Constructivism

Jerome Bruner

 Believes children encounter a series of developmental stages as they mature.

Bruner 3 models of representation

1. Enactive representation (action-based)

2. Iconic representation (image-based)
3. Symbolic representation (language-based)

Enactive

 Learning by doing. Involves action-based information and storing it in our

memory (0-1 years)

Iconic

 Learning can be obtained through models and pictures (1-6 years)

Symbolic

 Where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language (7

years and older)

Bruner's Theory of Instruction

1. Predisposition to learn
2. Structure of Knowledge
3. Modes of representation
4. Effective sequencing

Predisposition to Learning

 Teachers and parents play active roles in influencing the desire to learn and
maintaining student's sense of spontaneous exploration

Structure of Knowledge

 A relative feature, as there are many ways to structure a body of knowledge and
many preferences among teachers and learners

Three modes of Representation

1. Visual
2. Words
3. Symbols
Sequencing

 Increasing difficulty in teaching

Categorization

 Perception, conceptualization, learning, decision-making, and making inferences

Language

 Important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts

Constructivist Theory

 Effective when faced with new material from enactive to iconic to symbolic
representation

Complex ideas

 Taught at a simplified level first, then re-visited at a more complex level later on

Role of a teacher

 To facilitate the learning process

 Gagne’s conditions of learning

Robert Mill Gagne

 A proponent of conditions of learning

Gagne's theory

 The focus of theory is on intellectual skills.

A means through which individuals and groups acquire relevant skills to be accepted in
society.
5 Major Learning Categories
✓Verbal
✓Intellectual skills
✓Cognitive strategies
✓Motor skills
✓Attitudes

Verbal information

 Knowing THAT Declarative knowledge including the acquisition of labels and

facts, stored in our memory to recall when needed, such as names of months,
days of week, letters, numerals, and facts.
Includes the ability to retrieve the information and communicate it coherently.
 the capability to declare or state previously learned material.

Intellectual skills

 Knowing HOW Interacting with the environment using symbols (numbers, words,
letters, pictorial diagrams). There are 5 different levels of learning;

1. Discrimination - Distinguishing objects, features, or symbols

2. Concrete concepts- child identifies object or event as a member of a concept class,

learned through direct encounters with concrete examples such as triangles

3. Defined concepts- cannot be learned through concrete examples but acquired by

learning a classifying rule such as "liberty" or "patriotism"

4. Rules - Students can respond to a class of situations with a class of performances

that represent a relationship, for example, the student understands what must be done
to perform 5+2 or 8+1

5. Higher order rules - student combines subordinate rules in order to solve a problem;
the most effective learning strategy is guided discovery

Cognitive Strategies
  Employing personal ways to guide learning, thinking, acting, and feeling.
Organizing thoughts.
 The capabilities that control the management of learning and thinking - strategic
knowledge / executive control processing.
These skills are the ones that govern the individual capability to learn, think and
remember.

Motor skills

 Developing smoothness of action, precision and timing.

 All movement is motor skills. This includes smoothness, precision and timing eg.
the capability to learn to ride a bike, drive a car, write and draw..

Attitudes

 All of us possess attitudes of many sorts towards different things, persons and
situations. These attitudes may affect our position toward those things.
The learner's predisposition for positive or negative actions towards persons,
objects and events.
 Capabilities that influence an individual's choice about the kinds of action to take

9 events of Instructions
 Ausubel's Meaningful Verbal Theory/Subsumption Theory

Meaningful learning

 Process of learning in which a student/learner attains/processes new knowledge

by relating or adding it to a formerly relevant idea or concept that was developed
by David Ausubel

Ausubel's Theory

 David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist

 Knowledge is hierarchically organized; new information is meaningful to the
extent that it can be related to what is already known.

