different collector types of absorber materials (copper, selective absorber, and
52
53
galvanized sheet) were compared. The prices of galvanized absorber, copper and selective types
54 of heating systems in Turkey were 490.89, 615.69 and 740.49$, respectively [115].
55
56
57 With the purpose of achieving the best effectiveness of the heater, the optimal size of the absorber
58
59
cover and the best value of the mass current rate of the passing air should be determined. By using
60 diverse values of lengths L and widths b of the dark-colored coated absorber cover, and several
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 values of mass flow rate 𝑚𝑓 , the mathematical calculations were carried out. The Figure 10a
5
6 shows, when 𝑚𝑓 equals 5 g/s on a hot day, the daytime changes of the temperature of the outlet of
7
8 the currenting air outlet temperature (𝑇𝑓𝑜 ) for diverse values of L and b. It was found that by
9
10 increasing L up to several values of b and L combined, 𝑇𝑓𝑜 increases to become less reliant on L
11
12 and b. With the intention of investigate the effect of utilizing specific covering absorbers on the
13
14 heater effectiveness, arithmetical calculations were carried out for diverse covering materials on a
15
16 hot day [116]. Figure 10b depicts the variations in the temperature of the absorber cover plate
17
18 temperature (𝑇𝑝 ) per hour for diverse chosen covering materials on a hot day when 𝑚𝑓 = 5 g/s.
19
20 When the dark-coated absorber is used, it was concluded that the values of 𝑇𝑝 are significantly
21
22 advanced for all studied chosen materials. The chosen materials have improved values of plate
23
24 absorptivity (𝛼𝑝 ) and a lower heat transfer rate by the emission from the absorber cover to the
25
26 bottom glass sheet. This is because the improved quantity of solar emission when the chosen
27
28 materials that have low emissivity (𝜀𝑝 ) values are used. The different values of absorptivity and
29
30 emissivity of some chosen materials are given in Table 7.
31
32
33 The everyday average values of 𝑇𝑝 are 120.88, 110.89, 107.18, 96.78 and 80.83°C for nickel-tin
34
35 (Ni-Sn), cobalt oxide (CoO), chromium oxide (Cr2O3), copper oxide (CuO) and dark paint,
36
37 respectively. Figure 11a shows the daytime changes in the immediate effectiveness ŋ𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 for the
38
39
dark-coated absorber and diverse chosen pained absorbers when 𝑚𝑓 equal to 5 g/s on a hot day. It
40
41
has found that when the dark-coated absorber is utilized, the ŋ𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 is increasing steadily with
42 respect of the time. On a daily basis, the average values for ŋ𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 were observed to be 0.46, 0.45,
43
44 0.44, 0.37 and 0.33 for Ni-Sn, CoO, Cr2O3, CuO and the dark painted, respectively [116]. Figure
45
46 11b depicts the outcomes of outlet-temperature average values of the solar-collector in 14 days.
47
48 The water outlet temperatures increases throughout the test period providing the quantity of energy
49
50 captured from the sun is more than the energy vanished from the system, because of the natural
51
52 circulation of water between the container and the collector. Consequently, the outlet water
53 temperature starts to decrease. By utilizing evacuated-tube solar-collector, it was observed that the
54
55 utmost water temperature at the outlet was 92°C. The lowest temperature of the water outlet was
56
57 obtained, when the copper collector is utilized. In evacuated-tube collector, the temperature of the
58
59 water at the outlet is almost 15–20% superior than that of the copper collector [118]. The instant
60
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 collector efficiencies for the five collectors are depicted in Figure 11c. Evacuated-tube collector
5
6 is utilized in this investigation and the highest effectiveness is observed when the practical heat is
7
8 the utmost and the copper tube was used. Moreover, the lowest effectiveness was observed when
9
10 the useful heat was the lowest. At 2:00 pm, the utmost efficiencies occur and their values are 71.3,
11
12 77, 78.7, 80.1 and 93.5 for copper, selective copper, aluminum collectors, blue and dark coating
13
14
and evacuated-tube collectors, respectively [118].
15
16
17
18 7. Solar Thermal Performance Analysis:
19
20 The variables that impact the solar-collector’s effectiveness are essential to detain the most
21
quantity of solar-energy. It permits the most favorable size setting of the solar water heater parts
22
23 like insulating layer thickness, the area of the collector and the storage-container capacity. Figure
24
25 12a shows the location of each heater part that concerned with the heat retention in the collector
26
27 and in the adsorption of the solar rays. Figure 12b shows the solar heater thermal network that is
28
29 used to determine the overall losses in the collector [58].
30
31 A study was conducted to investigate the following parameters: 260 m2 collectors, 500 m3 pools,
