Accepted manuscript doi:

10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
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 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Submitted: 21 February 2023

Published online in ‘accepted manuscript’ format: 14 August 2023

Manuscript title: Prediction of fire spalling behaviour of fiber reinforced concrete

Authors: Jin Jiang1, Ming Wu1 and Mao Ye2

Affiliations: 1Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Shantou University,

Shantou, China and 2Guangzhou University-Tamkang University Joint Research Centre for

Engineering Structure Disaster, Prevention and Control, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou,

China

Corresponding author: Jin Jiang, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,

Shantou University, 515063, China.

E-mail: Jian0048@e.ntu.edu.sg
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Abstract

Fire spalling prediction of fiber reinforced concrete containing polypropylene (PP) fiber and steel fiber at

elevated temperature is a challenging problem. The conventional methods such as FEM and DEM are difficult

to deal with the problem as a result of complicate coupling mechanism of polypropylene (PP) fiber and steel

fiber in concrete. To this end, two artificial neural network (ANN) models, one (ANN1) is on the basis of

concrete mix study and the other one (ANN2) is based on compressive strength study, are introduced in current

study to assess the resistance of concrete to explosive spalling. A number of 321 and 318 test data gathered from

literature are utilized to train the two proposed ANN models. Twenty-four concrete mixes (96 groups), i.e.,

seven plain concrete (PC) mixes, four high performance concrete (HPC) mixes reinforced with PP fiber, three

ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) with reinforced PP fiber and ten ultra-high-performance concrete

(UHPC) mixes reinforced with PP and steel hybrid fiber are designed and tested to validate the accuracy of the

two models. It demonstrates that ANN1 and ANN2 can achieve a predictive accuracy of 89.6% and 84.4% for

the explosive spalling respectively, which indicates the feasibility of proposed ANN models for predicting

explosive spalling threat of the hybrid fiber reinforced concrete.

Keywords: Fire spalling; fiber reinforced concrete; polypropylene fiber; steel fiber; artificial neural network;

UN SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure

 Accepted manuscript doi:
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1. Introduction
Fiber reinforced concrete is an advanced cementitious construction material with satisfactory
strength and durability and it provides a practical solution to improve the infrastructure sustainability.
It is gaining increased attention in many countries for its good mechanical and durability performance
(Josipa Bosnjak,2014). However, fire spalling of fiber reinforced concrete, concrete pieces dislodging
from a concrete specimen under fire, is one of the major concerns for its higher thermal conductivity
and lower specific heat capacity than conventional concrete because of its dense microstructure and
low capillary (Larrard and Sedran,1994). Pieces of concrete would be stripped off the thermally
exposed surface and this phenomenon would significantly do harm to the integrity of the concrete
structures (Missemer et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019).
At present, three controlling mechanisms of fire spalling, i.e., thermo-hygral spalling, thermo-
mechanical spalling, and thermo-chemical spalling, are classified and used for the fire spalling
prediction of fiber reinforced concrete (Liu et al., 2018). Thermo-hygral spalling occurring at the
initial stage of fire/heating process (normally below 350°C) assumes the concrete spalling is brought
by the accumulation of pore pressure from moisture migration. Concrete spalling occurs when pore
pressure induced stress is higher than the tensile strength of the concrete and hence it is considered the
most threatening among those three controlling mechanisms (Liu et al., 2020). For thermo-mechanical
spalling, it occurs at about 430-660°C and would be due to thermal gradient-induced thermal stress or
compressive stress resulting from restrained thermal dilation (Liu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019). As
to the harm of fire spalling, thermo-hygral spalling is the most threatening. Hence, significant effort
should be made to predict and mitigate thermo-hygral spalling phenomenon.

To alleviate fire spalling of fiber reinforced concrete, two ways are found to be valid in preventing
thermo-hygral spalling of concrete (Chen and Liu, 2004; Liu and Tan, 2017; Novák and Kohoutková,
2017; Wu et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019; Deshpande et al., 2019; Li et al., 2019; Deshpande et al.,
2020; Li et al., 2020). One is by addition of PP fibers and the other one is by addition of PP and steel
hybrid fibers to evaluate the spalling sensitivity of concrete mixture/compressive strength with PP
fiber. It can achieve the effect that vapor pressure decreases with addition of PP fibers (Gawin et al.,
2006; Lin, 2018). Hence, addition of PP fibers into concrete can mitigate thermo-hygral spalling by
reducing vapor pressure when the concrete is heated and it is proved an effective way in preventing
fiber reinforced concrete spalling. However, the working mechanism of PP fibers is still very much a
live issue, which is still under debating (Liu et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018; Varona et al., 2018; Li et
al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). At present, four existing theories are proposed to explain the spalling
mitigation effect of PP fibers for fiber reinforced concrete debating (Liu et al., 2018). Due to
complexity of the interfacial transition zone between the matrix and PP fibers as well as pressure-
caused tangential space, it proved difficult to accurately model the effect of PP fibers on fire spalling
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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of fiber reinforced concrete. A threshold content of PP fibers was found that it determines whether a
specific fiber reinforced concrete would spall under fire or not. Although the precise alleviation
mechanism of PP fiber on fire spalling has not yet reached a clear conclusion, permeability change is
considered as the main reason of improvement of the spalling behaviour. The effect of steel fiber and
sensitivity of specimen geometry was also investigated (Nurchasanah et al., 2016; Algourdin et al.,
2020).

