Fabrication Performance and Applications of Integrated Nanodielectric Properties of Materials A Review

Composite Interfaces
ISSN: 0927-6440 (Print) 1568-5543 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tcoi20
Fabrication, performance and applications of

integrated nanodielectric properties of materials –
a review
J. Anandraj & Girish M. Joshi
To cite this article: J. Anandraj & Girish M. Joshi (2018) Fabrication, performance and
applications of integrated nanodielectric properties of materials – a review, Composite
Interfaces, 25:5-7, 455-489, DOI: 10.1080/09276440.2017.1361717
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09276440.2017.1361717
Published online: 08 Aug 2017.
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Composite Interfaces, 2018
VOL. 25, NOS. 5–7, 455–489
https://doi.org/10.1080/09276440.2017.1361717
Fabrication, performance and applications of integrated

nanodielectric properties of materials – a review
J. Anandraj and Girish M. Joshi
Polymer Nanocomposite Laboratory, Center for Crystal Growth, VIT University, Vellore, India
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The design and development of modern technological composites Received 11 March 2017
for the electrical and electronic applications are highly crucial. The Accepted 27 May 2017
minitualization, performance and durability of nanocomposites are KEYWORDS
achieved by integrating the nanodielectric properties of materials. Nanodielectric; interfacial
In this review article, the entire upcoming trends in the domain of role; interfacial properties;
nanodielectric illustrated with important applications co-related dielectric constant; loss;
to the various fabrication techniques of integrated nanodielectric applications
composites are provided. The factors affecting the nanodielectric due
to operating electric field and material interface which exhibit the
high dielectric constant, low loss and moderate breakdown voltage.
The complete sketch from concept, fabrication, factors co-related and
applications of nanodielectric properties with the future scope are
taken into consideration for further developments.
Introduction
Material properties are highly critical to obtain the desirable performance, durability and
sustainability under external stimuli for worthwhile engineering applications. Researchers
in the area of dielectrics overcome the various challenges related to the properties of nano-
dielectric and its practical feasibility for applications and devices [1]. The new generation of
materials has highly optimized dielectric and electrical insulating properties are integrated
CONTACT Girish M. Joshi girish.joshi@vit.ac.in

© 2017 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
456 J. ANANDRAJ AND G. M. JOSHI
altogether [2–5]. The term ‘Nanodielectric’ was defined as a multi-component dielectric

and has the nanostructures that lead to changes in one or several dielectric properties.
These materials are usually associated with the incorporation of nanoparticles in the poly-
mer matrix in order to improve their performances. Nanodielectrics properties are mainly
observed in two types of materials namely ceramics and nanocomposites. In the case of
ceramics, nanostructures are obtained to a larger extent. In the recent years, it was noted
that substantial benefit could be obtained if nanocrystalline powders are to be utilized
as starting materials in the solid product. In the case of nanocomposites, preparation of
nanostructure needs novel approaches and concepts. These novel approaches consist of
more than merely adding nanoparticles into polymer matrix [6–9]. Nanodielectrics can be
fabricated using inorganic oxide particles having diameters less than 20 nm. This will bring
its own problems since such finely divided particles have a natural tendency to agglom-
erate. The fundamental principle of nanodielectric depends on very large internal surface
area displayed. Nanodielectric research interest had increased tremendously and various
electrical properties are compared with their unfilled and micro filled counterparts. The
vast published research papers and reports in the domain of nanodielectric show the great
interest in nanodielectric field. To engineer these materials, we need to apply interfacial
modifications, select particular aspect ratio and change in morphology. Nanodielectric deals
with the dielectric process of spontaneous polarization as a function of the applied external
field across a nanoscale. The first experimental evidence of increased polarization in poly-
mer nanodielectric composites was reported by Henk et al. [10]. A fluid diglycidyl ether of
bisphenol A (DGEBA)/methyl hydride epoxy system filled with inorganic particles cast in
bubble-free plates. The investigation on the pure network polymer and polymer/particle
composites withstands the partial electrical discharges. The high endurance was obtained
by dispersion of silicon dioxide aerosol nanoparticles in the epoxy system. Nano scale
structure ceramics demonstrated the nanodielectric behaviour [10–15]. Frechette deter-
mined the performance of the dielectric surface exposed to partial discharge is compared
to the epoxy-containing only the silicon dioxide (SiO2) loading. Low-density discharges
are produced along a gap formed by the interface between compressed air and the bulk
sample. The materials contained a low density of nanoparticles would stop the present dis-
charge conditions and show the improved performance in epoxy without nanoclay [16–20].
Michael explained the presence of nanoscale objects and the existence of process with
characteristics length consisting of nanoscale affects in dielectrics. Some analogy between
crystalline dielectrics and dendrimers are developed to argue that grains and interfaces in
a high degree self-assembly polymer nanodielectric could play each role. The report reveals
that wave surrounded nanodielectric and formed a spiral shape [21–24].
Present trend of nanodielectrics

Nanodielectric domain has been developed in recent years to improve the dielectric prop-
erties such as dielectric constant, dielectric strength and voltage endurance. Nanodielectric
belongs to the new type of materials and related to the dielectric phenomena of nanoscale
materials having the unique morphology of particles, sheets, wires and tubes. These mate-
rials have enormous applications in power electronics industry, gate electrodes, capacitors,
sensors, electrochemical transducers, fuel injectors for automobiles and engines. There are
some methods to be used to prepare nanodielectric such as polyethylene (PE), polyamide
COMPOSITE INTERFACES 457
Figure 1. Published reports in the field of nanodielectrics.
(PI), silicone, epoxy resin (EP) and polyimide (PI). The vast published research papers and
reports in the domain of nanodielectric are shown in Figure 1.
Nano fillers also become a major focus in nanodielectric research. Nano fillers can
improve the different properties of materials in which they are incorporated such as opti-
cal, electrical, thermal and mechanical properties. Nano fillers can be classified into three
types. Zero-dimensional, one-dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional nano-
fillers. Zero-dimensional may be particles of quantum range such as quantum dots. One-
dimensional nano filler may be in the form of plates, laminas and shells. Two-dimensional
nanofillers are in the form of nanotubes and nano fiber having diameter contains different
aspect ratio. Three-dimensional nano filler are in the form of isodimensional particles such
as nanometric silica. Some nano filler such as layered silicate, silicon dioxide and titanium
dioxide are used as resins in the industry.
The major research was done in the domain of polymer nanocomposites since last three
decade. Polymer nanocomposites are found to improve the partial discharge resistance,
space charge formation and effects of charge relaxation. The properties of polymer nano-
composites are changed simultaneously by adding the filler. The survey of polymer host
system based on properties and applications are shown in Table 1.
The interface between polymer system and nano entity

In nanodielectric, interface phenomena occur between the two immiscible phases. The
physics and chemistry of nanodielectric interface using spherical inorganic nanoparticles
and exfoliated layered inorganic or synthetic clays. The highlighted the progress in the
understanding of the interface role but also had some contradictory results [25]. This process
Table 1. Survey of polymer nanocomposites properties and applications.

