Solution Manual for Sensation and Perception 2nd by Schwartz

Solution Manual for Sensation and Perception 2nd by

Schwartz

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Lecture Notes
Chapter 6: Color Perception

Learning Objectives

6.1. Examine the relation of the wavelength of light to perceived color.

6.2. Diagram the perceptual principles of hue, saturation, and brightness and the role they
play in our perception of color.

6.3. Formulate the idea of a metamer in additive and subtractive color mixing in terms of
what we learn from color-matching experiments.

6.4. Examine the role of having three cone classes for our perception of color.

6.5. Describe the trichromatic theory of color vision and its relationship to the three
classes of cones that we have.

6.6. Illustrate the opponent-process theory of color vision focusing on what this theory
can explain about color vision that trichromatic theory cannot.

6.7. Explain what we know about color vision in infancy and how it changes as we age.

6.8. Diagram the different types of color deficiency and explain why this term is, almost
always, a better term than color blindness.

6.9. Assess the term constancy and how it applies to color vision.

Summary

Humans can see wavelengths of light within the visual spectrum (between 400 and 700 nm).
Different wavelengths are seen as different colors, but other properties also control color
perception. Color perception is often discussed in terms of three dimensions. First, hue refers to
the color quality of the light and corresponds to the color names we typically use. Second,
saturation refers to the purity of light. Third, brightness refers to the amount of light present.
Colors can be mixed in two ways: additive color mixing and subtractive color mixing. Additive
color mixing is the creation of a new color by a process that adds one set of wavelengths to
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another set of wavelengths, as when lights are mixed. Subtractive color mixing is the creation of
a new color by the removal of wavelengths from a light with a broad spectrum of wavelengths,
as when paints are mixed. Color vision begins with the S-cones, M-cones, and L-cones in the
retina, which each have a maximum response to different wavelengths. The existence of these
three cones supports the trichromatic theory of color vision, which states that the color of any
light is determined by the output of the three cone systems in our retinae. Conversely, color
afterimages and hue cancellation studies support the opponent theory of color vision, which
states that color perception arises from three opponent mechanisms, for red-green, blue-yellow,
and black-white. Cone-opponent cells are located in the LGN and V1. These systems appear to
be intact at birth, and response to color stimuli can be observed in infants. As individuals age, the
lens in the eye becomes opaque, decreasing the amount of light entering, and leading to a
decrease in perception along the blue spectrum. The visual system is also adept at the ability to
perceive the color and relative reflectance of objects despite different conditions.

Usually the result of genetic defects and more common in men, color deficiency refers to the
condition of individuals who are missing one or more of their cone systems. In rod
monochromacy, no functioning cones of any kind are present, resulting in true colorblindness. In
cone monochromacy, only one type of cone is present. In dichromacy, two working cone
systems are present. The major forms of dichromacy are protanopia (lack of L-cones, red-green
deficiency), deuteranopia (lack of M-cones, red-green deficiency), and tritanopia (lack of S-
cones, blue-yellow deficiency). Anomalous trichromacy occurs when all three-cone systems are
present but the absorption pattern is altered. In unilateral dichromacy, only one eye is affected by
dichromacy but the other eye has normal trichromatic vision. Finally, in cortical achromatopsia,
loss of color vision occurs because of damage to the occipital lobe.

Outline

I. Introduction

A. Colors are usually properties of objects

B. Cats and dogs are color deficient, meaning that they have a two-cone system
instead of the human three-cone system
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C. Goldfish have a four-cone system, and research suggests they can see color
differences that appear the same to most humans

D. However, a rare few humans have a four-cone system and seemingly see
more colors than those with a three-cone system

E. Genetically speaking, men are more likely to be color deficient (two cone
system) and less likely to have the extra cone system

II. Wavelengths of Light and Color

A. Humans can see wavelengths of light within the visual spectrum (between
400 and 700 nm)

1. Different wavelengths are seen as different colors

2. The physical stimulus is the wavelength of light entering the eye;

color is a perceptual attribute

3. In color vision, wavelength of light is usually referred to, whereas

frequency is usually used for sound waves

B. Blending several wavelengths together, sunlight forms white light

1. The wavelengths are bunched together, so we cannot differentiate

them in white light

2. However, because sunlight is made up of so many wavelengths,

raindrops can diffract (i.e., spread out) the light into the multiple
wavelengths that make up a rainbow

3. Natural sunlight varies in the distribution of wavelengths throughout

the day

a. At noon, there is more blue light; at evening, there is more

red light

C. Artificial light sources tend to be mixes of wavelengths and can thus be

classified as white light
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D. Heterochromatic light consists of many wavelengths (white lights), whereas
monochromatic light is light of only one wavelength or a narrow band of
wavelengths