Addition of hybrid fibers is another way to mitigate thermo-hygral spalling. Mitigation of spalling
in fiber reinforced concrete exposed to elevated temperatures using hybrid fibers was experimentally
investigated (Nurchasanah et al., 2016; Algourdin et al., 2020). It was concluded that the adding of
steel fiber alone cannot afford any enhancement against explosive spalling, while the inclusion of PP
fiber suppressed explosive spalling of fiber reinforced concrete. Addition of PP and steel fibers can
fully suppress fire spalling. The thermally stress was believed to be the chief factor in initiating
concrete cracking, while the pore pressures are the driving force for increasing kinetics of the spalled
concrete pieces (Yermak et al., 2017).
At present, three approaches commonly used to predict fire-induced spalling of fiber reinforced
concrete, i.e., computational modelling, multi-variable regression model and artificial intelligence
model, are available for practical application (Bangi and Horiguchi, 2011; Doherty et al., 2012; Peng
et al., 2014; Li et al., 2018). Among these analysis approaches, artificial intelligence (AI) approach
has been largely used by scientists in field of civil engineering in the last two decades (Boğa et al.,
2013; Hammoudi et al., 2019). As a whole, fire spalling of UHPC with PP or hybrid fibers involves
quite complicate thermo-hygral behaviour and phase change of PP fibers, making it difficult to be
precisely modelled with traditional FEM tools (Liu et al., 2018; Liu and Zhang, 2020). Therefore, a
more robust solution is essential to better understand and to predict the effective fire-induced spalling
of fiber reinforced concrete. The data-based methods like artificial neural network (ANN) and fuzzy
logic (FL), have become popular as a consequence of their prediction ability in many engineering
applications. As an example, Topçu and Sarıdemir (Topçu and Sarıdemir, 2008) developed both ANN
and FL models to predict the 7, 28 and 90-day compressive strength of fly ash-based concrete, and
ANN have exhibited a great capacity for evaluating the compressive strength of concrete.
In this paper, two ANN models (ANN1 and ANN2) are developed to evaluate thermal explosive
spalling resistance of concrete with hybrid fibers (PP fibers and steel fibers). As shown in Table 1,
ANN1 and ANN2 models are composed of seventeen and eleven input parameters, respectively. Two
datasets of 321 and 318 testing data gathered from literature are used to train ANN1 and ANN2
respectively. 96 cases of fire tests are designed and organized to study the fire spalling behaviour of
fiber reinforced concrete with PP fibers, steel fibers and hybrid fibers. Test results are used to validate
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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the proposed ANN1 and ANN2 for the practicability of ANN models on predicting fire spalling
threats of PP fiber, steel fiber and hybrid fiber reinforced concrete.
2. Artificial neural networks (ANN)
Artificial neural networks (ANN), inspired by biological neural networks, have been widely used to
handle with many nonlinear engineering problems. They are comprised of basic processing units in
layers, i.e., neurons, which can be different in the terms of size and shape on the basis of assignment
and function. Similar to the biological neural works hierarchy, the artificial neural networks in turn
consist of three types of neural layers: input layer, hidden layer and output layer. The first layer is
input layer and it accepts the input parameters and process through the hidden layer. The final layer is
output layer used for exporting the data. Fig. 1 gives hierarchical structures of ANN1 and ANN2. At
the training and supervisory stage, the ANN is trained to obtain the target output with using yes/no
question types with binary numbers. It has been validated for the accuracy and validity of ANN
method on fire spalling prediction (Liu et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019). Excellent prediction performance
demonstrated the feasibility of ANN models for predicting explosive spalling tendency of PP fiber
reinforced concrete. There is a mathematical equation of an operational neuron can be given with Eq.
(1):

 n 
Yk  f  wi X i  b  (1)
 i 1 
Where,

X i is the input value from previous layer,

Yk is the output,

f is an active function,

wi is the neural input value’s weight and

b is the bias of neural input value.

