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Applications and Functions of γ-Poly-Glutamic Acid and its Derivatives in

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DOI: 10.2174/1389201021999201118161155

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Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, 22, 000-000 1

RESEARCH ARTICLE

Applications and Functions of γ-Poly-Glutamic Acid and its Derivatives in

Medicine

Guoliang Wang1,†, Qing Liu1,†,*, Young Mok Yang2, Soo-Ung Lee3, Jee-Soo Han4,
Kyoung-Jin Jang2, Dong Young Kang2, Nipin Sp2, Zhandong Li5 and Tao Tong6,*

1
Jilin Green Food Engineering Research Institute, Changchun 130022, China; 2Department of Pathology, School of
Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Konkuk University, Chungju 27478, Korea; 3Chuncheon
Bioindustry Foundation, Chuncheon 24232, Korea; 4Korea Research Institute of Standards and Science, Daejeon
34113, Korea; 5Measurement Biotechnique Research Center, Jilin Engineering Normal University, Changchun 130052,
China; 6College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: Background: γ-Poly-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is a naturally occurring homo-polyamide pro-

ARTICLE HISTORY
Received: August 13, 2020
Revised: October 23, 2020
Accepted: October 23, 2020
DOI:
10.2174/1389201021999201118161155
duced by various strains of Bacillus. It is made from repeating units of L-glutamic acid, D-glutamic ac-
id, or both connected through amide linkages between α-amino and γ-carboxylic acid groups. As a bi-
opolymer substance, the attractive properties of γ-PGA are that it is water-soluble, biodegradable, bio-
compatible, non-toxic, non-immunogenic, and edible. Therefore, it can be used as a green and envi-
ronmentally friendly biological material.
Methods: The review concentrates on the reports revealing the functions and potential use of γ-PGA
and its derivatives in medicine.
Results & Discussion: γ-PGA is described to possess several properties that may be exploited in medi-
cine. The biopolymer reportedly has been successfully applied not only as a metal chelator, drug carri-
er/deliverer, and gene vector, but also used safely as a vaccine adjuvant, tissue engineering material,
and contrast agent.
Conclusion: γ-PGA could be potentially considered as a potential biomedical material in the field of
medicine.

Keywords: γ-Poly-glutamic acid, biopolymer, application, function, medicine, biological material.

1. INTRODUCTION characteristics of water solubility, biodegradability, biocom-

γ-Poly-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is a particular anionic pol-
ypeptide in which D- and L-glutamic acid monomers are
connected via γ-amide linkages (Fig. 1) [1]. It can be found
in an edible ferment (Natto) fermented by the species of Ba-
cillus [2-4]. Following the discovery of γ-PGA, it has been
the subject of much interest in modern homo-polyamide re-
search. Suitable methods for production, detection, purifica-
tion, and determination of γ-PGA were well established.
Based on the glutamic acid residues present, γ-PGAs are
classified into three categories (γ-D-PGA, γ-L-PGA, and γ-
DL-PGA). Regardless of its stereochemistry, γ-PGA shows
*Address correspondence to these authors at the Jilin Green Food Engineer-
ing Research Institute, Floor 11, Building B, Brilliant Plaza, No. 1119,
Nanhu Avenue, Changchun 130022, Jilin, China;
E-mail: jl_greenfood@hotmail.com; College of Food Science and Nutri-
tional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No. 17, Qinghua Donglu,
Beijing 100083, China; E-mail: tongtao1028@163.com
patibility, non-toxicity, non-immunogenicity, and edibility
towards humans and environments [5]. Therefore, γ-PGA
could be used as a type of green and environmentally friend-
ly biological material. To date, γ-PGA has been applied as
food supplement [6], thickener [7], texture enhancer [8],
cryoprotectant [9], oil-reducing agent [10], and animal feed
additives [11, 12]. Furthermore, γ-PGA has also been used as
a biopolymer flocculant [13] and dye removal [14] in the
field of environmental protection. γ-PGA has also been ex-
plored for use in agriculture [15, 16], cosmetics [17], feasible
bio-nylon [18], and biodegradable plastics [19], and as an
antibacterial agent [20] and protective agent for beneficial
viruses [21]. γ-PGA is a potential source of energy, and it is
important in brain metabolism [22, 23]. By initiating and
propagating free radical chain reactions, they can damage the
cells and may be involved in the progression of plenty of
diseases, such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, neurodegenera-
tion, heart disease and cancer [24, 25]. Free radicals formed