32
33 and 30 m3 containers, the storing pump operates at what time the outlet temperature gets to 65°C
34
35 in summer and 50°C in winter. Figure 13A and B depict the contrast of the outlet temperature of
36
37 the collector and container, respectively, at different dates [119]. A study that focuses on the effect
38 of the depth of the storage-container was carried (collector area/ volume) in a 120 days’ time using
39
40 60 mm and 80 mm heaters. The lowest and utmost temperatures that were collected for the 60 mm
41
42 heater were 46 and 76°C, respectively, as the equivalent temperatures for the 80 mm heater were
43
44 41 and 70°C, correspondingly. The average daytime utmost efficiencies of the 60 mm and 80 mm
45
46 heaters were 65 and 73%, correspondingly, with a dissimilarity of 8-10% during the surveillance
47
48 time [120]. At what time a steel absorber cover is substituted by an aluminium plate, the annual
49 solar fraction of the system enhances only by 4% to 7% and approximately no alteration in the
50
51 value of this fraction happens when a copper plate replaced the aluminium plate. While the
52
53 characteristic factors of the collector enhanced by 12% to 19% and enhanced by about 3% when
54
55 these selections are made. In conclusion, it was found that there is approximately no benefit in
56
57 utilizing Cu instead of Al unless other aspects like corrosion difficulties or health risks could
58
59
influence the selection of the material for the absorber cover [121]. By considering a four members
60 family, a solar system for hot-water manufacture was studied. The hot-water desired temperature
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 (53°C) is managed by a classic fuel supplementary heater and a modulating regulator [122]. The
5
6 effectiveness of the system was investigated in theory and practically. The coefficients of the heat
7
8 pump and the inclusive system performance, the thermal energy transport rates of the condenser
9
10 and the evaporator and the collector performance are computed for diverse container temperatures.
11
12 The evaporation temperature changes between 5.2 and 20.7°C, while the container temperature
13
14
changes between 9 and 35°C. The inclusive coefficient of the performance, theoretical and
15 experimental values of the system enhance with the vapor-state temperature and get an utmost
16
17 value at 5.56, 6.33 and 6.38, correspondingly. The practically achieved most heat transfer rates in
18
19 the evaporator and condenser are 4.95 and 5.87 kW, correspondingly, and the effectiveness of the
20
21 evacuated tubular solar-collector changes between 0.807 and 0.728 [123]. The design of solar
22
23 water heater that was made from plastic containers of soft drinks and plastic pipes ran up the center
24
25
of each row of the bottles. It has been observed that the temperature of water was 52°C in the
26 summer, but in the winter, temperature of the cold water in the container is about 16°C to 18°C.
27
28 Due to the temperature dissimilarity between the time of years, the solar emission reduces in winter
29
30 and increase in summer.
31
32 The observation of the heating process was done in 8.4 hours following the starting of the test. The
33
34 lowest temperature was 47.6°C and the utmost temperature into the storage-container was 55.0°C.
35
36 By using the cooling process during the night, the average temperature was lowered from 50.4°C
37
38 to 46.8°C. The outlet temperature of the collector was lower than the utmost temperature in the
39
40 container at the time of starting the cooling process [124]. The comparison of diverse kinds of
41
42
solar-collectors in SWH systems is given in Table 8.
43
44
45
46 8. Thermal Performance of Flat-Plate Solar-collector Using Nano-fluids
47
48 To increase the performance of these various solar collectors, nanofluids were incorporated in
49 absorber place in replace of general fluid including water. Nanofluids have different application
50
51 in solar energy systems including, solar thermal collector, solar water heater, thermal/photovoltaic
52
53 systems, solar geothermal, solar thermoelectric devices, and water desalination. There are some
54
55 important considerations for the high effectiveness use of a nanofluid such as alumina (Al2O3),
56
57 silica (SiO2), copper oxide (CuO), titanium di-oxide (TiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), magnesium
58
59
oxide (MgO), cerium oxide (CeO2), and heat-transferring liquid in the flat-plate solar-collectors,
60 evacuated tube, parabolic, conical, cylindrical, and triangular shape solar collectors, which must
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 be given substantial concentration. The synthesis of the nano-fluid should be the first
5
6 consideration. The synthesis procedure can be either one step or two step method. The one step
7
8 comprises the synthesis of nanomaterials while two steps are the synthesis of nanomaterials
9
10 powder. As suspending solid nano-particles in the base liquid will not cause a simple mix,