Activation functions involved to each neuron in the network are mathematical equations that
govern the output of a neural network and governs whether it should be activated or not, according to
the judgment whether each neuron’s input is relevant for the model’s prediction. In this study,
rectified liner unit (ReLU) activation function was applied to the hidden layer and sigmoid activation
function was applied to the output layer. The ReLU function has several advantages compared with
the Sigmoid and Tanh functions such as faster computation and better convergence solution by
eliminating gradient effect. The rectified linear unit (ReLU) activation function gives 0 as an output
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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when input x < 0, and then gives a linear function with slope of 1 when x > 0. It is transformed into a
value between 0 (means no fire spalling) and 1 (means spalling) by the sigmoid activation function.
2.1. Input and output parameters of ANN networks
Refinement of input and output parameters for fire spalling prediction of fiber reinforced concrete
should be given priority for an ANN. In this study, the analysis target is to assess and predict fire-
induced explosive spalling of fiber reinforced concrete with hybrid fibers (PP fibers and steel fibers),
which is a binary classification problem. The goal of this binary classification is to categorise data
points into one of two buckets: spalling (1) or no spalling (0). Similar solution can be found from
published works [4-5] to show the validity of the classification method.
Previous studies indict that the fire resistance of different kinds of concrete with the same concrete
mixture can be different. Hence, the proportion of concrete mixture is a critical factor to predict fire-
induced spalling. Rather than being considered for the absolute amounts of concrete ingredients per
unit volume, concrete mixture is usually characterized by the concrete ingredients including the ratio
of water to binder, the ratio of silica fume to binder ratio, the ratio of GGBS to binder ratio, the ratio
of fly ash to binder ratio, the ratio of fine aggregate to binder ratio and the ratio of coarse aggregate to
binder ratio. Beside the concrete mixture, moisture content, specimen dimension, the maximum
aggregate size and heating rate as well as the maximum exposure temperature all can make an impact
on fire-induced explosive spalling of UHPC. To account for the influence of specimen dimension, the
characteristic length of the specimen (lc) was proposed as the shortest distance that vapor run away
from the specimen centroid to the surface. It is defined as half of side length of the prism or half of its
side height.
The compressive strength of fiber reinforced concrete is another indicator usually used for fire-
spalling prediction and it hinges on the mixture and maximum aggregate size of fiber reinforced
concrete. The model ANN2 was established based on the compressive strength of concrete, which is
commonly used to predict the spalling of concrete at high temperature incorporating the effect of the
mixture of fiber concrete and the maximum aggregate particle size.
Corresponding to the two main indicators listed, two ANN models (ANN1 and ANN2) were
proposed in this study. Table 1 lists the input parameters of two ANN models.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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2.2. Training data of ANN networks
The collected testing data from literature are used to train the two ANN models as described. Basic
rules are given for data-filtering to make sure the collected data is completely normalized and the
analysis results are repeatable. The first (Rule 1) is when ISO 834 heating curve is followed for the
concrete specimen in furnace, the temperature of the fire in 30 min is considered as the maximum
exposure temperature. The heating rate is considered as the linear heating rate up to 30 min, i.e., the
maximum exposure temperature. The second (Rule 2) is if multi-stage heating processes are used
(Fig.2), Rule 1 also can be applied for the heating rate calculation. In other words, the heating rate is
considered as the linear heating rate up to the maximum exposure temperature. The third (Rule 3) is
that the moisture content of concrete is considered as the mass loss percentage at 105°C (when testing
data at 105°C is available) or 80% of the mass loss percentage at 120°C (when testing data at 105°C is
unavailable and it is presented at 120°C). The final one (Rule 4) is if fire spalling occurs in a concrete
specimen with a specific mixture, this concrete mixture is considered vulnerable to spalling.
Under those four basic rules, 321 and 318 test data from literature were selected and used to train
ANN1 and ANN2 respectively. Table 2 lists range of network parameters. Fig.3 shows the
relationship between the input parameters and spalling observation outcome for the collected dataset.
It can be found that fiber reinforced concrete does not spall until the maximum exposure temperature
reaches the threshold value (40-50 MPa), below which fire spalling would not happen. This
phenomenon is in agreement with common sense. With regard to compressive strength, it shows the
concrete specimen would not spall if compressive strength is below 40MPa. In general, no clear
connection is observed for single input parameter and spalling tendency. For example, spalling
tendency is not directly related to water/binder ratio of the concrete specimen and so on; no matter
