Optimism

Winston Churchill once said, "A pessimist sees the difficulty in every opportunity; an

optimist sees the opportunity in every difficulty." Research shows that, on average, human

beings are hardwired to be more optimistic than not.

To many psychologists, optimism reflects the belief that the outcomes of events or

experiences will generally be positive. Others contend that optimism is more an explanatory

style; it resides in the way people explain the causes of events. Optimists are likely to see the

causes of failure or negative experiences as temporary rather than permanent, specific rather than

global, and external rather than internal. Such a perspective enables optimists to more easily see

the possibility of change.

Martin Seligman: Martin Seligman is a prominent psychologist known for his work on

positive psychology. He defines optimism as a cognitive perspective that involves perceiving

problems and setbacks as temporary and specific to certain situations, while attributing success

and positive events to internal and permanent factors. This is often summarized as the "Three

P's": personalization, pervasiveness, and permanence.

Reference: Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your

Life.

Viktor Frankl: Viktor Frankl was a psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor who developed

the theory of logo therapy. He saw optimism as an attitude that arises from a person's ability to

find meaning and purpose in their life, even in the face of suffering and adversity.

Reference: Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man's Search for Meaning.

 Helen Keller: Helen Keller, a deaf and blind author and activist, saw optimism as a state

of mind that empowers individuals to focus on possibilities rather than limitations. She believed

that even in difficult circumstances, people have the power to choose a positive perspective.

Reference: Keller, H. (1903). Optimism.

William James: William James, a philosopher and psychologist, defined optimism as a

mental stance that emphasizes the positive aspects of life and anticipates favorable outcomes. He

considered optimism to be a fundamental attitude that contributes to human flourishing.

Reference: James, W. (1902). The Varieties of Religious Experience.

Barbara Fredrickson: Barbara Fredrickson is a psychologist known for her research on

positive emotions. She views optimism as a broadened and built-upon mindset that arises from

positive emotions. Optimism, according to Fredrickson, leads to increased resilience, creativity,

and open-mindedness.

Reference: Fredrickson, B. L. (2009). Positivity: Top-Notch Research Reveals the Upward Spiral

That Will Change Your Life.

Neurobiology of Optimism

The neurobiology of optimism involves understanding how the brain processes information,

emotions, and cognitive processes related to positive expectations and hopeful attitudes.

Neuroscientists have studied the neural mechanisms that underlie optimism, revealing insights

into the brain regions, neurotransmitters, and pathways involved. Here's a general overview of

the neurobiology of optimism:

1. Brain Regions: Several brain regions play a role in processing optimism:

 Prefrontal Cortex: This area is associated with higher cognitive functions, including

decision-making, reasoning, and planning. Optimistic thinking often involves the

prefrontal cortex, which helps in evaluating situations and generating positive

expectations. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in optimism due to its

involvement in higher cognitive functions, emotional regulation, decision-making,

and the evaluation of future outcomes. It's a region located at the front of the brain,

just behind the forehead, and it's associated with complex cognitive processes that are

essential for optimistic thinking. Here's how the prefrontal cortex contributes to

optimism:

 Cognitive Appraisal and Evaluation: The PFC is involved in evaluating and

appraising different situations. When you encounter a situation, the PFC helps

you assess its potential risks, benefits, and outcomes. Optimism involves looking

at situations from a positive perspective and interpreting them in a way that

emphasizes favorable outcomes.

 Cognitive Control and Regulation: The PFC is responsible for cognitive

control, which includes inhibiting impulsive responses, maintaining focus, and

regulating emotions. Optimistic thinking often requires the ability to regulate

negative emotions and intrusive thoughts that can hinder positive expectations.

The PFC helps you control and redirect your thoughts towards more optimistic

pathways.

 Cognitive Flexibility: Optimism requires cognitive flexibility—the ability to shift

your perspective and consider alternative viewpoints. The PFC supports cognitive
 flexibility by allowing you to adapt your thinking and generate different

interpretations of a situation.