Host system Filler system Properties Applications
Polyethylene Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Tin Dielectric relaxation Engineering applications [6]
Oxide (TiO2), Aluminium
oxide (Al2O3)
Diglycidyl ether of SiO2 Insulating system Electro technical applications
bisphenol A (DGEBA) [16]
Polypropylene Montmorillonite (MMT) Mechanical properties, direct Industrial and academic fields
injection molding [68]
Polymethyl methacrylate Barium Fluoride (BaF2) Agglomeration of particles and High voltage application [72]
(PMMA) electrical insulation properties
Epon58034 (EEW: Silver Dielectric constant (εr~100) and Capacitor application [79]
325–375) dielectric loss (Tanδ = 0.02).
(Mechanical properties)
Hyperbranched aromatic Barium Titanate (BaTiO3) High dielectric constant, low loss Energy storage devices [85]
polyamide (HBP)/PMMA and high energy density
Diglycidyl ether of Nanoalumina Thermal stability Water absorption [86]
bisphenol-A (DGEBA)
Low density polyethylene Bismuth Ferrite (BiFeO3) Controlling the spontaneous Waste water treatment technol-
(LDPE) magnetization by electric field ogy [87]
Polypropylene Nanosilica Surface degradation is increased Capacitor [88]
PVDF Copper nanowire/ Polarization mechanism Communication devices,
Multiwalled carbon charge-storage capacitors
nanotube (MWCT) systems [89]
2-Ethyl-4methylimidazole BaTiO3 Dielectric constant ε = 20 and Microelectronics [90]
(2E-4MI) dielectric loss 0.01
Polyaniline (PANI) Calcium copper titanate Improved electrical conductivity Light emitting diodes, light-
oxide (CCTO) weight battery electrodes [91]
LDPE Al2O3 Reduction of nano effect Power engineering [92]
Polyamide Zirconia Increase in thermal properties High voltage applications [107]
Polyethylenimine BaTiO3 High energy density, high power Capacitor and electrical
density insulation application [108]
Cross linked polyethylene Silica Increase in partial discharge Electrical power industry [126]
(XLPE) resistance
does not include electrical, mechanical, physical or thermal ageing effects. Nanodielectric
interface emphasizes a lot of interface in chemistry which involved in making nanocompos-
ites. The process needs synthesis steps enable for synergic effect on voltage endurance and
partial discharge resistance properties. Researchers found that measurements in polymer
nanodielectric of glass transition temperature, free volume, and broadband frequency, die-
lectric measurements of the real and imaginary components of permittivity, morphology,
infrared and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) measurements demonstrated the sig-
nificant effect and challenge of modeling the interface in composites.
The effect of nanoparticles on melting point and glass transition temperature (Tg) was
reported in the review addressed the theoretical and experimental issues [26]. It was demon-
strated the dynamic, thermodynamic and pseudo thermodynamic measurements reported
for Tg in confined geometries for both small molecules in nonporous in ultrathin films.
The trend of Tg increases, decreases, remains unchanged or even disappears depending
on the experimental conditions. For the same material, different values of Tg had been
observed. Many experiments are carried out and results are evaluated. It was concluded
that existing theories of Tg are able to explain the range of behavior at the nanometric size
scale. A quantitative analysis proved the experimental results on the nanoconfinement of
the glass transition temperature can be explained by a defect diffusion model. This model
gives the defect-defect interaction enthalpy, defect concentrations, defect lattice geometry,
correlation length and percolation fraction to determine Tg and provides a quantitative

relationship between the percolation fractions of rigid to mobile regions [27]. Different
spherical inorganic nanoparticles in bisphenol-A epoxy as a function of filler concentration
illustrates a strong unusual sensitivity of Tg. The trend was dropped sharply as the concen-
tration increases to 0.5% and then steadily increases as concentration increased to 20%. This
concept will help us to improve our understanding of the nano interface and developing an
interface model can be related to physical and electrical properties [28]. Lewis and Tanaka
represented the structure of the interface in a diffuse double layer and 4-layer electrical
structure in polymer properties [29,30]. Some features lead to dramatic improvements
in the non-polar bonding of nanoparticles. However, there are also some differences in
interface characteristics can be related to the chemical nature of the nanoparticles surface,
polymer matrix types (e.g., amorphous or semi-crystalline thermoplastic polymer, cross-
linked polymer and thermoset polymer), molecular weight and stereo-regularity qualities.
The influence of water on electrical properties such as broadband dielectric and infrared
measurements, low and high field electrical measurements, short and long term hydrolysis
of the nanoparticle surface and another ageing effect cannot be over emphasized. Primarily
it deals with the intercalated and exfoliated nanocomposites and the subsequent undesirable
effect upon the properties [31]. Jeschke demonstrated the structure and dynamics of the
surfactant layer in nano clays prepared from synthetic clays and their composites are studied
to understand the influence of interfacial layer on composite properties. EPR methodology is
used for probing different aspects for polymer surfactant clay interface layer. It characterizes
the intercalation, exfoliation process and properties of polymer clay nanocomposites [32].
The dynamic properties of interface play the crucial role in macroscopic dynamics of
multiphase soft condensed matter systems [33]. These properties affect the dynamics of
emulsions, biological fluids, coatings, free surface flows, immiscible polymer blends and
many other complex systems [34]. The study of interfacial dynamic properties and surface
rheology is a major discipline in physics, chemistry, biology and life sciences [35]. In the
past three to four decades a vast amount of literature has been produced dealing with the
properties of interfaces stabilized by low molecular weight surfactants [36–40].
Interfacial issue of materials

The material scientific community well addressed the interfacial issue of composite mate-
rials. The unique surface properties of interfacial materials are used to develop the effective
solutions for challenging integration of materials suitable for various applications. The report
on mechanisms and fabrication techniques of interfacial materials have lot of scope with
special wettability and environmental applications implemented for the oil-water separation,
membrane-based water purification, desalination, bio-fouling control, high-performance
vapor condensation and atmospheric water collection. A wide range of applications based
on a principle of interface materials has been proved in practice. Some of them include
self-cleaning textile, oil-water separation, anti-icing, anti-fogging glass, atmospheric water
collection, chemical shielding, corrosion control and biological adhesion mitigation [41].
Interfacial phenomena play a crucial role in many environmental processes includes mem-
brane-based separations, adsorption, biological fouling, corrosion, interfacial phase tran-
sition and catalytic surface reaction. The properties of the interfacial material are based on
the lanthanide di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphate. It reported the local vibration at the interface
of the heterogeneous liquid system changes the properties of the material [42]. In cellu-
lose and pectin localization there was continuity between host cell wall and the interfacial
material. The report concluded that in order to verify the interfacial material there are
some techniques allows the identification of cell wall components are used [43]. The glass/
epoxy composite demonstrated the consistency in interfacial materials properties. These
materials constant are proved with the help of experimental results and made finite element
calculations on interface elements [44]. The material interface is important in interfacial
issues because it determines the mechanical, fracture and functional properties. In the
present review, the nano entity reinforced composites are highly crucial to demonstrate
the nanodielectric properties.
Interfacial issue of external field

The evolution of interfacial field was monitored by probe beam through an electric field
induced second harmonic generation. By tracking the evolution of different interfacial fields
we are able to study the redistribution of carriers between the layers due to electron trans-
port across the interfaces. Glinka observed the complicated evolution of interfacial fields
originating from the redistribution of carriers between the interfaces [45]. Peng reported
the strong interfacial field in the graphene/model magnetic insulator hetero structure. Using
graphene as a prototypical 2D system it was demonstrated the coupling to the magnetic
insulator produces the substantial magnetic exchange field (MES) leads to enhancement of
Zeeman spin Hall Effect. The MES effect shows in graphene/EuS heterostructure provides
future spin logic and memory devices based on emerging 2D materials in classical and
quantum information processing [46]. The nitrile group is stretched frequency in red shifts
and improved the dielectric constant was proved in experimental model. In the theoretical
model, Onsager reaction field plays a vital role in predicting vibrational frequency shifts in
bulk dielectric media. But due to the asymmetric environment, the Onsager reaction field
is not applicable for the interface. This model successfully explains the red shift of nitrile
group stretch as a function of dielectric constant which used to estimate the reaction field
near the interface [47].
Nano filler and polymer host system an interfacial mechanism