11
12 thoroughly the stability of nano-fluid must be studied [134-135]. Because of the elevated ratio of
13
14
surface-area to volume, the nano-particles will have an affinity to form cluster over time and
15 elevated surface-tension between them will take place. The stability can be improved either by
16
17 alkaline/acid covalent or non-covalent functionalization with the surfactant [136-137]. Therefore,
18
19 nano-fluid is used to transport the utmost quantity of thermal energy from the absorber plate to the
20
21 end users by the means of enhancing the thermal properties of the working fluid which results in
22
23 improving the thermal effectiveness of the solar-collector [138-141]. A summary of the
24
25
investigations that was reported on the use of nano-fluids in flat-plate solar-collectors are
26 summarized in Table 9.
27
28
29 Several researchers have investigated the theoretical and experimental effects of utilizing
30
31 aluminum oxide (Al2O3) nano-fluid and other carbon based nanofluids as an absorbing media in
32
33 different solar collectors [158, 162]. Furthermore, they investigated the influence of particle
34
35 volume fraction and mass current rate on the effectiveness of the collector. The consequences
36
37
showed the increase of the thermal effectiveness of the solar-collector by utilizing the optimal
38 particle volume fraction of 1.5% for Al2O3 nano-fluid in contrast with water as working liquid by
39
40 31.64%. It was concluded that using nano-fluids enhanced thermal energy transport from solar-
41
42 collectors to storage-containers and increased the energy density [163]. It also believed that the
43
44 effectiveness of a solar water heater is increased by utilizing the nano-fluids in lieu of classic heat
45
46 transport liquids [149]. An experimental study that focuses on the influence of multiwall carbon
47
48
nanotubes (MWCNTs) Al2O3 water nano-fluid on the effectiveness of the flat-plate solar-collector
49 was reported. The results showed that in contrast with water as working fluid the effectiveness
50
51 increased up to 28.3% and 35%, correspondingly, by using Al2O3 and MWCNTs water nano-fluids
52
53 [164-165]. In elevated flux solar-collectors, the applicability of nano-fluids was investigated and
54
55 it was observed that up to 10% raise in effectiveness is likely relative to a classic liquid by choosing
56
57 carefully the operating conditions for 0.125% volume fraction of graphite [166]. The effectiveness
58
of a 2 m2 flat-plate solar-collector was studied practically by using the effect of (MWCNTs)/ water
59
60 nano-fluid as the heat transport liquid [165]. For MWCNTs with outer diameters in the range of
61
62
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4 10-30 nm and weight fractions of 0.2% and 0.4%, the MWCNTs were used and Triton X-100 was
5
6 chosen as the surfactant [167]. The use of nanographene (20-30 nm) in solar collector with 1000
7
8 W radiation source of halogen lamp gives higher efficiency and stability than the base fluid under
9
10 similar conditions. The increased efficiency was observed more than 5.90% than the base fulid
11
12 [168]. They used a Cu absorber plate with a chosen paint, an Al frame, Cu header and riser tubes
13
14
with 2.2 and 1 cm diameters, correspondingly, and 0.4 cm float glass sheet to construct the solar-
15 collector. To mix the liquid in the forced-convection test setup, an electrical pump was used as
16
17 depicted in Figure 14.
18
19
20
21 9. Conclusion
22
23 Broad research was conducted to additional advance the thermal effectiveness of SWH systems.
24
25 This paper presents a merged review of the improvement of different system components on the
26
27 design, development, and thermal performance aspects of SWH systems. It can be concluded that
28
29 the most developed and commercialized technology that is used to translate solar-energy into
30
31 thermal energy is SWH, which is counted to be very effective technology. However, further
32 improvement of the system performance is necessary to raise its reliability and effectiveness. In
33
34 this review, we have presented the design features and related technological developments of the
35
36 SWH systems with regard to both energy effectiveness and cost. This paper also represents a
37
38 comprehensive and dynamic overview of the thermal performance of solar collectors utilizing
39
40 nanofluids and their application procedure in different solar collectors under various operating
41
42
conditions. A higher thermal performance and higher temperature of solar collector using
43 nanofluid with respect to water was studied. The total energy consumption greatly influences the
44
45 temperature distribution of the storage tank and solar collector. Recent developments in SWH
46
47 systems utilize an effective design to make use of solar-energy as a dependable heating source for
48
49 water-heating application, challenges, and future research potentials.
50
51
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Performance of heat transfer fluids with nanographene in a pilot solar collector, Solar Energy