1389-2010/21 $65.00+.00 © 2021 Bentham Science Publishers

2 Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 0 Wang et al.

by irradiation in γ-PGA and its derivatives have been studied large amount of metals [33]. The electric charge distribution
[26-29]. of γ-PGA conducted with HyperChem and the structure of γ-
PGA coordinating with metal ions are shown in Fig. 2 and 3,
O respectively [34, 35]. Interestingly, γ-PGA-SPIONs (SPI-
ONs, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles), contain-
H
N ing the coating of γ-PGA (7%) on SPIONs with a spherical
*
n shape, also showed excellent property of lead and cadmium
removal, but the addition of essential metals (e.g., copper,
C OH
iron, zinc, magnesium, calcium, and potassium) significantly
O
reduced the binding of cadmium [31].
Fig. (1). Structure of γ-PGA. *, the chiral carbon; n, degree of
-0.575
polymerization.

In spite of its wide usages, reviews on the comprehensive -0.244 0.032 0.517
applications and functions of γ-PGA in medicine are sparse * -0.069
to date [5, 7, 19, 30]. In this review, we have broadly sum- -0.209 n
marized the accumulated knowledge of γ-PGA and its deriv- 0.374
atives applied in medicine and related areas (Table 1). We -0.333
also foresee the potential use of γ-PGA and its derivatives as
various types of agents in medicine and other areas. -0.422

2. METAL CHELATOR
Agricultural and industrial practices worldwide have led
to the accumulation of poisonous heavy metals (e.g., lead,
arsenic, mercury, chromium, and cadmium) in the human
body via the food chains. These heavy metals are toxic to the
nervous, hematopoietic, immunological, cardiovascular, gen-
ital, and gastrointestinal systems in the human body, causing
severe health problems in human, including kidney dysfunc-
tion, anemia, liver toxicity, cancer, and Alzheimer’s disease
[31].
As a chelating agent, γ-PGA was effective in mitigating
lead-induced toxicity in mice through the reduction of lead
accumulation in various organs, decrease of thiobarbituric
acid reactive substances (TBARS) formation, and prevention
of δ-amino-γ-levulinic acid dehydrase (ALAD) inactivation
and liver damage [32]. Applied in the treatment of metal
intoxication in humans, the γ-PGA dose-activity relationship
revealed that a low dose of γ-PGA was efficient in binding a
Fig. (2). Electric charge distribution of γ-PGA. *, the chiral carbon;
n, degree of polymerization; eV, energy unit.
O
N+
*
n
M C OH
O
Fig. (3). Structure of γ-PGA coordinating with metal ions. *, the
chiral carbon; n, degree of polymerization; M, metal ions.
It is worth mentioning that γ-PGA-VO (VO, vanadium
oxide), the vanadyl-γ-PGA complex with a VO(O4) coordi-
nation mode (Fig. 4) [36], was demonstrated to be a potent
insulin-mimetic and antidiabetic vanadyl complex in both
type 1 and type 2 diabetic animals [37, 38], in which γ-PGA

Table 1. Functions of γ-PGA and its derivatives in medicinal applications.

Function Details Refs.

Removal of heavy metals and radionuclides. [31-33]