1. When monochromatic light reflects off a white surface, that surface is

seen as the color associated with that wavelength

E. Spectral reflectance, another important feature in color perception, is the

ratio of light reflected by an object at each wavelength

1. That is, every object has particular characteristics that allow it to

absorb some wavelengths of light and reflect others

2. The color of any object is determined by the wavelengths it reflects

the most

3. For example, bananas are yellow because they absorb most

wavelengths but reflect yellow light

F. Surfaces that reflect all light equally are achromatic (without color)

1. These surfaces are said to be white to gray to black. What matters is

the proportion of ambient light they reflect

2. An important property of the visual system is that we respond to the

proportion reflected rather than the total amount reflected

III. Hue, Saturation, Lightness, and Brightness

A. Color perception is often discussed in terms of three dimensions: hue,

saturation, and brightness

B. Hue refers to the color quality of the light and corresponds to the color names
that we use

1. Hue is a quality, meaning it is a value that changes but the change

does not make the value larger or smaller
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2. Colors associated with particular wavelengths are called
monochromatic colors, which include basic or spectral colors (i.e.,
red, green, orange, yellow, blue)

3. Colors made of combinations of more than one monochromatic colors

are known as nonspectral (e.g., purple, brown, silver, gold)

C. Saturation refers to the purity of light

1. The more saturated the stimulus, the stronger the color experience.
The less saturated the stimulus, the more it appears achromatic

2. The classic example of saturation differences is the continuum from

red to pink. Pink is a combination of red and white light. The more
white light added, the less “red” the pink is

D. Brightness refers to the amount of light present

1. The brighter an object is, the easier it is to see and the more evident
its colors are

2. Brightness is distinguished from lightness, which refers to the amount

of light that gets reflected by a surface

E. Hue and saturation can be represented in a color circle, a two-dimensional

representation of how hue and saturation interact

F. Hue, saturation, and brightness can be represented in a color solid, a three-

dimensional representation of how hue, saturation, and brightness interact

IV. Additive and Subtractive Color Mixing

A. Most sensations and perceptions do not mix in the ways colors do

1. There are two main types of color mixing: additive color mixing and
subtractive color mixing

2. Additive color mixing is the creation of a new color by a process that

adds one set of wavelengths to another set of wavelengths

a. This occurs when we mix lights

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3. Subtractive color mixing is the creation of a new color by the
removal of wavelengths from a light with a broad spectrum of
wavelengths

a. This occurs when we mix paints

B. Additive color mixing (mixing lights)

1. On a television or computer screen, what one sees is a mix of three

different light sources controlled at different intensities

2. The color circle can be used to predict perceived colors in additive

mixtures

3. In the late 19th century, artists such as Georges Seurat and Vincent
van Gogh invented a painting technique that came to be known as
pointillism

a. An artist uses small distinct dots of simple primary colors as

the basis of a painting. From a distance, the dots of colors
blend together through a process similar to additive color
mixing, which is unique in painting because most techniques
use subtractive color mixing

C. Subtractive color mixing (mixing paints)

1. Subtractive color mixing is more common in the natural world

2. It occurs when we mix substances with different absorption spectra

3. That is, when we mix substances, the mixtures absorb the

wavelengths both substances absorb, leaving only those wavelengths
to reflect what both do not observe

D. Color-matching experiments

1. Many psychophysical experiments have examined the perceptual

reality of color matching and are known as metameric color-matching
experiments
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2. A metamer is a psychophysical color match between two patches of
light that have different sets of wavelengths

a. That is, a metamer consists of two patches of light that look

identical in color but are made up of different physical
combinations of wavelengths

b. In a metameric color-matching experiment, a participant is

shown two patches of light, a test patch (a single wavelength
of an unchanging brightness) and a comparison patch
(composed of three primary colors)

i. The participant has the task of adjusting the levels of each of the
three primary colors so that the color of the comparison patch
matches the color of the test patch
ii. It should be noted that the colors are combined with additive color
mixing
V. The Retina and Color

A. There are three classes of cones in the foveae of the retinae

B. Each cone type contains a different photopigment and is thus sensitive to a

different band of wavelengths

1. The S-cone has a maximum response to light at 420 nm (short

wavelength)

2. The M-cone has a maximum response to light at 535nm (medium

wavelength)

3. The L-cone has a maximum response to light at 565nm (long

wavelength)

C. When these three cone systems are combined, we can see color over a range
of approximately 400 to 700 nm

D. There are many more M- and L-cones than there are S-cones. S-cones only
make up 5% of the cones
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E. S-cones are less sensitive than M- and L-cones, meaning they are less
important in brightness perception but are still important in color perception