Basically interfacial between the fillers (nanoscale) and the host system demonstrated inter-
esting electrostatic, electrical and dielectric properties. It may be due to small size fillers
having discrete energy states compared to the bulk filler. We observed the several examples
of improved dielectric properties under the domain of nanofillers such as organic, inorganic
carbon nanotubes (CNT’s), graphene, metal precursor and piezo-ceramics in the host sys-
tem. However, the process of permanent dipole displacement optimized by high voltage
poling treatment. It was suitable for the applications to obtain the device like hydrophone
and variety of sensor and communication applications. The internal material nanostructure
demonstrates the effect of dielectric properties such as external stimuli in the form of poling.
However, a variety of application such as battery electrolytes, super capacitors, smart poly-
mer phones, piezo and pyroelectric composites, dielectric barrier as polymer electrets may
be the future prospect of nanodielectric based on selection of appropriate nano entity [48].
Basically, electrostatic model playing a crucial role in nanodielectric polymer compos-

ites. The factors affecting were spherical nature of nano filler, a surface area surrounded
by three layer interface attributes the dipole types, concentration, permittivity and charge
distribution were disclosed [49]. The computational techniques and models proposed to
demonstrate the nanodielectric property co-related to charge distribution permittivity deals
with the electrostatic, numerical interface charge models related to effective volume. It is
also based on capacitor in and out plane interconnection of the elementary unit cell. In
principle interface electrostatic numeric model dependent interface charge used to modify
the structure feasible to identify the nanodielectric properties. The Electrostatic force is
converted to amplitude modulation to determine the microstructure of materials at the
subatomic level. Furthermore, optimization of the property has a lot of scopes to develop
from microscope to communication level. In the domain of nano science and technology,
morphology of nanocomposites identified by using microscope specially the electron force
microscope. This obeys the principle of nanodielectric spectroscopy. The sample is biased
with some potential. The sharp cantilever made of silicon is metal coated interact with the
sample. The electrostatic force between tip and sample follows the precision of phase loop
criteria. The force gradient provides cantilever motion variation which is correlated to
the electrostatic component of cantilever frequency. The dc bias and dielectric relaxation
induces a spontaneous polarization and optimizes a dielectric loss known as polarization
noise co-related to the dielectric susceptibility which provides the dynamic time-dependent
information of nanostructure [50].
Interfacial properties in nanodielectric

Interfacial properties in nanodielectric can dominate the overall performance of materials.
For example, atomic level interfacial features such as multiple oxidation states and impurities
are considered to be less important in large scale systems due to smaller volume fraction
occupied by the interfacial region. These effects can be seen on the electrical properties in
the nanoscale systems. It is important to characterize the electronic and dielectric properties
of the interface containing materials in the nanostructure. The relationship between the
interface structure, polarization, dielectric response and electronic structure are co-related.
This theory deals with the interface effects modify the static and optical local dielectric
permittivity and the evolution of the local electronic structure. For e.g., valence band and
conduction band as the function of position across interfaces are explained by density
functional theory (DFT) based computational methods. It includes the interface between
Silicon (Si) and inorganic oxides silicon dioxide (SiO2) and the interface between the poly-
mers (polyvinylidene fluoride or polyethylene). Silicon-hafnium oxide (Si-HfO2) and SiO2
polymer interface used to capture the bending, band offsets and creation of trap states at
interfaces. Their application used to detect the interfaces and atomic level on dielectric and
electronic properties of the wide area in nanostructured systems [30]. Interfacial issues deal
with the restricted polarization based on the mixed phase of the polymers. It disclosed the
interfacial performance, properties and utility of engineering polymer blends. In this author
performed a DFT aimed at interfacial properties very close to dielectric applications. The
atomic level interface made possible by DFT. The stability of interfaces and atomic level
interface are described [51].
Engineering properties of materials co-related to dielectrics

Ferroelectric
Ferroelectric is the property of materials which exhibit the spontaneous electric polarization
was observed in cubic barium titanate (BaTiO3) and lead titanate (PbTiO3) structures. It
can be reversed by application of the external electric field. BaTiO3 and PbTiO3 show a
permanent dipole moment. It was demonstrated the surface charge density expressed by
a ferroelectric polymeric thin film matches the density of charges in polyelectrolyte. The
combination of ferroelectric and polyelectrolyte provides large specific capacitance; fast
polarization response times and high semiconductor surface charge density resulted in
non-volatile memory devices [52]. The electrode interface plays the key role in controlling
the macroscopic electrical properties of ferroelectric capacitors was based on thin films. In
epitaxial ferroelectrics, electrode interface was important in controlling the leakage current
and polarization switching. The results suggest that the depolarization occurs during the
polarization switching and almost independent to the metals [53].
Paraelectric property of materials

Paraelectric is the ability of materials to become temporarily polarized under an external
electric field. This can happen if there is no permanent electric dipole present in the material
and removal of electric field results in the polarization of the material which returns to zero.
Paraelectric occurs in crystal phases in which electric dipoles is unaligned and have the
potential to align with an external electric field and strengthen it. Yoshiyuki demonstrated
the kinetics of phase transition between ferroelectric to paraelectric phase in copolymers of
vinylidene fluoride and trifluoroethylene. It studied by measuring the time development of
dielectric permittivity during the phase transition with temperature [54]. Barium strontium
titanate paraelectric ceramics with various grain sizes are synthesized by oxalate co-precip-
itation method and prepared by conventional solid state sintering process. By decreasing
grain sizes the dielectric breakdown strength increases gradually. Based on the conductiv-
ity activation energy analysis, it was found that the large grain boundary density plays a
dominant role in controlling dielectric breakdown strength for samples with smaller grain
size around 0.6–1.0 μm. If the growth of grain size was above 1.0 μm there was a decrease
in dielectric breakdown strength induced by the combined effect of lower grain boundary
density and more interface polarization [55].
Pyroelectric
Pyroelectric is the property of certain crystals such as gallium nitride that are electrically
polarized and results contain large electric fields. In other ways pyroelectric was interpreted
in such a way that ability of certain materials (gallium nitride) generated a temporary
voltage when they are heated or cooled. Martin LW demonstrated that piezoelectric trans-
ducer heterostructure can be controlled to show the low dielectric permittivity due to the
presence of built-in potentials. It diminishes the dielectric permittivity and large values of
the pyroelectric coefficient are obtained. They are used in infrared sensors and pyroelectric
energy conversion of waste heat [56]. Jiang Lu presented a multi-human tracking system
with sensor selection and calibration based on distributed binary pyroelectric infrared
sensors (PIR). This sensor has been developed to select sensor nodes [57]. The improved
enhanced ionization using a pyroelectric lithium niobate crystal for use in a smaller level
ion mobility gas sensor. It was achieved by increasing the power system by using folded
copper electrodes on the crystal surface to amplify the electric field. The author reported by
reducing the distance between the copper electrodes was possible to achieve the ionization
events at much lower temperature shifts [58].
Piezoelectric
Piezoelectric is the ability (of certain solid materials such as crystals and ceramics) to gen-
erate the electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress. The piezoelectric effect
is well understood by the linear electromechanical interaction between a mechanical and
electrical state in crystalline materials. It is the reversible process and exhibits the direct
piezoelectric effect. The behavior of piezoelectricity used in various applications such as
micro and nanomaterials in sensors, electromechanical actuators and energy conversion.
The piezoelectric polymers such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and its copolymers are
being developed for use in flexible electronic components due to intrinsic features of low
weight, charming flexibility and electroactive properties [59]. Piezoelectric materials are
considered to be smart materials and can convert any kind of strain into electricity and vice
versa. Examples of piezoelectric materials are lead zirconium titanate (PZT) and barium
titanate. PZT is common filler for piezoelectric composites. Dielectric and piezoelectric
can be modified by the addition of suitable dopant [60].
Electrical properties of polymer