Metal chelator Developing the insulin mimetic complex. [37, 38]
Promotion of absorption of bioavailable minerals, such as Ca2+. [39]
Drug carrier/deliverer Improving the therapeutic effect of anticancer and antidiabetic drugs. [41-49]
Gene vector Use for gene therapy. [55-58]
Vaccine adjuvant Enhancing host immune responses to specific antigens. [62-67]
Possessing the improved mechanical properties, e.g., being easily removed and more hydrophilic and
Tissue engineering material [70-76]
cytocompatible.
Contrast agent Improving the diagnosis of diseases. [78-82]
Substitutes of fibrin with the increased bonding strength, higher hemostatic capability, lung adhesion and
Biological adhesive [83-87]
air-leak sealing.
Coating material Increasing the stability of the drug in the microcapsule. [88]
Applications and Functions of γ-Poly-Glutamic Acid
is proposed to be a promising carrier for developing the insu-
lin-mimetic vanadyl complexes. Furthermore, the nutritive
role of calcium in the maintenance of skeletal health has long
been recognized. Noticeably, the γ-PGA-Ca complex dra-
matically enhances the calcium absorption in the small intes-
tine and prevents further bone loss [39].
O ties, carboxyl groups of the γ-PGA-g-mPEG (mPEG, meth-
H
N
* much longer blood retention profile as compared with the
n
O C
O
O OH2
V caprolactone) for co-delivering hydrophilic drugs doxorubi-
O OH2
O C
*
N n
H
O decreased [47].
Fig. (4). Structure of the γ-PGA-VO complex. *, the chiral carbon;
n, degree of polymerization.
3. DRUG CARRIER/DELIVERER
Many anti-cancer drugs show highly toxic side effects in
addition to the disadvantages of weak solubility and target-
ing and short-acting time. To increase the therapeutic effica-
cy and the selectivity of delivery, these drugs have been con-
jugated to water-soluble macromolecular polymers [40].
Unlike the synthetic polymers, γ-PGA is composed of natu-
rally occurring glutamic acid linked through amide bonds
rather than a non-degradable C-C backbone. The free car-
boxyl groups in repeating units provide functionality for
drug attachment. These advantageous features make γ-PGA
a promising candidate as a carrier of polymer-drug conju-
gates.
In order to maximize the therapeutic effect of 5-
fluorouracil and minimize its adverse effects, γ-poly(α-
hydroxymethyl-5-fluorouracil-glutamate) was constructed to
control the time of releasing the 5-fluorouracil in vitro rang-
ing from a few hours to over 20 days [41]. Additionally, it
was indicated that the model drug naproxen was efficiently
loaded and released in a controlled manner from poly
NIPAAm-co-γ-PGA-AGE (NIPAAm, N-
isopropylacrylamide; AGE, allyl glycidyl ether) hydrogels,
which not only showed effective thermal response sensitivi-
ties, but also responded to pH response sensitivities and deg-
radation activities [42]. Recently, Nie et al. synthesized a
porous γ-PGA-CS (CS, chitosan) hydrogel, prepared by
polymerization of electrostatic contacts of CS with γ-PGA
without a linker, with the high swelling capacity of water and
high adsorption efficiency for bovine serum albumin [43].
Given these characteristics, the γ-PGA-CS hydrogel has po-
tential applications in smart drug carriers.
Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 0 3
Although cis-dichlorodiamineplatinum(II) (CDDP) is one
of the extensively used chemotherapeutic agents for the
treatments of different cancers, (e.g., testicular cancer, ovari-
an cancer, bladder cancer, lymphoma, and glioma), severe
side effects (i.e., acute nephrotoxicity and chronic neurotoxi-
city) have greatly limited the clinical use of CDDP [44]. To
reduce these side effects and enhance its anticancer activi-
oxy poly(ethylene glycol)) were used to conjugate with cis-
platin to form complex nanoparticles (NPs), which showed a
free CDDP and significantly inhibited the proliferation of
HeLa, MCF-7, and A549 cancer cells [45].
Li et al. successfully synthesized folate-modified pH-
sensitive copolymer mPEG2K-PCL4K-γ-PGA1K (PCL, ε-poly-
cin hydrochloride and verapamil hydrochloride, which
demonstrated a high efficiency in reversing the multidrug
resistance by inhibiting the expression of P-glycoprotein and
targeting folic acid receptor to improve the anticancer effects
[46]. When the gel-forming γ-PGA-collagen hydrogels load-
ed with mesenchymal stem cells and α-lipoic acid were ad-
ministered to a mouse model of renal dysfunction in situ, the
levels of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine were remarkably
Phloridzin (PRZ) is expected to be used as an antidiabetic
drug owing to its property of inhibiting glucose transport
competitively through the binding of the glucose moiety to
the Na+/glucose cotransporter [48]. However, the PRZ is not
used orally due to the release of toxic phloretin through the