how many PP fibers are given, either spalling or no spalling can be found; either a low moisture
content or a high moisture content could have fire spalling phenomenon. When only one kind of fiber
is added, fire spalling would not happen if content of PP fibers is less than 5 kg/m3 or content of steel
fibers is less than 200 kg/m3. Hence, what really matters is not a particular single factor but multiple
factors work together.
2.3. Topology structure of ANN networks
At present, no prevailing rules can be found for architecture organizing of an artificial neural
network for a specific problem. In other words, it is significant to select a reasonable methodological
approach to evaluate the quality of network topology structure. In this study, k-fold cross-validation
technique, a popular way for classification problem, was used to evaluate the predictive model by
partitioning the collected dataset into a training set (for training the model) and a test set (for
evaluating the model). Specifically, the original dataset was randomly partitioned into 10 equal size
subsamples in this study (k is equal to 10 in this study). Of the 10 subsamples, only 1 subsample was
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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reserved for validation for the model, and the remaining 9 subsamples were used as training data. The
cross-validation process was then repeated for 10 times (the folds), with each of the 10 subsamples
used just once as the validation data. The benefit of 10-fold cross-validation technique was the good
applicability that all collected data are used for both network training and validation, and every data is
used for validation exactly once.
It is commonly supposed that more hidden layers can decrease network errors and improve
accuracy and complicate the network. Hence, inappropriate the number of hidden layers would
increase computational cost and the tendency of overfitting. It is better and easier to improve
computation precision by increasing the nodes of hidden layer than the number of hidden layers. In
this study, the classic three-layers network including one inputting layer, one hidden layer and one
outputting layer was created and used. Another two significant parameters of the network are epoch
number (the passes number of the whole training dataset) and batch size.
Table 3 lists the network parameters (number of neurons, batch size and number of epochs) applied
in the ANN models. Five values are considered for the number of batch size, number of epochs as
well as the neurons (Table 3). To avoid data overfitting and poor training quality, Finally, both ANN1
and ANN2 have 125 models to be evaluated before obtaining an optimum model. For ANN1, the
optimum model contains 20 neurons in the hidden layer along with a batch size of 10 and training
epochs of 500. For ANN2, on the other hand, it contains 30 neurons in the hidden layer with a batch
size of 10 and training epochs of 500. Table 4 lists optimized value of network parameters of ANN
models.
3. Experimental validation
3.1. Design of validation test
With the purpose of validate the feasibility of two proposed ANN models (ANN1 and ANN2) for
fire spalling prediction of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete, three sets of fire tests are organized. Two
size concrete cubes (100×100×100 mm and 150×150×150 mm) are included and tested.
3.1.1. Concrete mix proportions
Twenty-four concrete mixes, i.e., seven plain concrete (PC) mixes, four high performance concrete
(HPC) mixes reinforced with PP fiber, three reinforced ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC)
reinforced with PP fiber and ten ultra-high performance-concrete (UHPC) mixes reinforced with
hybrid fiber, were included and tested. Table 5 lists the included the weight proportions of the twenty-
four concrete mixtures. Table 6 gives the geometrical parameters of the PP fibers and steel fibers used
in concrete mixes.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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The compressive strength, the most common attribute used in concrete structure design, was then
tested for PC mixes, HPC mixes and UHPC mixes. Note that cube specimens with size of
100×100×100 mm were used for PC mixes and HPC mixes and cube specimens with size of
50×50×50 mm were used for UHPC mixes. To comply with the strength requirement of design
specification, three consecutive test results were used to obtain the average value.
3.1.2. Curing conditions
Fire-induced concrete explosive spalling is closely associated with the moisture content, which is
impacted by the environment of concrete specimens cured. Hence, two different environmental curing
conditions (in air and in water) are considered in this study. For each concrete mix, three specimens
(50×50×50 mm) are cured in air and the other three specimens (50×50×50 mm) are cured in air first
and then cured in water for 3 months. The moisture content of a concrete cube specimen is considered
as the ratio of mass loss of the concrete specimen before and after drying to constant weight at 105 °C
to its original mass. Similar with compressive strength test, three consecutive test results are used to
obtain the average value.
3.1.3. Heating conditions
In order to precisely predict concrete explosive spalling under fire, the standard temperature-time
curve ISO 834 to represent a fully developed fire in a compartment was followed for heating process.
The specimens were horizontally-placed heated for 60 minutes in furnace. In addition, to free of
spalling interference of the specimens, a safe distance, no less than the side length of the specimen,