F. When reflected light hits the retina, there will be a pattern of responses in the
three cone systems that induce the experience of a particular color

VI. Univariance, or Why More Than One Receptor Is Necessary to See in Color

A. Univariance is the principle whereby any single cone system is colorblind, in

the sense that different combinations of wavelength and intensity can result in
the same response from the cone system

B. That is, color vision requires the comparative inputs of the different cone
systems

C. No individual cone system can, by itself, distinguish colors

D. Univariance also explains why colors are not seen at night

1. When under scotopic conditions (dim light), only the rod system is
used

2. Because there is only one class of rods, no color is seen under these
conditions

VII. The Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision

1. The first modern theory of color vision was proposed by Thomas Young in
the 19th century and further developed by Hermann von Helmholtz

a. They advanced a theory similar to what is now known as the

trichromatic theory

2. The trichromatic theory of color vision states that the color of any light is
determined by the output of the three cone systems in our retinae

3. Evidence supporting the trichromatic theory:

a. Color-matching experiments show that it takes a minimum of three

primary colors to make a metameric match to a single monochromatic
light
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b. There is overwhelming evidence of the existence of three classes of
cones in the human retinae

c. The trichromatic theory predicts what happens when a person loses a

cone class

i. The person still sees in color, but cannot distinguish between

hues normal three-coned individuals can

ii. In the classic form, most color-deficient people cannot

distinguish between reds and greens due to the loss of either
M- or L-cones

VIII. The Opponent Theory of Color Perception

A. The opponent theory of color perception is the traditional rival theory to the
trichromatic theory

B. We now know that each theory explains certain aspects of color perception
that the other theory cannot explain

C. The opponent theory of color perception states that color perception arises
from three opponent mechanisms, for red-green, blue-yellow, and black-
white

1. Findings that support opponent theory

a. Ewald Hering proposed that color vision was organized with

four primaries, or unique hues

b. Following are important reasons that the opponent theory

was advanced:

i. Non-primary colors can look like combinations of two primary

colors
(a) Our perception of colors supports the idea that red and green
do not combine and that blue and yellow do not combine
ii. In color-sorting experiments, people tend to sort colors into four
basic groups (red, green, yellow, and blue) rather than three colors
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iii. Color afterimages are visual images seen after an actual visual
stimulus has been removed. An afterimage is seen as the
complementary color, which are colors on the opposite side of the
color wheel. When mixed together in equal intensity, the result is
white or grey or black. Complementary colors are not the same as an
opponent color. Simultaneous color contrast occurs when
perception of one color is affected by a color that surrounds it
(a) This effect occurs when a color is surrounded by its opponent
color and not by other colors or achromatic backgrounds.
Colors appear intensified when surrounded by their opponent
colors
2. Hue cancellation

a. Hurvich and Jameson (1957) conducted a series of important

experiments describing hue cancellation, which supports the
opponent theory

i. Participants saw a monochromatic light at a wavelength between two

particular primary colors
ii. Then, the participant was given control over the amount of a second
light that could be added to the first, through additive color mixing
with the instructions to cancel out the blue so that the light appeared
only as green
iii. The results showed that only yellow light could cancel out the blue
light (and vice versa)
iv. Some colors can be described in terms of other colors (e.g., orange is
a mix of yellow and red) whereas unique colors can only be
described in terms of themselves (red, green, blue, yellow)
3. Opponent cells in the LGN and V1

a. Opponent cells in the LGN and V1 respond in a center-

surround fashion
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b. In the LGN, cone-opponent cells respond best when they
are excited by the input from one cone in the center, but
inhibited by the input from another cone type in the surround

c. In V1, color-opponent cells respond to one color in the

center and are inhibited by its opponent color in the
surround, or vice versa

d. In V1, double-opponent cells have a center, which is

excited by one color and inhibited by the opponent, but in
the surround the pattern is reversed

(1) These cells are useful for detecting color edges

IX. The Development of Color Perception

A. Color perception in infancy and how it changes as we age

1. Infants are born with all three types of cones present in each eye
(Xiao & Hendrickson, 2000)

2. Infants seem to perceive changes in nm wavelengths when they are

presented to them, in a similar manner to adults

3. Bornstein and colleagues (1976) observed infant response to color

stimuli to determine the presence of color vision

4. Methodology used included:

a. Habituation: the learning process where animals stop

responding to a repeated stimulus, e.g., lights appearing
green

b. Dishabituation: the process where when, after habituation

has occurred, changing the stimulus causes the animal to
respond again, e.g., changing green to blue

5. Using changes in light, it was observed that infants showed much

stronger dishabituation to a 480 nm (blue) stimulus than to a 40 nm
(green) stimulus, similar to the adult response to these lights
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a. Infants also responded in a similar fashion to adults to a
color boundary tests between green to yellow and yellow to
red