11 (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2018.05.040
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36 Figure Captions
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38 Figure 1: Residential energy consumption data for 2010 [46]. Reproduced with permission,
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40 copyright @ College Publishing 2011.
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42 Figure 2: (A) Line diagram of a typical thermosiphon solar water heater [52]. (B) Typical solar-
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44 energy collection system [56]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2012.
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46 Figure 3: (A) Experimental apparatus of simple solar water heater [11]. Reproduced from open-
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48 access article, copyright @ WITTE 2012. (B) Construction of solar water heater using the low-
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50 cost available plastic bottles [57]. (C) Insulation of solar water heater [58]. Reproduced with
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52 permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2014.
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54 Figure 4: (A) Schematic of the thermal diode integrated solar-collector-storage-container system
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56 [61]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 1997. (B) Schematic overview of the
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58 PVT system for household hot water [62]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier
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4 2010. (C) Schematic of the flat plate solar-collector test setup of [63]. Reproduced with permission,
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9 Figure 5: (A) Closed-end oscillating heat pipe [76]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @
10 Elsevier 2007. (B) A typical liquid flat plate collector [56]. (C) Heat current through a flat plate
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12 solar-collector [56]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2011.
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15 Figure 6: (A) The filled-type evacuated tube solar-collector [91]. (B) Evacuated tube solar water
16 heater collectors [92]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2011.
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19 Figure 7: (A) Schematic diagram of a compound parabolic concentrator’s collector [38].
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21 Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2004. (B) Schematic of multiple curved
22 surface compound collector, (i) Light transmission pattern; (ii) concentric model and the passed
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24 light [97]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2011.
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27 Figure 8: Obstacles geometries and their assembly in the storage-container [102]. Reproduced
28 with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2005.
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31 Figure 9: Schematic designs of Containers A, B and C [108]. Reproduced with permission,
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33 copyright @ Elsevier 2005.
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36 Figure 10: (A) Effect of width b of the dark painted absorber on outlet temperature, 𝑇𝑓𝑜 [116]. (B)
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38 Diurnal changes of temperature (𝑇𝑝 ) for various selectively coated absorbers [116]. Reproduced
39
40 with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2010.
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42 Figure 11: (A) Diurnal changes of ŋ𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎 for various selectively coated absorbers [116].
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44 Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2010. (B) Water temperatures at the outlet of
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46 the solar-collector in April. [118] (C) Instantaneous collector efficiencies for the five collectors
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48 used [118]. Reproduced with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2013.
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51 Figure 12: (A) Solar water heater elements. (B) Thermal network of the collector [58]. Reproduced
52 with permission, copyright @ Elsevier 2014.
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55 Figure 13: (A) The comparisons of the outlet temperature of the collector. (B) The comparisons of
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2015.
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Figure Click here to access/download;Figure;Revised Figures.docx