hydrolysis of a glucoside bond. A neoteric γ-PGA-PRZ con-
jugate was designed and constructed to inhibit glucose
transport from mucosal to serosal sides of the everted small
intestines of rats, showing an inhibitory effect equivalent to
intact PRZ [49]. In conclusion, γ-PGA is practically useful as
a biodegradable polymeric prodrug to conjugate with a drug,
well establishing the foundation for an oral drug delivery
system.
4. GENE VECTOR
Gene therapy is expected to be an effective method to
combat cancers, immunodeficiency, and neurological, mon-
ogenic, ocular, cardiovascular, and infectious diseases [50].
The success of gene therapy highly relies on the develop-
ment of secure and effective delivery vehicles, i.e., vectors.
Gene delivery vectors are categorized into two groups, viral
and non-viral vectors. The use of viral vectors is generally
considered a powerful technique. However, humans have an
immune system to fight off the viral vectors, and our at-
tempts to deliver genes in viral vectors have been obstructed
by these host responses [51]. Among non-viral vectors, the
cationic polymer is widely accepted due to its capability of
efficiently condensing DNA and interacting with cells [52].
However, several unsolved problems in the process of shut-
tling genes into the cells surrounding its toxicity, lack of
biodegradability, low field of gene transfection, biocompati-
bility, and in particular, low transfection efficiency strongly
prohibit its use in practice [53]. Furthermore, it should be
emphasized that the strength of electrostatic interactions be-
4 Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 0
tween cationic polymer and DNA prevent their dissociation
within cells, thus precluding the transcription of DNA and
resulting in low transfection [54].
Therefore, approaches have been developed to eliminate
the disadvantages of cationic polymer/DNA complexes by
modifying their internal structure by incorporating a nega-
tively charged γ-PGA. Although they are advantageous for
DNA packing and protection, the CS-based complexes may
cause difficulties in DNA release once arriving at the site of
action. Consequently, after incorporating γ-PGA in CS-DNA
complexes, a significant increase in their transfection effi-
ciency and an enhancement in their cellular uptake was
achieved [55]. The γ-PGA-CS-siRNA complexes may facili-
tate the intracellular release of siRNA, while the incorpora-
tion of γ-PGA into these complexes significantly expedite
the onset of gene knockdown, enhance their inhibition effi-
ciency, and prolong the duration of gene silencing [56].
Once incorporated into a chitosan-g-stearic acid (CSSA)-
based gene delivery system, the PEG-b-γ-PGA played multi-
ple important roles in enhancing the transfection efficiency
of CSSA-PEG-b-γ-PGA-pDNA complexes [57]. Kurosaki et
al. prepared a tripartite complex composed of pDNA, poly-
ethylenimine (PEI) and γ-PGA, which was taken up by the γ-
PGA-specific receptor-mediated energy-dependent process,
showing improved uptake, gene expression, and transfection
efficiency, and decreased toxicity [58].
5. VACCINE ADJUVANT
Vaccines are generally an effective tool for modulating
host immune responses to specific antigens, especially mi-
crobial pathogen-associated antigens. Some of the most ef-
fective and safe vaccines are live, attenuated variants of the
targeted pathogen, while the attenuated vaccines have not
been successfully developed for many pathogens [59]. How-
ever, immunization with nonliving vaccine antigens, such as
proteins and peptides alone in the absence of adjuvants, often
fails to induce effective immune responses [60]. Studies have
shown that most, if not all, adjuvants enhance T and B cell
responses by engaging the components of the innate immune
system, rather than by directly affecting the lymphocytes
themselves [61]. As a type of vaccine adjuvant, γ-PGA NPs
are safe and efficient antigen carriers with unique immuno-
logical properties.
Matsuo et al. demonstrated that using a combinational
approach based on the antigen-delivery system using γ-PGA
NPs and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-transport system con-
taining an ER-insertion signal sequence significantly en-
hanced the ability of a peptide vaccine to induce cellular
immune responses, including cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activi-
ty [62]. Similarly, the immunization with γ-PGA-OVA
(OVA, ovalbumin) NPs induce significant expansion of anti-
gen-specific CD8+ T cells [63]. Meanwhile, mice vaccinated
intranasally with γ-PGA-OVA NPs gained resistance to
E.G7-OVA tumor cells, while the lung metastasis of B16-
OVA cells was prominently suppressed by γ-PGA-OVA NPs
[64]. In mice, after the subcutaneous injection of fluorescein-