was given for specimens spacing distance. The surface temperature of the specimens was monitored
and recorded by thermocouples. Fig. 4 gives the measured temperature curve of concrete specimen.
3.2. Test results and validation of ANN models
Before fire spalling testing, every specimen was cured at least three months. It is shown in
Appendix for status of specimens after exposure in fire. Several observations can be summarized for
spalling test results: (1) all the specimens of PP mixes did not spall under fire; (2) all the specimens of
HPC mixes did not spall under fire; (3) 4 cases of the PP fiber reinforced UHPC specimens (3 cured
in water and 1 cured in air) spalled and (4) 8 cases of the hybrid fiber reinforced UHPC specimens (7
cured in water and 1 cured in air) spalled.
Table 7 lists the proportions of the specimens for all 96 cases of twenty-four concrete mixes. All
those proportions were used as input parameters for ANN1 andANN2. Note that all the parameter
values of the listed 96 cases are within the ranges of network input parameters listed in Table 3. Table
8 lists the test and predicted results on explosive spalling of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. It can be
seen that ANN1 can produce a perfect prediction (100% accuracy) for fire spalling. Out of 96 cases,
ANN2 successfully predicted 94 cases (98% accuracy). Although ANN2 prediction accuracy is
inferior to ANN1, it still can play a very good role on fire spalling prediction. For all 96 cases, ANN2
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
only fails to predict the explosive spalling of PPUHPC2 (case 13, Table 7) and HUHPC2 (case 63,
Table 7), which were cured in water. It seems that ANN model based on concrete mixing (ANN1) has
a better prediction effect on the risk of explosion spalling of fiber reinforced concrete than the ANN
model based on strength (ANN2).
4. Discussion
After a series of training progress with test data from literatures, ANN1 and ANN2 can achieve a
prediction accuracy of 100% and 98%, respectively. There are two characteristics for these two
prediction models: one is that ANN models are well capable of overcoming adverse effect of
systematic errors and random errors in the test data from a wide range of sources and the other one is
the size/quantity of training data is closed related to the precision of the predictive result. As
commented, ANN1 is a mix-based model which achieves 89.6% prediction accuracy after sufficient
training process and ANN2 is a compressive strength-based model with 84.4% prediction accuracy.
Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 shows the frequency of data distribution of the collected data based on compressive,
strength moisture content and water/binder ratio. It can be seen from Fig. 5 that although the
compressive strength ranging from 40 to 60 MPa has sufficient data, there is insufficient test data for
water content near 0.01-0.02 (the correspondence position for the compressive strength near 40-
60MPa). Similarly, there is sufficient data for water/binder ratio is at 0.2-0.3 while little data is
available at water content near 0.01-0.02. In brief, ANN models face the challenges of distributed data
sparsity and overlapping feature subspace, which can explain why ANN1 and ANN2 models did not
achieve 100% accuracy yet.
The combination effect of compressive strength and moisture content on spalling tendency for
hybrid fiber reinforced concrete based on test data and collected datasets 3 is shown in Fig. 7 and Fig.
8. It demonstrates, for tested 150×150×150 mm concrete cubes, spalling probability increases greatly
when compressive strength fc≥131.2MPa and moisture content m≥2.3%. For tested 100×100×100 mm
concrete cubes, spalling probability increases greatly when compressive strength fc≥90.2MPa and
moisture content m≥3.9%. It seems that the spalling triggering condition is lower for larger size
specimen. Similar spalling tendency can be found from collected datasets. In other words, larger size
specimen has higher spalling probability with given compressive strength and moisture content. It can
be observed from Table 7 that, the mix proportions of concrete specimens PUHPC1, PPUHPC2,
PPUHPC3 and HUHPC1, HUHPC4, HUHPC6 are basically the same except the latter group is added
with steel fibers. However, the cases of PPUHPC cured in water all finally spalled under fire and
particular, the mix of PPUHPC1even spalled both cured in water and in air. For hybrid fiber
specimens cured in water, only HUHPC2 and HUHPC4 finally spalled. For hybrid fiber specimens
air-cured condition, no spalling was observed. It well demonstrates hybrid fiber reinforced concrete
has evident better anti-spalling capacity than PP fiber reinforced concrete.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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Fig. 9 gives the combination effect of compressive strength, steel fiber content and PP fiber content
on spalling tendency for hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. It can be observed that adding PP fibers to
concrete mix is effective in improving spalling resistance of concrete. This improvement effect is
particularly prominent when compressive strength fc is high. According to Fig. 9(b), increasing of PP
fibers would produce better alleviate spalling risk than increasing of steel fibers.
A simplified method by Mugume and Horiguchi uses the relative maximum pressure to evaluate
fire spalling risk of concrete with fiber reinforced (Mugume and Horiguchi, 2013). Eq. (2) gives the
definition of the relative maximum pressure:

Pr , p  0.0113 f 'c  0.05Tf  0.01Lf  0.0021Sof  0.001Ssf (2)

Where Pr , p is the proposed relative maximum pressure, f 'c is the compressive strength of the

concrete specimen,
T f is a constant dependent on the category of fiber with values of 1 and 0.2, L f is

fiber length,
Sof is the cumulative surface area of polymer fibers and S sf is the cumulative surface

area of steel fibers.

According to Mugume’s theory, it is very straightforward for prediction of explosive spalling of

hybrid fiber reinforced concrete: thermal explosive spalling will occur if

Pr , p  0.183 and thermal

explosive spalling will not occur if

Pr , p  0.183 (Mugume and Horiguchi, 2013). To evaluate the

applicability and accuracy of Mugume’s theory, Table 9 lists the prediction results for 96 cases of
twenty-four concrete mixes in accordance with Mugume’s theory. Out of 96 cases, Mugume’s theory
can successfully predict 24 cases. In other words, Mugume’s theory only produces 25% accuracy of
prediction, which is substantially inferior to ANN1 and ANN2 models.
5. Conclusions
Two artificial neural network (ANN) models, one (ANN1) is on the basis of concrete mix study and
the other one (ANN2) is based on compressive strength study, are introduced in current study to
assess the resistance of concrete to explosive spalling. A number of 321 and 318 test data gathered
from literature are utilized to train the two proposed ANN models. Twenty-four concrete mixes (96
groups), i.e., seven plain concrete (PC) mixes, four high performance concrete (HPC) mixes
reinforced with PP fiber, three ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) with reinforced PP fiber and
ten ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) mixes reinforced with PP and steel hybrid fiber are
designed and tested to validate the accuracy of the two models. According to the solid data and
analysis results, the following conclusions are drawn:
 Accepted manuscript doi:
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(1) The three-layers hierarchy artificial neural networks can produce very precise and good
prediction of fire spalling of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete when they are sufficiently trained
with reasonable datasets. ANN1 and ANN2 can achieve a predictive accuracy of 89.6% and
84.4% for the explosive spalling respectively, which indicates the feasibility of proposed ANN
models for predicting fire spalling threats of the hybrid fiber reinforced concrete.
(2) Mix-based ANN model gives higher precision than compressive strength-based ANN model
for explosive spalling prediction, which could be due to insufficient datasets for compressive
strength-based network training. ANN1 and ANN2 both have a higher prediction accuracy than
traditional simplified method in assessing fire spalling risk fiber reinforced concrete.
(3) The addition of small dose of steel fiber and PP fiber can effectively mitigate the explosion
spalling of concrete under fire, further, steel fiber and PP fiber can play a synthesis role in
mitigate the explosion spalling of concrete under fire. It well demonstrates hybrid fiber
reinforced concrete has evident better anti-spalling capacity than PP fiber reinforced concrete.
Statements for Conflicts of Interest
The authors of this paper with title of Prediction of fire spalling behaviour of fiber reinforced
concrete receives research funding by STU Scientific Research Foundation for Talents (NTF22010),
Science and Natural Science Foundation Funding of Guangdong Province (No.2023A1515012502
and No.2018A030310070). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this paper are those
solely of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of Shantou University. The authorship
arrangement has been reviewed and approved by Shantou University in accordance with its policy on
objectivity in research and development.

Appendix: state of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete samples after fire

Accepted manuscript doi:
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 Accepted manuscript doi:
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Notation
w/b Water/binder ratio
ca/b Coarse aggregate/binder ratio
fa/b Fine aggregate /binder ratio
hr (℃/min) Heating rate
m Moisture content
D (mm) Characteristic distance
Tmax Maximum exposure temperature
sf/b Silica fume/binder ratio
G/b GGBS/binder ratio
F/b FA/binder ratio
Sa Aggregate size
Qsf (kg/m3) PP fiber quantity (kg/m3)
dsf (um) PP fiber diameter(um)
lsf(mm) PP fiber length (mm)
fc (MPa) Compressive strength (MPa)
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Liu, J.-C. and Z. Zhang, Prediction of Explosive Spalling of Heated Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete
using Artificial Neural Networks. Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, 2020. 18(5): p.
227-240.
Liu, J.-C. and K.H. Tan, Fire resistance of ultra-high performance strain hardening cementitious
composite: Residual mechanical properties and spalling resistance. Cement and Concrete
Composites, 2018. 89: p. 62-75.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Wang, W., C. Wu, and Z. Liu, Compressive behavior of hybrid double-skin tubular columns with
ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC). Engineering Structures, 2019.
180: p. 419-441.
Chen, B. and J. Liu, Residual strength of hybrid-fiber-reinforced high-strength concrete after exposure
to high temperatures. Cement and Concrete Research, 2004. 34(6): p. 1065-1069.
Deshpande, A.A., D. Kumar, and R. Ranade, Temperature effects on the bond behavior between
deformed steel reinforcing bars and hybrid fiber-reinforced strain-hardening cementitious
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Deshpande, A.A., D. Kumar, and R. Ranade, Influence of high temperatures on the residual
mechanical properties of a hybrid fiber-reinforced strain-hardening cementitious composite.
Construction and Building Materials, 2019. 208: p. 283-295.
Li, Y., K.H. Tan, and E.-H. Yang, Synergistic effects of hybrid polypropylene and steel fibers on
explosive spalling prevention of ultra-high performance concrete at elevated temperature.
Cement and Concrete Composites, 2019. 96: p. 174-181.
Li, Y., E.-H. Yang, and K.H. Tan, Flexural behavior of ultra-high performance hybrid fiber reinforced
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Liu, J.-C. and K.H. Tan, Fire resistance of strain hardening cementitious composite with hybrid PVA
and steel fibers. Construction and Building Materials, 2017. 135: p. 600-611.
Novák, J. and A. Kohoutková, Fire response of Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete to High
Temperature. Procedia Engineering, 2017. 172: p. 784-790.
Wu, Z., et al., Static and dynamic compressive properties of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC)
with hybrid steel fiber reinforcements. Cement and Concrete Composites, 2017. 79: p. 148-
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Lin Xiaoshan, Numerical simulation of blast responses of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced
concrete panels with strain-rate effect. Construction & Building Materials, 2018. 176: p. 371-
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Engineering, 2006. 195(41-43): p. 5707-5729.
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169-177.
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concrete exposed to high temperature—A Review. Applied Sciences, 2020. 10(7): p. 2324.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Varona, F.B., et al., Influence of high temperature on the mechanical properties of hybrid fibre
reinforced normal and high strength concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 2018.
159: p. 73-82.
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mechanical properties of concrete under different heating rates. Construction and Building
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temperature: Spalling, transfer and mechanical properties. Construction and Building
Materials, 2017. 132: p. 240-250.
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subjected to severe fire. Journal of Structural Fire Engineering, 2012. 3(1): p. 95-104.
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 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Mugume, R.B. and T. Horiguchi, Prediction of spalling in fibre-reinforced high strength concrete at
elevated temperatures. Materials and Structures, 2013. 47(4): p. 591-604.