Electrical properties of polymers widely used in industrial and domestic applications such
as automotive, aerospace, marine packaging and consumer goods. Electrical tests are the
measurements of resistance, conductivity and capacitance on the surface. Organic and
polymer materials have unique electrical properties due to higher volume ratio and can
be done by experimental techniques such as spin coating, electrostatic spraying. These
two techniques used in a large number of optoelectronic devices such as interfacial layer
[61,62]. This material used in metal organic/polymer semiconductor in terms of electrical
and optical characteristics having the structure of solar cells and LEDs. Many research-
ers worked tirelessly for the development of electrical properties and cause the general
improvement in polymer behavior and had a great application in large scale electronic and
optoelectronic devices [63,64]. The schematic diagram for the electrical properties of the
polymer was shown in Figure 2.
Electrical hysteresis loop

The electrical hysteresis loop is a characteristic of the electric field (E) and electric dis-
placement field (D). This electrical hysteresis loop occurs in the ferroelectric material.
When electric field E is increased, the electric displacement D also increases slowly at
first and then increases more rapidly. The rate of electric displacement slows down again
and reaches the saturation value (Es). With further increase in the electric field E, there
is no increase in the electric displacement D. If the electric field is reversed the electric
Figure 2. Electrical properties of polymer.
displacement decreases slowly at first and reaches the residual value Dr at zero fields. If
the electric field is continued in the opposite direction, the domain leads to reverse their
alignment. So the remaining value of electric displacement is lost at the certain value of
the reverse electric field is called the coercive field (Ec). The process of reversal of domain
continues to give a net electric field in the opposite direction. After the saturation occurs in
this direction, it restores the original field which completes the hysteresis loop. Polarization
and dielectric studies of ceramic show the better dielectric material at 1200 °C. It shows
the dielectric constant at 16.4 and loss at 0.4 [65]. Similarly dielectric and hysteresis study
of bismuth sodium titanate and barium zirconate samples demonstrates the hysteresis
loop at temperature 423 K [66]. The ferroelectric characteristics of nanostructured zinc
oxide and magnesium oxide bilayer metal capacitor have high resistivity and low leakage
current density. Based on ferroelectric characteristics, it shows the polarization and electric
field hysteresis gives the symmetry loop and maintains the hysteresis for external voltage
by adding polyvinylidene fluoride and trifluoroethylene in the capacitor configuration
[67,68]. The numeric solution of nonlinear equation describes the hysteresis behavior of
coupling capacitance among silicon via three-dimensional integrated circuits. It resulted in
developing a behavioral capacitance model matches the coupling capacitance measurement
among three silicon vias [69].
Various fabrication techniques of nanodielectric composites and blends

Melt blending method
In order to melt the polymer granules to form a viscous liquid melt blending method was
used. To evaluate this, consider the nanoparticle can be separated into polymer matrix
with high temperature. So sample can be prepared by compression molding and injection
molding.
Melt blending method is an extrusion melt compounding of dispersive nanofillers with

the polymer host material. It was considered to be the productive and cost-effective process
[70]. The major advantage of melt blending is to allow the nanocomposites to be produced
using ordinary compounding devices such as extruders. Some advanced polymer technol-
ogies used in melt blending method in a very attractive manner of large-scale production of
nanocomposite materials. The mixing parameters have an influence on the morphology of
the nanocomposite. Some of the variables are taken into account are balancing the disper-
sion, distributive mixing, melting temperature, time spent for a particular place for melting
and shear elongation forces [71]. The extruder type and screw configuration are the impor-
tant parameters to achieve good nano filler dispersion [72]. Furthermore, if the extruder
remains in longer times it has a better dispersion. In most cases having a melt viscosity in
maximum will helpful in achieving better dispersion because of the higher strain can be
forced on the nano filler particles [73]. The conditions under which dispersive mixing can
be balanced between the cohesive force and hydrodynamic forces [74].
There are some steps for liquid-solid dispersive mixing. Some of them are incorporating
the filler into the liquid matrix, wetting of solid phase by the liquid one, fragmenting the
solid agglomerates and limited agglomeration dispersed particles produced by a parti-
cle-particle collision. All the parameters are controlled but the still complete dispersion of
nano particle are difficult.
The advantages of melt blending method are that nanocomposite can be made by using
thermoplastic resins. This method was mainly used for producing clay nanocomposites and
has been improved for industrial materials. Melt blending was a huge disadvantage because
thermoplastic polymers are used.
Sol-gel method
Sol-gel is a wet-chemical process used for fabrication of both glass and ceramic materials.
It has a solid and liquid phase in which solution forms the gel-like network. The sol-gel
method has the formation of inorganic networks through colloidal suspension (sol) and
gelation of the sol to form a network in a continuous liquid phase (gel).
The sol-gel method is a process used for producing solid materials from smaller mol-
ecules. The main advantage of a sol-gel method was used in the preparation process for
organic and inorganic nanocomposites. It consists of hydrolysis of molecular precursors of
desired nanoparticles and polycondensation of a particle in a glass-like form [75]. Organic
polymers are introduced at the initial stage authorized by the homogeneous dispersion of
particles on the nanometric scale [76].
In the sol-gel method, the reactions formed the base polymer and nanofiller occurred
simultaneously. The latter one was formed by the hydrolysis and condensation reactions
of alkoxides. This method was unsuitable for industrial manufacture. However, it has been
improved recently and now widely accepted in the industry.
Electro spinning
Electro spinning (ES) is a process to obtain continuous polymeric or inorganic fibres having
dimensions that range from tens of nanometers to few micrometers by electro statistically
charged molten polymer [77]. The jet of polymer solution electro statistically charged by
high voltage (HV) source comes out of the needle tip in the form of hanging drop. The high
electric field between the needle and grounded electrode causes a distortion of the drop
until it takes a conical shape called Taylor cone. When the electrostatic force acting on the
charged drop it exceeds the surface tension and critical value of electric potential resulted
in a thin jet of the fluid polymer was formed and attracted towards the metal collector. The
charged jet was stretched and accelerated by the electric field and undergoes to the process
of instability called whipping instability. The fibres run through the spiral path increases the
stretching process resulting in fibres to be thinner and the solvent evaporates. During this
instability process, the formation of fibres occurs in the order of a few hundred nanometers.
The chaotic movement produces the jet from the random deposition of the fibres on the
collector in the form of nonporous. The electro spinning was simple, cheap and industrially
scalable and used to obtain highly porous nonmaterial’s and nanocomposites with good
dispersion having inorganic nanoparticles. For example, high performance of polymeric
nanocomposites for lithium ion batteries was developed by means of electro spinning [78].
Bian has used an electro spinning to disperse nano silica into silicone rubber to reduce
the particle agglomeration. Silicone fibres are coated with electro spun with nanosilica
incorporates into rubber matrix. It was shown that large volume of nanosilica could be
dispersed into silicone rubber by means of electro spinning is compared with high-shear
melt compounding [79].
Intercalation method
Intercalation method is widely used for the synthesis of polymer nanocomposites. It depends
upon the intercalated and exfoliated hybrid methods. This process involves the combin-
ing polymers within the layers of clay. When intercalate was required, organic materials
immersed within the layers of clay expands within the component mixtures. When it is in
the exfoliated mixture the entire layers of clay materials are separated from each other but
tied within the matrix of the organic component.
Intercalation method is a reversible state included within a group of compounds with
layered structures. Intercalation method is used for preparing nanocomposite clay. Nylon-6
clay hybrid is the first nanocomposite produced by the Toyota group was prepared by
intercalation method and polymerization. Polymerization required a chemical plant to
polymerize the monomer dispersed with organically modified clays.
Direct dispersion method