 Future Planning and Goal Setting: Optimism often involves envisioning a

positive future and setting goals with the expectation of successful outcomes. The

PFC is crucial for future-oriented thinking, goal setting, and planning. It helps you

project yourself into the future and imagine positive scenarios.

 Optimistic Biases: The PFC is implicated in generating optimistic biases, where

individuals tend to overestimate positive outcomes and underestimate negative

ones. These biases can be beneficial in fostering a hopeful outlook on life, even in

the face of uncertainty.

In summary, the prefrontal cortex plays a central role in optimism by supporting

cognitive processes that involve evaluating situations, regulating emotions, maintaining positive

expectations, and envisioning a positive future. The interactions between the PFC and other brain

regions contribute to the complex neural networks that underlie optimistic thinking.

 Amygdala: The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, especially fear and

anxiety. Optimism can dampen the amygdala's response to negative stimuli, leading

to reduced anxiety and stress. Here’s how amygdala contributes in optimism;

 Emotional Processing: The amygdala is a central hub for processing

emotions, especially fear and anxiety. Optimism is associated with reduced

anxiety and positive emotional states. The amygdala's involvement in

emotional regulation can indirectly contribute to optimism by reducing the

influence of fear-based responses and promoting positive emotional states.

  Threat Detection: The amygdala is highly sensitive to potential threats in the

environment. It triggers the "fight or flight" response when it perceives

danger. Optimism can moderate the amygdala's response to negative stimuli,

allowing individuals to interpret situations as less threatening and promoting a

calmer emotional state.

 Impact on Decision-Making: The amygdala can influence decision-making

by influencing emotional responses. Optimistic individuals may have a

reduced amygdala response to negative outcomes, which can lead to more

rational and less emotionally-driven decision-making.

 Hippocampus: The hippocampus is critical for memory formation and spatial

navigation. It also plays a role in contextualizing experiences, which can influence one's

outlook on the future. The hippocampus and amygdala are two key brain structures that

play roles in processing emotions, memory, and contextual information. While they are

not directly responsible for generating optimism, they contribute to the emotional and

cognitive processes that influence how optimism is experienced and expressed. Here's

how the hippocampus relate to optimism:

 Memory Formation: The hippocampus is closely associated with the formation

and consolidation of memories. Positive experiences and past successes contribute

to an individual's overall sense of optimism. The hippocampus helps store

memories of these positive events, and when recalled, they can influence an

optimistic outlook by providing evidence of favorable outcomes.

  Contextual Processing: The hippocampus helps place events and experiences in

context. It allows individuals to consider past experiences when evaluating

present situations. This contextual processing can influence optimism, as

remembering past instances where things turned out well can lead to positive

expectations for the future.

 Future Projection: The hippocampus is involved in projecting oneself into the

future and imagining scenarios. Optimism often involves envisioning positive

outcomes for future events. The hippocampus contributes to this process by

allowing individuals to draw on past experiences and construct mental simulations

of potential positive outcomes.

While the hippocampus and amygdala are not directly responsible for generating

optimism, their functions contribute to the emotional regulation, memory processing, and

contextual evaluation that shape how individuals perceive and respond to situations, ultimately

influencing their level of optimism. The interactions between these structures and other brain

regions create a complex neural network that underlies various aspects of human psychology,

including optimism.

2. Neurotransmitters: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers in the brain that

influence mood and emotions. Several neurotransmitters are linked to optimism:

 Dopamine: Dopamine is often associated with reward and pleasure. Optimistic

expectations and positive outcomes are linked to dopamine release, reinforcing

positive thinking. Here's how dopamine relate to optimism:

  Reward and Pleasure: Dopamine is often referred to as the "feel-good"

neurotransmitter. It is associated with feelings of reward, pleasure, and

motivation. Positive experiences and anticipated rewards lead to dopamine

release in the brain, reinforcing behaviors that contribute to positive outcomes.