6. Findings suggest that infants have more than just operating cones, but
also opponent processes for color vision operating as well

B. Aging and color perception

1. Adults do not lose cones as they age

2. Lens transparency changes as we age and light does not pass as easily
through the lens

3. The lens loses transparency to short wavelengths more than other

wavelengths, lessening our ability to see blue colors

a. This causes an increase in confusion of blues and yellows,

explained by Pinckers opponent-process theory (1980)

b. The loss of the sensitivity to blue is slow and usually

unnoticed

4. A change to the lens is evident if an adult receives an artificial lens, as

eyes are operated on sequentially. The eye with the implanted lens
gives the individual clear transmittal of short wavelengths,
highlighting the distinction between the old and new lens

X. Color Deficiency

A. Color deficiency refers to the condition of individuals who are missing one
or more of their cone systems

B. Color deficiencies are usually the result of genetic defects and are more
common in men because the genes leading to color deficiency are on the X
chromosome

C. Color deficiency is most often determined using Ishihara plates, in which

different colored, but isoluminant dots are presented
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D. Rod monochromacy

1. Rod monochromacy is a very rare form of color deficiency, affecting

1 in every 30,000 people

2. No functioning cones of any kind are present, resulting in true

colorblindness

3. Individuals with rod monochromacy:

a. See the world in shades of gray

b. Are very sensitive to bright light because they always use

scotopic vision

c. Have very poor visual acuity

E. Cone monochromacy

1. Cone monochromacy is an extremely rare form of color deficiency,

affecting 1 in every 100,000 people

2. Only one functioning cone system is present

3. S-cone monochromats have been observed--they have S-cones but

lack M- and L-cones

a. Given the low overall sensitivity of S-cones, S-cone

monochromats have similar symptoms of rod monochromats,
but they are less severe

F. Dichromacy

1. Dichromats have two working cone systems

2. They see in color, but cannot make some of the discriminations that
are easy for trichromats

3. There are three major forms of dichromacy: protanopia, deuteranopia,

and tritanopia
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a. Protanopia is a lack of L-cones due to a deficient gene,
leading to red-green deficiency

b. Deuteranopia is a lack of M-cones due to a deficient gene,

leading to red-green deficiency. The difference between
deuteranopia and protanopia is where the wavelengths that
can be seen cross over

c.. Tritanopia is a lack of S-cones, leading to blue-yellow color

deficiency. It is not sex-linked

4. There is also a form of color deficiency called anomalous

trichromacy in which all three cone systems are present but one or
more has an altered absorption pattern, leading to different metameric
matches than in normal people

5. A very few people have unilateral dichromacy, in which there is

dichromacy in one eye but normal trichromatic vision in the other eye

a. Unilateral dichromacy allows researchers to understand the

true nature of dichromacy

G. Cortical achromatopsia

1. In cortical achromatopsia, loss of color vision occurs because of

damage to the occipital lobe, usually from damage to V4

2. The primary symptom is seeing in black, white, and gray or having

the impression that colors are washed out

3. Sometimes, patients can still discriminate by wavelength

4. In other cases, patients lose the ability to remember color

XI. Constancy: Lightness and Color Constancy

A. Constancy refers to the ability to perceive an object as the same object under
different conditions

1. Color constancy
Solution Manual for Sensation and Perception 2nd by Schwartz

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a. Color constancy refers to the ability to perceive the color of
an object despite changes in illumination

(1) A system that sees an object as a constant color across such changes
leads to accurate perception
(2) Color constancy is probably achieved by an implicit comparison
across different objects in a scene, which each reflect different
wavelengths, allowing the visual system to extract the illumination
from known reflective properties
(3) There are several situations in which color constancy fails
(a) Monochromatic light allows an object to only reflect that
wavelength and appear the color of that light
(b) When an object is viewed in front of a pure black background,
it makes it difficult for the visual system to get the context to
see the object as the right color
2. Lightness constancy

a. Lightness constancy refers to the ability to perceive the

relative reflectance of objects despite changes in illumination

(1) The easiest way to think of lightness constancy is to think of it along

the continuum from black to gray to white
(2) The Gelb effect is an exception to lightness constancy in which an
intensely lit black object appears to be gray or white in a
homogenously dark space
XII. Exploration: The Color Purple

A. In practice, purple and violet are very similar perceptually, but

technically, they refer to different kinds of color

B. Violet is a spectral color seen at the very shortest wavelengths of the

visual spectrum

C. Purple is a nonspectral color that cannot be generated by a single

wavelength of light. It is a mix of red light and blue light

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