Direct dispersion method is used for producing nanocomposites by chemically modifying
nanoparticles. It also used to increase the compatibility with polymers. The advantage of
this method is total homogeneity achieved without porosity of a given form of sediment
is decreased. For example, zinc oxide nanoparticles are prepared by combining the zinc
sulphate and ammonium bicarbonate.
The direct dispersion method is the simplest methods and its difficult to disperse the
nanofillers homogeneously. However, a recent improvement of mixing devices and surface
treatment techniques has helped in many cases for direct dispersion method. The various
fabrication and techniques of nanodielectric with examples are shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Various fabrication and techniques of nanodielectrics.
High dielectric constant

High dielectric constant has the tremendous applications in energy storage solution for
electronic equipment [80–82]. The innovation of new dielectric materials leads to a new
generation of capacitors. Nowadays there was a growing demand for capacitors can store
a lot amount of charges. This charge storage depends on the high dielectric constant and
electrical permittivity of nanodielectric. These properties are increased by adding nano-
particles fillers into the polymer matrix material.
The electrical properties of nanodielectric can be improved by the nanoparticles are
properly dispersed in the polymer matrix. Since nanoparticles agglomerate easily due to high
surface energy and doing well dispersed discrete nanoparticles in polymer films. These are
the key factor to achieve the high dielectric performance. Polymers have a lot of advantages
such as high processing capacity, mechanical moldability, electrical breakdown strength
and compatibility with several electronic technologies. However, they have a low electrical
permittivity. This problem was overcome by using polymer-ceramic composites because they
combine the processing ability of the polymer with the high permittivity of the ceramics.
If permittivity of the polymer-ceramic composite was high it is to be loaded with ceramic
fillers. However, if the polymer was loaded to a higher level, there was a problem with
poor adhesion [83]. Even with the ceramic-filled polymer technology achieving k value
was greater. Relative k values are experimentally proved and it was considered excellent
for polymer and ferroelectric composites with ferroelectric ceramics of volume fraction
which is less than 50%. Embedded metal nanoparticles in polymer matrices seem also to be
a very effective way to increase the dielectric performance of the nanocomposite [84–87].
In order to have high permittivity particles, the concept of metal nanoparticles is used. To
increase the capacitance of the nanocomposite we need core-shell capacitors to be distrib-
uted uniformly in the host polymer system. This mechanism should allow a large amount
of high energy density can be released rapidly the high power density. Badi proposed that
nanodielectric materials made up of core-shell metal nanoparticles into polymers were a
powerful concept for producing high permittivity polymer films with minimum dielectric
loss can be made part of a standard capacitor manufacturing process.
The other name for high permittivity nanodielectric was high-k refers to a material having
high dielectric permittivity (k) as compared to SiO2 used in semiconductor manufacturing
process. The use of high-k materials has extended beyond electronics and has triggered the
development of other-k materials.
Low dielectric loss

Nanocomposite exhibits the nanodielectric properties with the low dielectric loss and
higher dielectric constant as potential applications in energy storage devices. The technique
core-double shell barium titanate (BaTiO3) are successfully prepared by in situ polari-
zation techniques in which BaTiO3 nanoparticles are used as a core and the two shells
hyper branched aromatic polyamide (HMP) and poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA).
It was proved the low dielectric loss because of poor nanoparticles dispersion and the
interfacial adhesion between barium titanate and PMMA [88]. The dielectric properties
of Polyethylene nanocomposites exhibit low-frequency loss as a function of nano alumina
loading [89]. Dielectric loss of Bismuth Ferrite (BiFeO3) and low-density polyethylene
(LDPE) nanocomposites indicated a low dielectric loss in the range of 100–105 Hz and the
variation of dielectric loss was small with 3wt% BiFeO3, 1wt% LDPE and dielectric loss
were increased by adding 2wt% of BiFeO3. The dielectric loss of BiFeO3/LDPE nanocom-
posites was derived from the polarization loss which has a large number of polar groups
of BiFeO3 nanoparticles generated. Similarly, conductivity and structure loss are derived
from the microheterogeneity of nanocomposite [90]. The loss factor measurements with
the function of temperature at high voltage laboratories resulted in a low dielectric loss by
using low nanofiller concentrations. So the large volume fraction of interfaces and poly-
mer chain entanglements decrease the motion of charge carriers reducing the dielectric
losses [91].
The PVDF/copper nanowires composites are prepared by precipitation techniques well
exhibit the low dielectric loss property. The result concluded that increase in ohmic and
polarization losses arises from the conductive network formation and developed the inter-
facial polarization [92]. The barium titanate (BaTiO3)/epoxy nanocomposites are proved
the good dielectric properties. This method proved the broadband response of capacitor
in structure directly co-related to the dielectric properties and has the low dielectric loss.
By increasing BT contents the dielectric loss does not change remarkably. In this case
slow mobility of epoxy chain plays an important role on this stable dielectric loss [93].
Polyaniline and calcium copper titanate nanocrystal composites are frequency dependent
characteristics of dielectric loss are studied for PANI and composites. Dielectric loss shows
two times lesser than the value obtained for pure PANI at 100 Hz. This loss would help to
design and fabrication of PANI based materials for the potential applications such as light
emitting diodes, information storage, frequency converters, modulators, dielectric ampli-
fiers, sensors, anti-corrosion coatings, light weight battery electrodes and electromagnetic
shielding devices. The composites also very useful in tailoring super capacitors as devices
[94]. The factors affecting the nanodielectric are shown in the Figure 4. The process of
dielectric loss I-V plot was shown in Figure 5. We discussed the input signal as in the form
of sine wave, square wave and triangular wave in ac bias. Basic polarisation process under
Figure 4. Factors affecting the nanodielectrics.
Figure 5. Process of dielectric loss I-V plot.
external electrical field was shown in Figure 6. The varying external signal response may
be good control over the desired dielectric properties.
Issues of dielectric polarization in view of nanodielectric