Optimism involves expecting positive outcomes, and the dopamine system

supports the brain's response to those expectations.

 Positive Anticipation: Dopamine plays a role in the brain's response to

anticipation. Optimism often involves looking forward to positive events and

outcomes. Dopamine is released when individuals anticipate such events,

contributing to the positive emotional state associated with optimism.

 Motivation and Goal Pursuit: Dopamine is linked to motivation and goal-

directed behavior. Optimistic individuals are often motivated to pursue their

goals and work towards positive outcomes. Dopamine's role in motivation can

influence an individual's persistence and effort in pursuing optimistic goals.

 Serotonin: Serotonin is involved in regulating mood, social behavior, and well-

being. It plays a role in promoting positive emotions and reducing negative ones.

Dopamine and serotonin are two important neurotransmitters in the brain that play

significant roles in regulating mood, emotions, and overall well-being. While they

are not solely responsible for generating optimism, their functions contribute to

the emotional states and cognitive processes associated with optimistic thinking.

Here's how serotonin relate to optimism:

 Mood Regulation: Serotonin is involved in regulating mood and emotions. It

contributes to feelings of happiness, contentment, and general well-being.

 Optimism is characterized by positive emotional states, and serotonin helps

support this by promoting a positive mood.

 Social Behavior: Serotonin is also linked to social behavior and social

interactions. Positive social interactions and relationships are important

factors in fostering optimism. Serotonin levels influence how individuals

perceive social cues and interact with others, contributing to the overall social

context that can influence optimism.

 Stress and Anxiety Reduction: Serotonin plays a role in reducing stress and

anxiety. Optimism involves managing negative emotions and stressors

effectively. Serotonin can dampen the brain's response to stress and help

individuals maintain a more relaxed and less anxious state, contributing to an

optimistic outlook.

It's important to note that both dopamine and serotonin systems interact with each other

and with various brain regions to produce complex emotional and cognitive responses. While

they don't directly generate optimism, their effects on mood, motivation, reward processing, and

emotional regulation contribute to the mental and emotional states that are conducive to

optimistic thinking. The intricate interplay between neurotransmitters, brain regions, and

individual experiences shapes the overall landscape of optimism.

3 Neural Pathways: Neural pathways connect different brain regions, allowing

information to flow and processes to occur. Optimism-related neural pathways involve the

interaction of multiple regions, such as:

  Cognitive Control Pathway: This pathway involves the prefrontal cortex and

helps in regulating thoughts, emotions, and decision-making. Optimism relies on

effective cognitive control to override negative biases.

 Reward Pathway: The brain's reward pathway, including the ventral striatum, is

activated when positive outcomes are anticipated or received. Optimism can

activate this pathway, reinforcing positive expectations.

2. Neuroplasticity: Neuroplasticity refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by

forming new neural connections. Optimism-related practices, such as positive thinking

and gratitude, can lead to changes in neural pathways and strengthen the brain's capacity

for positive emotions.

Research in this field is ongoing, and our understanding of the neurobiology of optimism

continues to evolve. Factors like genetics, early life experiences, and individual personality traits

also contribute to how optimism is expressed in the brain.

What is pessimism?
Pessimism is a negative mental attitude that expects the worst or more unfavorable

outcome or event. Pessimism, an attitude of hopelessness toward life and toward existence,

coupled with a vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in the world. It is derived

from the Latin pessimus (“worst”).

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines pessimism as ‘the attitude that

things will go wrong and that people ‘s wishes or aims are unlikely to be fulfilled’. In

Psychology pessimism is defined as cognitive mode characterized by negative outlook.

 Pessimism is a type of explanatory style in which individuals “expect the

disadvantageous outcome when facing events of unknown emotional impact” (Herwig et al.,

2010, p. 789).