5-isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled γ-PGA NPs or FITC-OVA-
carrying γ-PGA NPs, dendritic cells migrated from the skin
to the lymph nodes and maturated, resulting in the up-
Wang et al.
regulation of the costimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86
and the chemokine receptor CCR7 [65].
Furthermore, intranasal immunization with the mixture of
γ-PGA NPs and hemagglutinin vaccine from an influenza
virus strain A/PR/8/34 (H1N1) or A/New Caledonia/20/99
(H1N1) enhanced the protection of mice from A/PR/8/34
infection [66]. A single dose of Japanese encephalitis (JE)
vaccine with γ-PGA NPs significantly enhanced the neutral-
izing antibody titer, as evidenced by the perfect survival rate
of the immunized mice receiving a normally lethal JE virus
infection, in comparison to only 50% survival rate of the
mice receiving a single dose of JE vaccine without γ-PGA
NPs [67].
6. TISSUE ENGINEERING MATERIAL
As the commonly used scaffolding materials in tissue
engineering, hydrogels are water-swollen and cross-linked
polymeric 3D hydrophilic polymeric networks with excellent
biocompatibility and characterized by high water-content,
porous structure, and elasticity, making fast exchange and
transportation of bioactive substances, nutrients, and cell
metabolites [68, 69]. However, applications of conventional
hydrogels as load-bearing scaffolds were greatly hindered by
their lack of bioactivity and superior mechanical properties.
In the past decades, γ-PGA has been used as suitable materi-
als in the clinical field of tissue engineering due to its fine
swelling ability and biocompatibility.
Studies have shown that the surface hydrophilicity, water
absorption rate, swelling ratio, mechanical strength, and cell
density of γ-PGA-CS composite tissue engineering matrices
were much higher than those of the unmodified CS matrices
[70]. Its suitable moisture content and these sound mechani-
cal properties are favorable for allowing the dressing to be
easily stripped off from the wound surface without damaging
newly regenerated tissue [71]. Wang et al. revealed that γ-
PGA-Ag hydrogels continuously released antibacterial fac-
tors (silver) and successfully helped reconstruct intact epi-
dermis and collagen deposition in 14 days of impaired
wound healing in mice [72]. As scar inhibitors towards hy-
pertrophic scarring, a versatile fabrication of γ-PGA based
on electrospun photocrosslinkable hydrogel fibrous scaffolds
incorporated with ginsenoside Rg3 accelerates fibroblasts to
sprout and grow and further promote cell communication
and skin regeneration [73].
As a particular tissue lacking blood supply to support
repair and remodeling, articular cartilage contains the limited
capacity to restore defects caused by joint injury and aging.
The γ-PGA-g-CHS-PCL (CHS, chondroitin sulfate) compo-
site biomaterial was developed as a scaffold for cartilage
tissue engineering to offer an alternative method for treating
arthritis [69]. As well as γ-PGA polymerized in situ with β-
Ca3(PO4)2, γ-PGA-Ca with the tripeptide arginine-glycine-
aspartic acid (RGD)-modified alginate is suitable for applica-
tion in the field of bone tissue engineering [74, 75]. Remark-
ably, a self-healing polymer composed of γ-PGA network
physically cross-linked via grafted self-assembling β-sheet
peptides with tailorable mechanical properties is becoming a
promising platform for future tissue-engineering scaffolds
and biomedical applications [76].
Applications and Functions of γ-Poly-Glutamic Acid
7. CONTRAST AGENT
The utilization of nanosystems as improved contrast
agents for medical imaging has generated considerable scien-
tific activities in the past few years because of their potential
applications in the diagnosis of diseases. Compared with
conventional organic fluorophores, the inorganic NPs have
several advantages used as optical imaging probes, including
low photo-bleaching, high quantum yields, multiplexed de-
tection capability, and unique surface plasmon properties
[77]. However, the potential toxicities of non-degradable
inorganic NPs limit their utility in practical clinical applica-
tions. Excitingly, the properties of non-toxicity and biodeg-
radability make γ-PGA a promising contrast agent.
The γ-PGA-[Gd-DOTA] (DOTA, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclo-
dodecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid) conjugated with cysta-
mine (a cleavable disulfide spacer) was used as a contrast
agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and enhanced
blood pool imaging and cancer imaging [78]. Similarly, the
pharmacokinetics and elimination profile of γ-PGA-benzyl-
DTPA-Gd (DTPA, diethylenetramine pentaacetic acid) in
rhesus monkeys indicated that this agent could be used as a