Dielectric polarization is the separation of charge centres (the nucleus being the positive
charge centre and electron cloud being the negative charge centre) within the atoms of a
material by applying the electric field across the material. When the DC field was applied
across the dielectric it pushes the electron cloud opposite to the field direction separating
out the coincident charge centres called an induced dipole. The separation of the charge
Figure 6. Basic polarization process under external electric field.
continues up to the point where the force due to the field was balanced out by attractive
Coulomb force between the electron cloud and the nucleus. This induced dipole gives rise
to a surface charge density on dielectric and volume charge density within the bulk of the
dielectric. The process was known as dielectric polarization. The effective permittivity and
polarization properties of polyethylene nanodielectric reported that permittivity reduction
was closely related to the molecular chain movements, physical and chemical interactions
and polarization effects in interfacial region. It stimulates the effective permittivity and
polarization properties of (LDPE)/aluminium oxide nanoparticles (Al2O3) nanodielec-
trics based on interphase power law model (IPL). It indicates that the IPL model was well
fitted into experimental results of reduced permittivity in LDPE/Al2O3 at low loadings
[95]. Dielectric polarization and conductivity of new metal-containing polymer thin film
structure suggested that measurements of the dielectric properties exhibited by the metal
containing polymer structures based on copper (II) complexes in the frequency range of
102–106 Hz are reported [96]. The charging behaviour of electrode/LDPE and fluorinated
ethylene propylene (FEP)/electrode and LDPE/FEP interfaces are done by using pulsed
electroacostic technique. The time dependence of space charge distribution was recorded
at room temperature under polarization and depolarization. In the experimental results
demonstrated that the space charge accumulations at the dielectric interfaces are studied
at test specimens. The magnitude and dynamics of the charge are not well described by the
Maxwell–Wagner theory for the interfacial polarization. It means that electrode materials
have the largest influence on the polarization at the interface [97]. Dielectric polarizations
of C60 in electric fields are high because of hydrogen atoms directly attached to the carbon
nanoparticles [98]. Dielectric polarization has the temperature and the effects of the capac-
itive across radio frequency played a role of micro-electromechanical switches. Generally,
Figure 7. Issues of dielectric polarization.
dielectric charging formed by charge injection under the voltage stress was observed. These
results are confirmed that dielectric charging was complicated the process known as a
stretched exponential relaxation. This whole mechanism was done by activation energy
which was calculated from the temperature dependence of capacitance transient response
[99]. The dielectric polymerization and molecular association of hydrogen fluoride were
measured as a function of pressure at various temperatures. At ambient temperature and
pressure region, there was no molecular association occurs a dipole moment value has
been obtained [100]. The issues of dielectric polarization in view of nanodielectric shown
in Figure 7.
Experimental evidence of nanodielectric properties

Energy storage capacitance of future demand would be fulfilled by the giant dielectrics
property possess the high permittivity. Hence it is a challenge to the material community
to deliver nanodielectric composites. The variety of engineering treatments on the nano-
particles has applications of nanodielectric. These particles embedded to obtain the giant
dielectric permittivity [101].
Reports on giant dielectric constant as a function of the metal precursor, piezo-ceramic
and graphite sheets are reported and it was demonstrated the improved nanodielectric
properties. In Figure 8 shows the variation of dielectric constant of polycarbonate and
polystyrene blend of 5, 10, 15% of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) under external DC bias poten-
tial. Inset is the variation of dielectric loss with respect to the loading of aluminium oxide
(Al2O3) [102]. It shows the higher dielectric constant and DC-bias conduction mechanism
was evaluated. Figure 9 shows the overall performance of polycarbonate composite as the
function of calcium copper titanate (CaCu3T14O12) loading exhibit the higher permittivity
[103]. Figure 10 shows the variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of polyvinyl
alcohol (PVA)/copper bismuth sulphide (CuBi2S3) composites exhibit the role of filler on
dielectric constant [104]. It shows the low dielectric constant and high dielectric loss and
has a tremendous growth in electrical and electronics domain as capacitor and sensor appli-
cations. Figure 11 shows the discrete plot of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of isoph-
thalic polyester (IP) resin/styrene composed of strontium titanate nanoparticles (STONP)
Figure 8. Variation of dielectric constant of polycarbonate/polystyrene blend of 5, 10, 15% of aluminium

oxide (Al2O3) as a dopant with respect to DC bias in volts. Inset is variation of dielectric loss with respect
to loading of aluminium oxide (Al2O3).
Figure 9. Variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of polycarbonate/calcium copper titanate
(CaCu3T14O12) with respect to loading of CaCu3T14O12.
[105]. It concluded that dielectric constant was proportional to STONP loading. Figure 12
shows the variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of virgin graphite flakes as a
function of temperature [106]. It shows the high dielectric constant and dielectric loss used
Figure 10. Variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/copper bismuth
sulphide (CuBi2S3) composites with respect to loading of CuBi2S3.
Figure 11. Variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of Isophthalic polyester (IP) resin/styrene/
strontium titanate nanoparticles (STONP) with respect to loading of STONP.
in industrial areas and automobile industries. Figure 13 shows the discrete plots of dielectric
constant and dielectric loss of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)/trifluoroethylene (TrFE) as
a loading of calcium copper titanate (CCTO) [107]. The dense structure of the composites
and the uniform distribution of CCTO particles in the matrix region played the key role in
the dielectric enhancement. It is feasible for the fuel cells and supercapacitors applications.
Figure 12. Variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of virgin graphite flakes as a function of
temperature.
Figure 13. Variation of dielectric constant and dielectric loss of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)/
trifluoroethylene (TrFE) as a loading of calcium copper titanate (CCTO).
The recent trend shows the composition of nano entity enables to obtain the nanostruc-
tures in the form of nanocomposites follows the criteria of percolation threshold. It was
co-related to the conductivity or dielectric percolation may be due to carbon allotropes
such as CNT, graphene [108].
The basic mechanism observed in the modification of the structure of virgin polymer
system as a function of nano filler loading. It was observed that the phase changes occurs
from amorphous to the crystalline induced thickness of interfacial grain boundary layers
which demonstrated the nature of phase change from amorphous to crystalline for the virgin
polymer systems. It was tested to obtain the desired integrated performance of polymer
composite under external stimuli.
Applications and future prospects of nanodielectric science

High voltage dielectric
Optimized efficiency with minimum thickness with improved dielectric constant was suit-
able for the high voltage applications. In order to minimize electric stress with an adequate
reliability under high potential operation was the speciality of nanodielectric materials
[109]. High voltage in alternating and direct current brings new challenges in terms of die-
lectric materials. It needs a growth to develop materials with controlled electrical resistivity,
space charge accumulation, high thermal conductivity, high dielectric strength and longer
endurance lifetime. The unique properties effective for the power systems withstand power
densities, more reliable and have a longer lifetime and durable [110].
Dielectric capacitor
Nanodielectric has high breakdown field strength with high dielectric constant. It will
develop the performance of storage density of capacitor and miniaturize the capacitor.
The excellent anti-ageing properties can ensure the stable performance of the capacitor.
Increasing the dielectric break down strength and reliable films are one of the challenges
and goals in modern day dielectrics research in dielectric applications [111]. Capacitors are
known as energy storage components in electrical and electronic engineering applications.
Capacitors having different types such as ceramic film, aluminium electrolytic, laminated
ceramic, tantium electrolytic and supercapacitors. Electrolytic and supercapacitors are the
largest capacities. They are manufactured worldwide and some of the largest producers
are panasonic, vishay, kemet and murata [112]. Some energy storage capacitors have great
demand in military applications include vehicles, airplanes and ships. In order to improve
the energy storage capability of the capacitor should increase the energy density of the
dielectric materials [113]. Capacitors are important components in power conditioning
applications. The main purpose of a capacitor was to mediate current fluctuations in the
electrical circuit to provide a load with the constant flow of current. These capacitors are
widely used in electrical power conditioning systems. In power, conditioning was concluded
that capacitors have stable dielectric properties across the temperature range and wide range
of frequencies [114]. Capacitors are considered to be important elements used for DC-link
filters, AC filters and energy storages in power electronic systems. Some capacitors such
as aluminium electrolytic and metallized polypropylene film are widely used in DC-link
applications due to the wide range of capacitances and voltages. The advantages of capac-
itors are energy density, reliability, capacitance stability and voltage capability [115]. The
advantages of the dielectric capacitor are shown in Figure 14.
Figure 14. Advantages of dielectric capacitor.
High voltage direct current (HVDC) cable