Focus of Ausubel's theory

1. Influencing learning is the quantity, clarity, and organization of the learner's present
knowledge
2. Strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow
students to already have a bird's eye view or to see the big picture of the topic before
going to the details

Subsumption

 the process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established

entities in cognitive structure (see meaningful learning)

Four Processes of meaningful learning

1. Derivative subsumption
2. Correlative subsumption
3. Superordinate learning
4. Combinatorial learning

Derivative subsumption

 New information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already
known and learned
 concept of a bird is it has beak, feathers, and lays eggs

Correlative subsumption

 Accommodate new information, then expand or change the concept to include

the possibility of new information. Enriches the Higher-level concept
 The ostrich can’t fly, has big body and strong legs. To accommodate this new
information, you need to include the concept of an ostrich to your previous
concept of bird

Superordinate learning

 the child already knew a lot of examples of the concept but did not know the
concept itself until it was talk to her
  banana, mango, as Types of Fruit

Combinatorial learning

 when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to increase the
understanding of both concept
 to teach someone about how plants “breathe” you might relate it to their
previously acquired knowledge of human respiratory where man inhales oxygen
and exhales carbon dioxide. This is because they are related to each other as
they are both labeled as “process of breathing

Advance organizer

 Major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. Where you will find it easier to
connect new information with what you already know and see how concepts in a
certain topic are related

Types of advance organizer

(1) expository

(2) narrative

(3) skimming

(4) Graphic organizer

Expository (AO)

 Describe the new content

Narrative (AO)

 Present the new information in the form of a story to students

Skimming (AO)

 Done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview

Graphic organizer

 a visual and graphic display shows relationships between facts, terms, and ideas.
Graphic organizers are also sometimes referred to as concept maps, story maps,
advance organizers, storyboards, or concept diagrams.

Progressive differentiation

 General ideas should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in

term of details and specificity. Increasing the stability and clarity of anchoring
ideas.
Robert Jeffrey Sternberg
 Proponent of Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model
Intelligence
 the ability to learn emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands
of the environment effectively.
4 Skills in Successful Intelligence Theory
1. Memory Skills
2. Creative Skills
3. Analytical Skills
4. Practical Skills
WICS Model
 intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities
WICS stands for?
1. Wisdom
2. Intelligence
3. Creativity
4. Synthesized
Benjamin Bloom
 Identified six stages of cognitive learning
SIX LEVELS OF LEARNING
REMEMBERING, UNDERSTANDING, APPLYING
ANALYZING, EVALUATING, CREATING
Remember
 Recognizing and recalling facts
Understanding
 Understand what the facts mean
Apply
 Applying the facts, rules, concepts, and ideas
Analyze
 Breaking down the intro into component parts
Create
 Combining parts to make a new whole
Remembering
 Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long‐term memory.
Example--> Help build memory
LIST
RECITE
OUTLINE
DEFINE
NAME
MATCH
QUOTE
RECALL
IDENTIFY
LABEL
RECOGNIZE
Understanding
 Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
Examples
DESCRIBE
EXPLAIN
PARAPHRASE--> great way!
RESTATE
GIVE ORIGINAL EXAMPLES OF
SUMMARIZE
CONTRAST
INTERPRET
DISCUSS
Applying
 Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.
knowledge isn't power if it isn't applied!
Examples
CALCULATE
PREDICT
APPLY
SOLVE
ILLUSTRATE
USE
DEMONSTRATE
DETERMINE
MODEL
PERFORM
PRESENT
Analyzing
 Breaking material into parts, determining how the parts relate to one another and to an
overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.
Examples
CLASSIFY
BREAK DOWN
CATEGORIZE
ANALYZE
DIAGRAM
ILLUSTRATE
CRITICIZE
SIMPLIFY
ASSOCIATE
Evaluating
 Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
Evaluating Examples
CHOOSE
SUPPORT
RELATE
DETERMINE
DEFEND
JUDGE
GRADE
COMPARE
CONTRAST
ARGUE
JUSTIFY
SUPPORT
CONVINCE
SELECT
EVALUATE
Creating
 Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements
into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.
Creating example
DESIGN
FORMULATE
BUILD
INVENT
CREATE
COMPOSE
GENERATE
DERIVE
MODIFY
DEVELOP
Problem solving and Creativity

Who created the Torrance test of creative thinking?

E. Paul Torrance
what acronym represents the TTCT?
FFOE (Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, Elaboration)
what does the first "F" stand for in the acronym for the stages of the TTCT(Torrance test of
creative thinking) and what does it mean
 Fluency total number of interpretable meaningful and relevant ideas generated
What does the second "F" stand for in FFOE and what does it mean?
 Flexibility: number of different categories of relevant responses
what does the "O" stand for in FFOE and what does it mean?
 Originality: statistical rarity of the responses
what does the last "E" stand for in FFOE and what does it mean?
 Elaboration: amount of detail in responses

Creative Problem Solving

1. Mess Finding
2. Data Finding
3. Problem Finding
4. Idea Finding
5. Solution Finding