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Table Click here to access/download;Table;Revised Tables.docx

Table 1: Comparisons of different types of the solar collectors [38]

Motion Collector type Absorber Concentration Temperature
type ratio range (°C)
Stationary Flat Plate Collector (FPC) Flat 1 30-80
Evacuate Tube Collector (ETC) Flat 1 50-200
Compound Parabolic Collector Tubular 1-5 60-240
(CPC)
Single-axis tracking Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) Tubular 15-45 60-250
Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) Tubular 15-45 60-300
Cylindrical Trough Collector Tubular 10-50 60-300
(CTC)
Two-axis tracking Parabolic Dish Reflector (PDR) Point 100-1000 100-500
Heliostat Field Collector (HFC) Point 100-1500 150-2000
 Table 2: Design, fabrication and efficiency study of the different flat plate solar collectors

Serial Design Temp, Efficienc Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

No. T (°C) y, ŋ (%)

1 1. Flat plate reflector 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Cost effective. 1. Low optical [75]
2. Red, blue and reddish coated = 27°C = 80% 2. Thermal energy efficiency.
absorber output is high 2. Higher convection
3. Polyurethane insulation thermal losses.
4. Working fluid as water.
2 1. Integrated closed end 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Simple 1. Limited to low [76]
oscillating heat pipe collector 45°C = 62% construction. temperature
2. Black coated absorber plate 2. Cost effective. applications.
3. 50 cm thick glass wool 3. Corrosion free 2. (~40-50°C)
insulation operation.
4. Working fluid as water. 4. Elimination of
winter icing problem.
3 1. Thermoplastic natural rubber 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Easy to fabricate. 1. Limited to low [77]
as absorber plate. 65°C = 72% 2. Non-corrosive. temperature
2. 50 mm foam insulation. 3. Low manufacturing applications.
3. Working fluid as water. cost. 2. Low thermal
4. Durable. conductivity and low
5. High performance useful gain.
collector. 3. (~50-60°C)
4 1. Black coated copper absorber 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Reduce top heat 1. Optimum gap [78]
plate. = 60°C = 68% losses. thickness needs to be
2. 15 mm glass fiber and 25 mm adjusted in order to
polystyrene insulation. enhance the thermal
3. Single and double honeycomb performance of solar
insulation. collector.
4. Working fluid as water.
5 1. Nickel-pigmented aluminum 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Emissivity of the
1. Requires higher [79]
oxide selective absorber = 40°C = 78% range of 11.0-22.5%.
prototype volume for
2. Polystyrene transparent cover. 2. Absorptivity is in
low flux conditions.
3. Working fluid as water the range of 0.91- 2. Requires frequent
0.97%. replacement of the
transparent cover.
6 1. Selectively coated aluminum 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Payback time is 1. Limited to low [80]
sheet (absorber) with nickel = 37°C = 52% low. temperature
sulphate solution. 2. 35-44% energy applications.
2. Two aluminum sheet. gain.
3. Mineral wool insulation.
4. Working fluid as water.
7 1. Two layers glass tube. 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 1. Performance is not 1. Low efficiency. [81]
2. Circular fin U tube absorber. = = 55.5% dependent on incident
3. Working fluid as air 43.1°C angle.
2. No shadow effect
 Table 3: Design, fabrication and efficiency study of the evacuated tube solar collector

Serial Design Temperature T Efficiency, Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

No (°C) ŋ (%)
1 1. Tubular absorber. 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 32°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. Higher heat 1. Shadow of the tubes [93]
2. Double glass tubes. 60-70% transfer coefficient. lower the performance
3. Working fluid as 2. Suitable for high
water. latitudes.
2 1. Aluminum sheet 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 26.5°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. Low 1. Less optical [94]
reflector. 79% manufacturing cost. efficiency.
2. Water in glass etc. 2. Simple in design. 2. Higher convection
3. Working fluid as 3. Can be used in heat losses.
water. different climate
zone.

3 1. Closed loop 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 37°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. No freezing issues. 1. Difficult to maintain [95]
oscillating pipes. 76% 2. Non-corrosive. vacuum environment.
2. Working fluid as R- 2. Release of non-
134a condensable gases.
4 1. U-shape absorber 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 38°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. High heat 1. Vacuum [96]
tube. 59% extraction. environment.
2. Two-layers glass 2. Reduced heat 2. Difficult to
etc. losses. maintain.
3. Working fluid as 3. Collector
water. efficiency increases
within synthetic
conductance.
5 1. Multiple curved- 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 80°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. Receiver and its 1. Requires larger [97]
surface compound 71% support rack could be surface area than the
concentrators. installed at the parabolic dish.
2. Working fluid as bottom. 2. High reflective
water. 2. High intercept losses.
factor. 3. Requires tracking.
6 1. Selectively coated 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 66°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. Low thermal 1. Limited to medium [98]
copper tubes. 60% losses. temperature [99]
2. Aluminum 2. Reduced gap applications.
polyester foil losses. 2. Requires tracking.
reflector. 3. Can be used as
3. V-groove CPC. pressure steam
4. Glass wool generators.
insulation.
5. Working fluid as
water.
 Table 4: Design, fabrication and efficiency study of the compound parabolic concentrator’s solar
collector.

Serial Design Temperature Efficiency, Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

No T (°C) ŋ (%)
1 1. V-trough model. 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 80°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. High thermal 1. High emittance [100-
2. Aluminum reflector foil. 65-75% stability. results in higher heat 101]
3. Teflon film insulation. 2. Easier to losses.
4. Flat absorber with 5 parallel manufacturing. 2. Aluminum
reflectors though. laminate shrinks at
5. Working fluid as water. 150-160°C.
2 1. Cylindrical baffle plate. 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 47°C ŋ𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 1. High thermal 1. Insulations of [102]
2. Thermally-stratified 50-60% stratification. baffle plates is
cylindrical tank. 2. Direct contact laborious.
area between 2. High material cost.
cold and hot
water in the tank
is reduced.
3 1. Thermal express elevator 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 28°C ŋ 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1. Express 1. Design [103]
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑟
partition device serves as elevator design optimization is
52%
stratified. showed 3 times required to identify
2. 25 mm thick polyurethane improvement in the optimum
partitions. thermal positioning of the
stratification partition device.
compared to the
fully mixed tank
 Table 5: Design, fabrication and efficiency study of the storage tank

Serial Design Temperature, Efficiency, ŋ Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