blood-pool MRI agent, which could be excreted from the
body within several days after administration [79]. Both the
self-assembled γ-PGA-PLL (PLL, poly-L-lysine) and γ-
PGA-CS NPs cross-linked by glutaraldehyde exhibited
strong fluorescence signals and outstanding improvements
for optical imaging through the selection of appropriate
wavelengths [80]. Potentially used as the MRI contrast
agents, the stable and folate-targeted NPs were obtained by
the self-assembly of γ-PGA and CS biopolymers containing
paramagnetic Gd3+, and the nanocarrier provided a proper
means for the early diagnosis of tumors based on the overex-
pression of folate receptors [81]. The developed γ-PGA-
[(Au0)200-PEI·NH2-mPEG] nanogels with a relative uniform
spherical morphology displayed sound water dispersibility,
colloid stability, and cytocompatibility within the Au con-
centration range and showed great potential to be employed
as an efficient contrast agent for computed tomography (CT)
imaging of cancer cells in vitro and the xenografted tumor
model in vivo due to its advantageous X-ray attenuation
properties and the ability to be significantly taken up by can-
cer cells [82].
8. OTHERS
In surgical operations, suturing has been the most com-
mon technique for control of bleeding, wound closure, and
tissue adaptation. More importantly, many kinds of applica-
tions of biological glues have been reported in surgery, in-
cluding tissue adhesion, hemostasis, controlling oozing from
organs, and sealing of air from the lung [83]. However, cur-
rently available glues show several drawbacks requiring sig-
nificant improvement for clinical use.
A cohesive plug composed of γ-PGA and collagen fibrils
cross-linked with water-soluble carbodiimide (WSC) re-
tained its native specific D-period structure, possessed much
stronger bonding strength and higher hemostatic capability
than the fibrin adhesive, and degraded gradually after subcu-
taneous implantation in the backs of rats over a period of 8
weeks, without any severe inflammatory response [84, 85].
Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 0 5
Moreover, urea was regarded as a promising additive to pre-
vent spontaneous physical gelation of the mixed gelatin and
the γ-PGA aqueous solution without changing the chemical
properties of WSC-induced cross-linking and tissue adhesion
of the formed hydrogel [86].
Air leak is a problem commonly occurring in lung and
thoracic operations. Otani et al. designed and prepared a
novel γ-PGA-gelatin hydrogel glue, which was significantly
more effective in sealing the lung air leak than the fibrin
glue. Specifically, approximately 80% of the lungs treated
with the hydrogel glue exhibited no air leak at the lung pres-
sure of 50 cm H2O [87].
Besides, the stability of nattokinase microencapsulated in
high-molecular-weight γ-PGA-Na against temperature and
its pH values were found to be higher than those of the free
form [88]. Prospectively, using γ-PGA as a coating material
for microencapsulation needs to be further investigated in
future studies.
CONCLUSION
γ-PGA has been known in the scientific fields for more
than 80 years, and numerous studies have been conducted on
this polymer. In this review, we have presented the applica-
tions and functions of γ-PGA and its derivatives in human
medicine as various types of agents, e.g., metal chelator,
drug carrier/deliverer, gene vector, vaccine adjuvant, tissue
engineering material, contrast agent, and others.
Advances in science and technology have therefore
helped optimize the production and performance of γ-PGA
and expanded its range of applications. We foresee that
much work remains to be done in this commercially and ac-
ademically important field of investigation. Therefore, we
speculate that, with an upward trend in investigating the re-
markable properties of γ-PGA, further efforts should be de-
voted to its applications as a moisturizer, biocontrol agent,
bacteriostatic agent, biodegradable material, and functional
membrane.
CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION
Not applicable.
FUNDING
This study was supported by the Jilin Green Industry
Technology Introduction Project of China (No.
L20192200011).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare no conflict of interest, financial or
otherwise.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to express our gratitude to Dr. Helong
Quan, Exercise and Metabolism Research Center, College of
Physical Education and Health Sciences, Zhejiang Normal
University, for his valuable editorial support. All the materi-
als used in this paper are dually acknowledged.
6 Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 2021, Vol. 22, No. 0
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