Individuals who are pessimistic will often interpret negative events as internal, global,

and stable; whereas positive events are often viewed as external, specific, and unstable (Gillham,

Shatte, Reivich, & Seligman, 2001)

Neurobiology of pessimism:

Neuroscientists have now found the brain area responsible for pessimism. The new

research suggests that both anxiety and depression are caused by an overstimulation of the

caudate nucleus.

Experts have identified the region of the brain that might be responsible for

pessimism. The caudate nucleus is a brain region that can generate pessimistic mood. In tests in

animals, scientists have shown that stimulating this region induced animals to make more

negative decisions: They gave far more weight to the anticipated drawback of a situation than its

benefit, compared to when the region was not stimulated. This pessimistic decision-making

could continue through the day after the original stimulation. treatments. These are the following

parts of brain involve in pessimism:

Every human depends on both the right and left hemispheres of the brain to function. However,

they both mediate different ways of seeing and dealing with the world. The right hemisphere

mediation of a “watchful and inhibitive mode weaves a sense of insecurity that generates and

supports pessimistic thought patterns.”

Learned optimism

According to the Seligman theory of learned optimism, optimism gives adaptive causal

explanations to adverse experiences or circumstances. As a result, the person provides an

explanation for "why did that bad thing happen to me?" Technically speaking, the optimist

assigns failure-like events external, erratic, and individual causes rather than the pessimist's

internal, constant, and universal causes. In defining one's attributional explanations, Seligman's

theory indirectly emphasizes the importance of negative outcomes. In contrast to the more

common understanding of optimism, which involves the connection to desired positive outcomes

in the future, Seligman's hypothesis makes use of an excuse-like process of "distancing" from

negative events in the past.

Learned optimism, a concept introduced by psychologist Martin Seligman, focuses on

how individuals can develop a more positive and resilient outlook on life. It revolves around

three main points. First, it emphasizes the distinction between explanatory styles: optimistic

people tend to view setbacks as temporary, specific, and changeable, whereas pessimistic

individuals perceive them as permanent, pervasive, and unchangeable. Second, learned optimism

encourages the cultivation of positive self-talk and the recognition of negative thought patterns,

allowing individuals to reframe challenges in a constructive light. Lastly, it underscores the

importance of practicing optimism as a skill that can be learned and honed over time, leading to

improved mental well-being, increased resilience, and a greater ability to navigate life's

difficulties with a hopeful perspective.

Antecedents of Learned Optimism

 Seligman and colleagues extensively outlined the origins of the optimistic explanatory

style in development.

1. Learned optimism scores are more highly connected for monozygotic than dizygotic

twins (correlations =.48 vs..0; Schulman et al., 1993), suggesting that explanatory style may have

some hereditary component.

2. Learned optimism seems to have environmental (or educational) underpinnings. As an

illustration, parents who create orderly environments for their children are more likely to

encourage the learnt optimism style in them.

3. Optimists' parents or teachers are portrayed as role models for optimism by providing

justifications for unfortunate circumstances so that their kids can keep feeling good about

themselves (external justifications).

Michael Scheier and Charles Carver's model of optimism

Michael Scheier and Charles Carver's (1985) model of optimism, often referred to as the

"Dispositional Optimism" model, focuses on individuals' expectancies of reaching desired goals.

According to their framework, optimism involves a cognitive bias towards positive outcomes

and an underlying belief that efforts will lead to successful results. This model suggests that

optimistic individuals are more likely to set challenging goals, persist in the face of obstacles,

and use effective coping strategies. Optimistic expectancies are associated with a proactive

approach to problem-solving, enhanced well-being, and better overall adjustment. Scheier and

Carver's model highlights the role of optimism in shaping behavior, emotions, and cognitive

processes, emphasizing its significance in promoting resilience and achieving desired goals.
 Imagine two students preparing for a difficult exam. Sarah, an optimist, believes that her

hard work and preparation will lead to a good grade. She studies diligently, seeks help when

needed, and remains motivated even when facing tough questions. As a result, she performs well

on the exam and feels proud of her efforts.