No T (°C) (%)
1 1. A pipe with opening serves as 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 = ŋ𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 1. Most efficient for 1. Design optimization is [104]
the stratifier with flaps. 51°C 92% flow rates of 5-8 required to identify the
2. Flaps serve as non-return L/min. optimum positioning of the
valves. 2. Flaps reduce partition device.
3. Rectangular glass tank. unwanted flow into
the stratifier.
2 1. Standard mantle glass tank. 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 45- Not 1. Increased solar 1. Fluid is sucked into the [105]
2. Two draw off levels. 50°C available collector stratifier through the lowest
3. Two cross-linked polyethylene efficiency. hole.
pipes acts as the stratifier for 2. Better thermal 2. Acts more as a mixing
draw off at the top and middle of performance. device than as a stratifying
the tank. device because mixed fluid
enters the tank through the top
opening.
3 1. Transparent tank with 5 mm 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 42°C ŋ𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 1. Energy is higher 1. Energy quality is reduced [106]
flexi glass walls. 70% for an ideal draw with poor inlet design.
2. Variable inlet design. off conditions.
3. Unstructural meshes.
4. Small hemispherical baffle
plate.
4 1. Thermally stratified horizontal 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 42°C ŋ𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 55- 1. Cost effective in 1. Limited to integrated [107]
cylindrical tank. 65% both the collector storage tank water
2. Divergent conical tubes as the construction and heating systems.
inlet nozzle. operational phases. 2. Susceptible to degradation
of thermal stratification.
5 1. Horizontal divider plate with a 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 35°C 15% higher 1. High extraction 1. Limited to only medium [108]
hole in the center. rate. temperature conditions (60-
2. Counter flow. 70°C)
3. Novel portioned stratified tank
with lower half being preheated.
4. 4 cm thick glass wool
insulation.
 Table 6: Design, fabrication and efficiency study of heat exchanger

Serial Design Temperature Efficiency, Advantages Disadvantages Ref.

No T (°C) ŋ (%)
1 1. Horizontal 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 27-50°C Not 1. Large heat 1. Thermal stratification [110]
annular available exchange degrades, but could be
mantle heat surface area. improved by
exchanger. 2. Simple repositioning the inlet
2. Cross flow. design. port at a higher position.
3. Good overall 2. Does not provide an
heat transfer. effective connection
between the collector and
the tank.
2 1. Shell and 𝑇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 75-80°C ŋ𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 1. Superior 1. Requires auxiliary [111]
tube heat 70-80% shell-side heat heating during cloudy
exchanger transfer per unit days.
with spiral length.
groove tube 2. Light weight.
bundle. 3. Lower
2. Cross flow. manufacturing
3. Baffle cost.
plates. 4. Pressure drop
4. Fibre glass comparable to
insulation the smooth tube
bundle.
5. Considerable
increase in flow
rate.

Table 7: Values of the absorptivity (𝛼𝑃 ) and emissivity ( 𝜀𝑃 ) for some selective materials [117]
 Name of the absorber plate Chemical formula for the 𝛼𝑃 𝜀𝑃
coating material
Galvanized iron Black paint 0.88 0.88
Copper oxide (CuO) above nickel CuO 0.81 0.17
Chromium (Cr) black above galvanized iron Cr–Cr2O3 0.95 0.15
Nickel–Tin (Ni-Sn) above galvanized iron Ni–Sn 0.98 0.14
Cobalt oxide (CoO) above iron coated with nickel CoO 0.92 0.08

Table 8: Comparison of thermal performance of the solar water heating system

 Solar collector Absorbing Insulating Area Temperature Efficiency Ref.
materials materials (m2) (°C) ŋ (%)
Flat plate Copper tube O’Armaflex 4.00 70.4 37.8 [125]
Flat plate Copper tube (9 riser) Cotton 2.05 65 53.38 [1]
Flat plate Copper tube (12 riser) Cotton 2.07 67 59.09 [1]
Flat plate Copper tube (zigzag) Cotton 2.02 69 62.90 [1]
Evacuated tube Copper tube - - 85.9 70.54 [126]
Evacuated tube Copper coil - - 57 41.8 [127]
integrated storage-collector Angle iron Jute fiber - 45 [128]
integrated storage-collector Copper coil Styrofoam - 42 50 [129]
boards
Flat plate steel tubes Glass wool - 60.6 57 [21]
Flat plate Aluminum tube Styrofoam - 55 [42]
Flat plate Copper tube Metallic sheet 1.4 55 30.2 [58]
Flat plate Stainless steel Glass wool 1.4 73 39 [130]
Flat plate Stainless steel Aero flex 1.58 90 21 [131]
Flat plate Galvanized steel tube Glass wool 1.4 70 57 [21]
Integrated Galvanized iron Mineral wool 2.54 56 40 [132]
Flat plate Copper tube Glass wool 1.1 53 41.2 [133]