Table 1 Input parameters of ANN1 and ANN2 networks

Input parameters of ANN1 Input parameters of ANN2

Water/binder ratio
Aggregate/binder ratio
Sand/binder ratio
Heating rate
Moisture content
Characteristic distance
Maximum exposure temperature
Silica fume/binder ratio
Aggregate size
GGBS/binder ratio
FA/binder ratio
PP fiber quantity (kg/m3)
PP fiber diameter(um)
PP fiber length (mm)
Steel fiber quantity (kg/m3)
Steel fiber diameter(um)
Steel fiber length (mm)
Compressive strength
Heating rate
Moisture content
Characteristic distance
Maximum exposure temperature
PP fiber quantity (kg/m3)
PP fiber diameter(um)
PP fiber length (mm)
Steel fiber quantity (kg/m3)
Steel fiber diameter(um)
Steel fiber length (mm)

Table 2 Range of network parameters

Minimum Maximum Mean Standard
Input parameters
value value value deviation
Water/binder ratio 0.12 0.61 0.30 0.12
Coarse aggregate/binder ratio 0.00 3.95 1.21 1.11
Fine aggregate /binder ratio 0.35 3.38 1.38 0.59
Heating rate (℃/min) 0.25 240.00 19.97 37.12
Moisture content 0.00 0.07 0.02 0.02
Characteristic distance (mm) 20.00 200.00 47.20 32.48
Maximum exposure temperature (℃) 100.00 1200.00 541.65 241.58
Silica fume/binder ratio 0.00 0.23 0.08 0.09
Maximum aggregate size (mm) 0.12 32.00 8.60 7.43
GGBS/binder ratio 0.00 0.46 0.05 0.09
FA/binder ratio 0.00 0.70 0.03 0.11
PP fiber quantity (kg/m3) 0.00 14.56 0.76 1.84
PP fiber diameter(um) 0.00 100.00 8.98 17.33
PP fiber length (mm) 0.00 19.00 3.55 6.22
Steel fiber quantity (kg/m3) 0.00 243.00 57.40 83.82
Steel fiber diameter(um) 0.00 1.00 0.13 0.21
Steel fiber length (mm) 0.00 60.00 6.04 10.22
Compressive strength 15.60 170.4 96.60 41.44
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Table 3 Network parameters of ANN models
Number of neurons Batch size Number of epochs
20 5 200
30 10 400
40 15 600
50 20 800
60 25 1000

Table 4 Optimum value of network parameters of ANN models

Parameters ANN1 ANN2
Number of layers 3 3
Number of neurons 20 30
Batch size 10 10
Number of epochs 500 500