The excellent space charge properties of nanodielectric can moderate the internal electric
field. The operating voltage level and reliability of high voltage direct current (HVDC)
cable will increase the breakdown performance and anti-electrical ageing properties of
nanodielectric.
An HVDC electric power transmission system uses direct current for the electrical
power system. For long distance transmission lines, HVDC cables are used for less expen-
sive and low electrical losses. When it comes in underwater power cables HVDC avoids
the heavy currents and discharge the cable capacitance. It allows the power transmission
between unsynchronized AC transmission systems. HVDC allows the transferring the
power between grid systems at different frequencies such as 50–60 Hz. It improves the sta-
bility and economy of each grid by allowing the exchange of power between incompatible
networks. HVDC cable generates both electric and magnetic fields. An electric field was
created when sea water containing ions moves through the magnetic field [116]. To analysis
of HVDC submarine cables done by using the harmonic analysis method. HVDC cables
are buried at about 1.5 m under the seabed surface. There are three categories of HVDC
cables are mass-impregnated (MI), self-contained fluid-filled (SCFF) and extruded. These
masses saturated with a substance insulated with paper and soaked with high viscosity
compound. These SCFF insulated with paper soaked with low viscosity oil. In extruded it
insulated with a polyethylene based compound. MI cables are widely used for many years
was highly reliable. SCFF cables are used for the high voltages. Extruded cables for HVDC
applications are still under development. Nowadays they are used for relatively low voltage
levels up to 2000 kV DC was mainly associated with voltage source converters [117]. The
performance of HVDC was shown in Figure 15.
Dielectric in power supply

The application of nanodielectric materials will reduce the size and increase the reliability
of generator and reduce the cost. In addition, a generator will be extended for the coro-
na-resistant property of nanodielectric. We demonstrated the application of dielectric in
power supply in Figure 16.
Figure 15. Performance of high voltage direct current cable.
Figure 16. Application of dielectric in power supply.
Dielectric paint
Dielectric paints have a wide range of spectrum coated with thermal reflection was applied
to a specific type of microspheres to block the heat radiation in a much larger or broader
range of thermal energy to disappear heat rapidly. This coating has a thermally reflective
material reduces the heat transfer through the coating with 90% of solar infrared radiations
and 85% of ultraviolet radiations from the coated surface. Dielectric paint works bi-di-
rectionally. For example, the external wall of building dielectric paint has been applied.
A direct sunlight was reflected from the surface as well as heat is migrating through the
wall outward towards the colder outside air. The infrared photograph will clearly show the
reduction of wintertime heat loss from a home through the areas that have been painted
with a dielectric paint.
Dielectric paints will improve the temperature distribution within a room without any
energy inputs and ceramic paint was applied to the interior surface of a room [118]. This
dielectric paint was characterized by the emission of far-infrared radiation and its physio-
logical impact on the human body. This dielectric paint was compared to the conventional
material through the test application similar to spaces in an actual building [119].
Nanodielectric preferred as the best dielectric coating paint due to waterproof, fire resist-
ance and flashover properties. The advantage of dielectric paint is illustrated in Figure 17.
Figure 17. Advantages of dielectric paint.
Dielectric materials for the rotating machine systems

When electric motors and generators were invented, commercially known as the rotat-
ing machine system. Rotating machine helps to run the smaller machines. This can be
accomplished when the machine was capable of withstanding higher electrical and thermal
stress and has a better thermal conductivity. The advantages of rotating machine systems
are good mechanical strength and environmental friendly [120]. The rotation machine
system was one of the very first applications of nanodielectric and the driving thrust for
improvements in motor systems and used in inverter-fed drives in fast-rise-time pulses.
Some developed with great improvements in resistance to partial discharges. Some of them
are random-wound wire enamel and form-wound strand wire enamel.
Research in rotating machine has been carried out for a number of years with the mate-
rials like mica, epoxy resin and fibreglass [121]. In this, mica can split into the thin flat
laminate. It has great advantages such as high dielectric strength, low dielectric losses,
resistance to high temperatures and good mechanical properties [122]. The high voltage
rotating machines was subjected to a combination of different stresses such as thermal,
electrical and mechanical. The electrical stress was related to the electrode geometry. The
thermal stress was determined by the losses within the conductors. It often plays the dom-
inant role in the aging process of materials and has an influence on the interface between
metallic and insulating parts. The mechanical stress was done by a combination of thermal
and mechanical stress due to expansion or contraction of the material depends upon the
function of temperature. The mechanical stress contributes the aging performance of the
materials and failure of the mechanical performance due to fatigue of the material leads
to electrical failure [123]. The role of dielectric materials for the rotating machine systems
was shown in Figure 18.
Random-wound wire enamel

A typical low voltage generator was built with multi-turn stator coils, ranging from 1 to
16 turns per coil. These coils can either form wound or random wound. Consider the
units less than 1500 kW the size of the stator and the minimum wire thickness does not
allow the form-wound coils. In some cases, form-wound or random wound coils can be
used. Random-wound coils generators can be made at a reduced cost and their capability
Figure 18. Role of dielectric materials for the rotating machine system.
to withstand severe environmental conditions can be improved through the use of vacu-
um-pressure impregnation.
Consider the low voltage motors are random-wound with round wire and coated with
polyamide-imide provides the suitable abrasion resistance for winding at high operating
temperatures. Multiple layers are applied to four passes with dipping and drying of each
layer to obtain the total thickness of about 50 μm. For improved resistance to partial dis-
charge, the center layers contain the various nanosize oxide fillers such as tin oxide was
considered to be most common filler. Normally there was a trade-off between resistance
to partial discharge increases with filler loading and manufacturing with increased filler
loading reduces with wire flexibility leads to cracks in the enamel. In low filler loading, the
resistance to partial discharges was greatly improved [124–126]. The random wound wire
enamel was shown in Figure 19. Wound coils are preferred for electrical appliances basically
need good dielectric enamels to maintain the power performance.
Figure 19. Random wound wire enamel.

Form-wound strand wire enamel

The coils for medium to high voltage motors are wounded by rectangular-shaped magnet
wire called strands. During the enameling process of magnet wire, it was done to expand
the required thickness to meet the electrical, thermal and abrasion resistance. The magnetic
wire passes through the coating had a number of times depending on the wire type and its
application. This layer-by-layer coating was oven-cured and resulted in multiple polymers
to polymer interfaces. Under pulse-width modulation waveforms from resistance to partial
discharge the outer layer contain nano-sized oxide fillers resulted in complex multi-layer
enamel. The application of form wound strand wire enamel was shown in Figure 20.
Future applications
Increased stress applications
All practical applications of solid dielectrics are concerned with electrical treeing that orig-
inates from defects within extrusions, mouldings and castings. For example, it was used in
gas-insulated equipment and moulded bushings. It was the reason that average stress was
kept at relatively low level. However nano-sized fillers will improve the resistance of the
materials to electrical treeing by acting as barriers delayed the growth of trees [127]. This
property improvement leads the way of higher stress and reduction in thickness. This made
be possible to epoxy polymer resin and cross-linked polyethylene cable. For that above rea-
son, an ultra-clean cable was used. Charge injection, trapping, space charge accumulation
and HVDC played an important role in dielectric strength [128]. Nano-sized fillers tend
to increase the electrical conductivity and reducing the tendency of materials to trap the
charge [129].
High temperature applications

Dielectric materials have low thermal conductivity and for the application requirements
need high thermal conductivity to remove heat. In industry epoxy composites containing
Figure 20. Application of wound coil wire enamel.