Table 9: Previous investigations on the use of nanofluids in flat plate solar collectors
 Nanoparticles Base Area of Surfactant Ref.
Type Concentration Size (nm) fluid type Collector,
m2
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3), Zinc oxide 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 vol% 45, 60, and Water N/A With [142]
(ZnO), and Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 30, resp.
Multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) 0.2 and 0.4 wt% 10–30 Water 2.0 Triton X- 100 [143]

Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.05–0.1 vol% 13 Water and N/A Without [144]
EG/water
60:40
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.2 and 0.4 wt% 15 Water 2.0 Triton X- 100 [112]

Multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) 0.07-0.42 wt% 9.5 Water N/A Without [145]

Titanium di-oxide (TiO2) 0, 0.1, 0.2 and 0.3 20 Water 1.0 Without [137]
wt%
Graphene nanoplatelates (GnP) 0.01 - 1.0 wt% 20 Water + EG 1.5 Triton X-100 [146]

Copper (Cu) 0.05 and 0.1 wt% 35 Water 1.67 Sodium [147]
Dodecyl Sulfate
(SDS)
Copper oxide (CuO) 0.05 vol% 0.3 and Water 2.18 Sodium [148]
0.21 Dodecyl
Benzene
Sulfonate
(SDBS)
Multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) 0.2 to 0.4 vol% 10-30 Water 1.51 Triton X-100 [149]

Singlewall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) 0.1 and 0.3 vol % 1–2 Water 1.84 SDS [150]

Silicon di-oxide (SiO2) 0.5, 0.75, and 1.0 40 EG/water 1.59 Without [151]
vol% 1:1
Titanium di-oxide (TiO2) 0.1 and 0.3 vol % 20 and 40 Water 1.84 Polyethylene [152]
Glycol 400
(PEG 400)
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.090696–0.1423 15 water 1.51 SDBS [153]
vol%
Multiwall carbon nanotube (MWCNT) 0.2 - 0.6 vol % 20–30 EG N/A Gum Arabic [154]
(GA)
Silicon di-oxide (SiO2) 1.0 vol% 12 and 16 water 10.5 N/A [155]
Copper oxide (CuO), Silicon di-oxide 3.0 vol% N/A water 2.0 N/A [156]
(SiO2), Titanium di-oxide (TiO2) and
aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.5 15, 30, 60, water 2.0 N/A [157]
vol% and 90
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2% N/A water 2.0 N/A [158]
vol%
Graphene nanoplatelates (GnP) 0.0005, 0.001 and 2 water 3.6 without [159]
0.005 vol%
Copper (Cu) 2.0 vol% 5 water 1.8 without [160]
Copper (Cu) 0.01-0.2 wt% 25-50 water 2.0 SDBS [161]
Highlights

Highlights for Review

o This review paper focuses on most recent advances in solar water heating systems.
o The design, development of experimental apparatus and applications of SWH was
discussed.
o Different heat transfer mechanisms, collector efficiency testing, storage tank and heat
exchangers were studied.
o The numerous operating conditions of SWH systems including concentration,
temperature, surfactant, flow rate, and thermal performances were investigated.
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required by the GFA are included. GFA.
Cover letter A maximum of two pages, dated and addressed to Note that the role of the corresponding author is very
the Editors stating the name and affiliation of the important as they are responsible for the article
authors, it should state the following clearly; ultimately in terms of Ethics in Publishing, making sure
 Title paper, key findings and why novel and that the GFA is adhered to, informing readers of any
meets the journal scope, relationships with organisations or people that may
 Article type and if relates to a conference influence the work inappropriately as discussed in the
special issue. GFA, all the content of the article and that the Proof is
 Any details relating to elements of the work correct.
already published as a
Preprint/Archiv/Working paper/conference It is very difficult if not impossible to edit a paper once
paper etc. or as a thesis or other with a published. Most mistakes in articles occur when
precise explanation, corresponding authors are changed after/during
 Any details of funding agencies etc., acceptance; examples include leaving out
 Provide a declaration of interest, acknowledgements of funding agencies and the full and
 List any recommended reviewers, correct author affiliations.
 The corresponding author must sign the
Cover letter as the person held responsible
for all aspects of the paper during and after
the publication process.
Layout of paper The elements/headings listed below should appear Note read carefully the specific details of each
in the order below in the paper: element/heading in this GFA. The main headings i.e.
 Title 2.0 to 6.0 can vary from article to article, but all articles
 Author details must include the title, author details, abstract,
 Abstract keywords, highlights, word count and list of
 Highlights abbreviations on page 1 of the paper.
 Keywords
 Word Count
 List of abbreviations including units and
nomenclature
 1.0 Introduction
 2.0 Material and methods
 3.0 Theory/calculation
 4.0 Results
 5.0 Discussion
 6.0 Conclusion
 Acknowledgements
 List of References
English, grammar and State checked yes or no. The authors must proof read and check their work. This
syntax is NOT the role of the editorial team, reviewers or the
publishing team. Some guidance on English, grammar
and syntax is provided in this GFA below, but it is
ultimately the author’s responsibility.
Title State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no. The title should not include acronyms or abbreviations
of any kind. Excessive use of capitals letters should
also be avoided.
Author names and State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no. The names of the authors in order of contribution or
affiliations supervision or seniority depending on the funding