In contrast, Chris, a pessimist, doubts that his efforts will make a difference. He becomes

anxious and avoids studying, assuming he'll perform poorly anyway. His lack of motivation

leads to inadequate preparation, and he struggles during the exam, confirming his pessimistic

expectations.This example highlights how optimistic expectancies can lead to proactive behavior

and positive outcomes, while pessimistic beliefs can contribute to reduced effort

and poorer results.

Measuring optimism

Measuring optimism is an important aspect of positive psychology, which focuses on

understanding and promoting human well-being, strengths, and positive emotions. Optimism, in

this context, refers to a general positive outlook on life, an expectation of positive outcomes, and

the belief that good things are more likely to happen in the future. Several established tools and

techniques are commonly used to measure optimism within the framework of positive

psychology:

1. Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R): Developed by Scheier and Carver, this

measure assesses dispositional optimism by asking individuals to rate their agreement with

statements such as "I'm always optimistic about my future" and "Things never work out the way

I want them to". This is one of the most widely used instruments to assess dispositional

optimism. It consists of items that ask individuals to rate their agreement with statements about
their expectations for the future. For example, respondents might rate their level of agreement

with statements like "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best" or "I rarely count on good

things happening to me."

2. The Revised Optimism-Pessimism Scale (OPS-R): This scale is designed to measure

both optimism and pessimism. It includes statements that respondent’s rate on a Likert scale,

reflecting their overall outlook on life. This is a revised version of the LOT that includes

additional items and is designed to minimize response bias.

3. Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ): Developed by Seligman and his colleagues,

this measure assesses explanatory style by asking individuals to explain hypothetical positive and

negative events and outcomes. Attributional style refers to how people explain the causes of

events in their lives. In the context of optimism, individuals with an optimistic attributional style

tend to attribute positive events to internal, stable, and global factors, while attributing negative

events to external, temporary, and specific factors. The ASQ assesses this attributional style.

4. Hope Scale: Hope is closely related to optimism and is often measured using scales

that assess an individual's goal-directed thinking and motivation. The Hope Scale typically

includes items that inquire about one's ability to set and achieve goals, persevere through

challenges, and maintain a positive outlook. This measure assesses both agency (belief in one's

ability to achieve goals) and pathways (belief in the availability of routes to achieve goals)

towards goal attainment.

5. Optimism subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS): The

PANAS is a well-known tool used to assess positive and negative affect. The optimism subscale

specifically measures positive expectations about the future.

 6. Life Satisfaction Scales: While not solely focused on optimism, life satisfaction scales

often include items related to one's general contentment with life and can indirectly capture an

optimistic outlook.

7. Interviews and Qualitative Assessments: In addition to self-report scales, qualitative

methods like interviews and open-ended questions can provide insights into an individual's

optimism by allowing them to express their thoughts, beliefs, and experiences in their own

words.

8. Experimental and Behavioral Measures: Researchers may also use experimental and

behavioral measures to assess optimism, such as reaction times to positive and negative stimuli,

decision-making tasks, and physiological responses to positive and negative events.

9. Optimism-Pessimism Scale (OPS): This is a bipolar measure that assesses both

optimism and pessimism by asking individuals to rate their level of agreement with positive and

negative statements.

10. Generalized Expectancy for Success Scale (GESS): This measure assesses

generalized self-efficacy and optimism by asking individuals to rate their level of agreement with

statements such as "I can do most things if I try hard enough" and "I'm confident that I can cope

with whatever life throws my way".

11. Dispositional Positive Emotions Scale (DPES): This measure assesses dispositional

positive emotions, including optimism, by asking individuals to rate their level of agreement

with statements such as "I'm generally optimistic about my life" and "I feel a sense of

hopefulness about the future".

 When measuring optimism, it's important to consider that individual levels of optimism

can vary based on situational factors, personality traits, and cultural influences. Additionally, the

results of these assessments should be interpreted in conjunction with other factors and used as

part of a comprehensive understanding of an individual's psychological well-being.