Figure 21. Application of high temperature in dielectric.
~50 wt% of micron-sized silica are currently used as packaging material for power electronic
devices like an Insulated-gate bipolar transistor and silica has high electrical resistivity
and low dielectric constant. The low thermal conductivity was a limitation of having high
thermal conductivity packaging whatever the limited it’s in the application in dielectric
materials. Nano-sized fillers improved the thermal conductivity of nanodielectric at low
volume fractions [130]. Most studies are limited to knowing the thermal conductivity of
nanodielectric. But thermal expansion and breakdown strength are other important prop-
erties are critical to microelectronic packaging. High thermal conductivity can be achieved
by forming a thermally conductive pathway in the matrix whereas the thermal conduc-
tivity of the nanodielectric depends on the types of filler, a number of pathways formed
and thermal resistance of the contact points. Some of them used to form conductive paths
such as whiskers and filaments. However, it was often very difficult to the processing of
nanodielectric with filler level above the percolation threshold.
In future, high thermal conductivity nanodielectric applications in power electronic
devices and rotating machine systems would be evolved around the mixtures such as micro
and nano sized fillers. Mixtures can improve the packing fraction of fillers and achieved the
low percolation threshold as the conductivity pathway increases resulted in high thermal
conductivity at a lower cost of processing [131]. The application of a high temperature in
dielectric was shown in Figure 21.
Electric stress control applications

In this trend to control the electric stress in medium voltage, cable accessories and rotat-
ing machine systems was largely accomplished with silicon carbide nonlinear resistive
compositions. Silicon carbide has a modest nonlinear coefficient, but in future, it will
be done by using zinc oxide filler has the greater nonlinear coefficient having the prop-
erties of reducing the physical size of the grading device, high voltage applications and
grading of high voltage (HV) bushings consider to be a new application [132]. Silicon
carbide and zinc oxide are based on percolated materials and zinc oxide was nano size
in nature.
In order to increase the thermal conductivity of nanodielectric and electric stress appli-
cations combine with nano size particles and micron-sized zinc oxide fillers to improve
the packing fraction reduces the percolation threshold with increased pathways resulting
in improved processability [133].
Nanostructure dielectric surface applications

Nanostructure dielectric surface suitable for the industrial applications and outdoor insu-
lation having the great advantage of easy to clean surface. Such surface shows a high static
contact angle and creating a non-wetting surface. Water droplets away from the surface
and sweeping contaminants along their path and improving the performance of outdoor
insulators in polluted and wet environments. A nanostructure surface was created by nano
size silica in the surface layer of the materials. Natural weathering gradually destroys the
nanostructure and made performance was very low.
In silicones, the lower molecular weight species are migrated to the surface and gives
the hydrophobicity to silicones destroyed the nanostructure within the short time. The
dielectric application based on performance was shown in Figure 22.
Figure 22. Dielectric applications based on performance.

Future development of nanodielectric domain

In this review article, we introduced some of the important better features of nanocomposite
research related to application and development of engineering applications. Nanocomposite
appears to offer a variety of advantages over their micron-filled counterparts. However, there
are many unanswered questions to overcome. Certain aspects of dielectric properties such
as electrical erosion and dielectric spectroscopic characteristics are well understood. But still
to have a little understanding of the physics the charge dynamics and electrical breakdown
behaviour of these systems should be well disclosed. One can visualize that understanding
of the aging mechanisms and behaviour of nanocomposites are critical importance to use
in practical high voltage plant. Finally, we understood little about the long-term toxicity of
nanocomposites. It should not assume that the nanoparticles are harmless to health as their
macroscopic counterparts. Firstly, largely increased surface area has greater chemical activity
and may be catalysts for the production of damaging radicals [134]. Secondly, if they enter
the body they can penetrate deeper into biological systems accumulating in individual cells.
Soto studied the toxicity of a range of nanoparticles, including TiO2, Fe2O3, Al2O3, ZrO2
and crysotile asbestos commented on ‘it would seem unrealistic to repeat the failures of
the asbestos industry largely ignored the product dangers for more than 2000 years’ [135].
In 1990s Toyota group reported their preparation of nylon-6/clay hybrids, academic
and industrial interest. The domain of nanocomposites has grown exponentially using this
term in the literal mathematical sense. Many novel materials are developed having a great
interest to the electrical insulation engineer brings great advantage in increased mechanical
strength, reduced mechanical and electrical erosion, and improved electrical breakdown/
endurance behavior and space charge mitigation. However, the field was still in infancy.
For example, the review of Tanaka describes the reports of contradictory effects needs to
be understood nanodielectric, potentially appears great and we would suggest that it was
important to temper our enthusiasm by remembering there was still much to understand
in this fascinating class of materials [136,137].
Conclusions
We have consolidated the overall issues of nanodielectric properties. In the present trend of
nanodielectric, research demonstrates the scientific excellence was made a great progress in
domestic and industrial applications. In order to execute in the industry, the production cost
and processing may be a drawback. In interfacial concept has grown rapidly to the practical
applications. Interfacial issue related to the materials and electrical field are discussed in
connection with nanodielectric. The correlated terms of nanodielectric process enable to
know the better nanodielectric engineering, electrical properties and electrical hysteresis
characteristics are feasible to improve the performance, properties and development of
relevant applications. Dielectrics have been regarded as the mature science, but there are
real opportunities to provide substantial performance improvement and cost effective. Many
applications are not limited by electrical properties but explained by mechanical and ther-
mal damping too. It was put forward the new and improved nanodielectric properties with
great capabilities and electro-technical potential would be found among the nanostructure
ceramics and leads to wide applications. The new class of materials and the nanodielectric
properties will be the fact of an emerging technology and devices.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Girish M. Joshi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0959-0268
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ISSN: 0927-6440 (Print) 1568-5543 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tcoi20

Fabrication, performance and applications of

J. Anandraj & Girish M. Joshi

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Fabrication, performance and applications of integrated

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

CONTACT Girish M. Joshi girish.joshi@vit.ac.in

altogether [2–5]. The term ‘Nanodielectric’ was defined as a multi-component dielectric

Present trend of nanodielectrics

Figure 1. Published reports in the field of nanodielectrics.

The interface between polymer system and nano entity

Table 1. Survey of polymer nanocomposites properties and applications.

correlation length and percolation fraction to determine Tg and provides a quantitative

Interfacial issue of materials

Interfacial issue of external field

Nano filler and polymer host system an interfacial mechanism

Basically, electrostatic model playing a crucial role in nanodielectric polymer compos-

Interfacial properties in nanodielectric

Engineering properties of materials co-related to dielectrics

Paraelectric property of materials

Electrical properties of polymer

Electrical hysteresis loop

Figure 2. Electrical properties of polymer.

Various fabrication techniques of nanodielectric composites and blends

Melt blending method is an extrusion melt compounding of dispersive nanofillers with

Direct dispersion method

Figure 3. Various fabrication and techniques of nanodielectrics.

High dielectric constant

Low dielectric loss

Figure 4. Factors affecting the nanodielectrics.

Figure 5. Process of dielectric loss I-V plot.

Issues of dielectric polarization in view of nanodielectric

Figure 6. Basic polarization process under external electric field.

Figure 7. Issues of dielectric polarization.

Experimental evidence of nanodielectric properties

Figure 8. Variation of dielectric constant of polycarbonate/polystyrene blend of 5, 10, 15% of aluminium

Applications and future prospects of nanodielectric science

Figure 14. Advantages of dielectric capacitor.

High voltage direct current (HVDC) cable

Dielectric in power supply

Figure 15. Performance of high voltage direct current cable.

Figure 16. Application of dielectric in power supply.

Figure 17. Advantages of dielectric paint.

Dielectric materials for the rotating machine systems

Random-wound wire enamel

Figure 19. Random wound wire enamel.

Form-wound strand wire enamel

High temperature applications

Figure 20. Application of wound coil wire enamel.

Figure 21. Application of high temperature in dielectric.

Electric stress control applications

Nanostructure dielectric surface applications

Figure 22. Dielectric applications based on performance.

Future development of nanodielectric domain