Corresponding author
Highlights
Graphical abstract
Copyright
Referencing style
Single column
Logos/emblems etc.
Embed graphs, tables and
figures/other images in the
main body of the article
Figures/Graphs/other
images
Tables
Line numbering
Acknowledgements
Ethics in Publishing
Show clearly in the paper, beside the name of the
author with an asterix and footnote. Confirm that
this has been done.
These should be inserted as requested in the article
and uploaded as a separate file.
State if attached, yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no
List here any tables, figures, graphs or other
images that required copyright.
State checked and adhered to RSER preferred
style, yes or no.
State that all
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State checked and adhered to GFA yes or no.
State read guidance on Acknowledgements in GFA
and included, yes or no.
State checked carefully by all the authors named
on the paper.
agency/field requirements should be presented below
the title of the article as follows:
Last, First by initial e.g. Foley, A.M.1, Leahy, P.2
1 = School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering,
Queen’s University Belfast, BT9 4AH, United
Kingdom
2 = School of Engineering, University College Cork,
Ireland
The corresponding author must be denoted in the article
by an asterix superscript beside their name and a
footnote, as follows: Foley, A.M.1, *
* = corresponding author details, a.foley@qub.ac.uk
Note that only one corresponding author can be
identified.
Details on highlights are in the GFA below.
Note submitting a graphical abstract is at the discretion
of the authors. It this is not required by RSER.
Authors are responsible for arranging copyright for any
already published images, figures, graphs and tables
borrowed from third parties. Citing a source is not
enough, in fact this is an Ethics in Publishing issue.
Guidance on arranging copyright is provided in the
GFA below.
The preferred journal style is Vancouver (i.e. [1], [2]
etc., see details on using in this GFA. All references
must be numbered chronologically starting at 1 in
square brackets in the paper and the list of references.
All references mentioned in the Reference List are cited
in the text, and vice versa.
Note an article submitted in two column format will be
automatically rejected.
A paper must NOT be submitted with Elsevier
logos/layout as if already accepted for publication.
Although you will be required to submit all images,
images MUST appear embedded in the main body of
the article where they are to appear in the final
published article.
Any captions for graphs should be below the graph in
the Manuscript. Note that all figures must be
individually uploaded as separate files in the correct
format, check format requirement in this GFA. Ensure
all figure citations in the text match the files provided.
Any captions for tables should be above the graph in
the Manuscript. Note that all figures must be
individually uploaded as separate files in the correct
format, check format requirement in this GFA. Ensure
all table citations in the text match the files provided.
RSER journal uses automatic line numbering, so
authors must submit their source files without line
numbers.
The questions authors need to ask themselves, when
preparing their acknowledgement are as follows:
 Was this work funded by a government agency,
industry or other philanthropic organisation? If
yes, the corresponding author must check and
include any grant/award/funding details.
 Were any data sources, models, images used or
provided by others, who did not contribute to the
article? If yes, then it is to good practice to name
and thank them individually.
 Did any colleagues, friends or family proof read
your work? If yes then it is also polite to mention
them.
It is vital that all authors read our requirements for
Ethics in Publishing. Once your name is on the article
you all are responsible for any plagiarism issues. Note
that a corresponding author must email the Editor in
Chief to get approval for any changes in authorship
 before any Proof is finalised. A change in name of the
corresponding author must also be done with the
written consent of the author and the Editor in Chief
nominated by the existing corresponding author.
Ethical Statement Upload an Ethical Statement or alternatively state Read details in this GFA,
in the Cover Letter.
Declaration of Interest Statement

Declaration of Interest Statement by authors

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.