Table 5 Mix proportions of plain concrete, single fiber reinforced concrete and hybrid concrete
Mix Cem Wa Fine Silice Coars Sili GG Fl Superplas Stee PP Compre
ent ter aggre ous e ca BS y ticizer l fiber ssive
gate sand aggre fu as fiber (kg/ strength
gate me h (kg/ m3) (MPa)
m3)
PC1 1 0.6 2.5 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 43.91
PC2 1 0.7 3.125 0 2.5 0 2.5 0 0 0 0
40.87
2
PC3 1 0.7 3.125 0 2.5 0 0 2. 0 0 0
40.27
2 5
PC4 1 0.7 3.125 0 2.5 2.5 0 0 0 0 0
60.58
2
PC5 1 0.4 1.589 0 1.271 0.2 0 0 0 0 0
78.65
5
PC6 1 0.4 1.589 0 1.271 0 0.2 0 0 0 0
63.04
5
PC7 1 0.4 1.589 0 1.271 0 0 0. 0 0 0
65.06
25
PPHP 1 0.3 1.25 0 1 0.2 0 0 0.033 0 2
57.15
C1 38 5
PPHP 1 0.3 1.25 0 1 0 0.2 0 0.031 0 2
75.44
C2 38 5
PPHP 1 0.3 1.25 0 1 0 0 0. 0.029 0 2
80.74
C3 38 25
PPHP 1 0.2 1 0 0.8 0 0 0 0.030 0 2
64.17
C4 7
PPUH 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.076 0 2
106.84
PC1 34 1
PPUH 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.081 0 4
92.40
PC2 34 1
PPUH 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.087 0 6
70.24
PC3 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.081 60 1 131.20
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Mix Cem Wa Fine Silice Coars Sili GG Fl Superplas Stee PP Compre
ent ter aggre ous e ca BS y ticizer l fiber ssive
gate sand aggre fu as fiber (kg/ strength
gate me h (kg/ m3) (MPa)
m3)
C1 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.086 60 2
82.45
C2 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.088 60 3
77.72
C3 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.088 60 4
86.60
C4 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.091 60 5
74.99
C5 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.095 60 6
73.27
C6 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.090 90 2
61.52
C7 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.091 120 2
60.15
C8 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.091 150 2
70.74
C9 34 1
HUHP 1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0 0.1 0.1 0. 0.092 180 2
60.85
C10 34 1

Table 6 Geometry of hybrid fiber

Fiber type Diameter Length
PP fiber 30μm 12 mm
Steel fiber 0.16 mm 35 mm
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Table 7 Mix proportions of concrete specimens for fire spalling test
C Mix w/ ca fa/ hr m D( T sf G F S Qpf dp lpf Qsf ds lsf fc Sp
a b /b b (℃ m m / / / a (k f ( (k f ( ( alli
s /mi m) a b b b g/ ( m g/ ( m M ng
e n) ( m3 μ m m3 m m Pa res
N ℃ ) m ) ) m ) ) ult
o. ) ) )
1 PC1 0. 2 2. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 43 ○
6 5 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .9
3 6
5
2 PC2 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
7 5 1 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 2 3 5 5 6
5 5
3 PC3 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .3
2 2 2 5 6
5 9
4 PC4 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 60 √
7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .6
2 2 2 5 6
5 6
5 PC5 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 78 ○
4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 9 5
6 PC6 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 63 ○
4 2 5 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .0
7 8 2 2 2 6
1 9 4 5 5
7 PC7 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 8 5
8 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
PC1 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 2 2 6
8 0 5
9 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 67 ○
PC2 3 2 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 2 6
8 6 5 5
1 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 75 ○
0 PC3 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .4
3 5 3 2 6
8 4 5
1 PPH 0. 0. 1 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 80 √
1 PC4 2 8 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 2 6
4
1 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
2 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 6.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 8
4 8
1 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 0 0. 3 90 ○
3 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .2
C2 3 3 1 1 1 1 6
4 9
1 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
1 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 1 60 0. 3 13 √
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 1.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
1 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 60 0. 3 11 ○
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C2 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 0
4 9
1 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
7 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 7.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 7
4 1
1 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
8 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C4 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 1
4 3
1 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 5 3 1 60 0. 3 95 ○
9 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .0
C5 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
2 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 60 0. 3 93 ○
0 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .3
C6 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
2 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 90 0. 3 91 ○
1 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .5
C7 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
2 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 12 0. 3 90 ○
2 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .2
C8 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 1
2 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 15 0. 3 90 ○
3 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .8
C9 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
2 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 1 18 0. 3 88 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . 8 0 2 0 1 5 .7
C10 3 2 1 1 1 0 6
4 5
2 PC1 0. 2 2. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 43 √
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
5 6 5 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .9
3 6
5
2 PC2 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
5 7 5 1 63 0 . ♣ . 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 2 3 5 5 6
5 5
2 PC3 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
6 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .3
2 2 2 5 6
5 9
2 PC4 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 60 √
7 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .6
2 2 2 5 6
5 6
2 PC5 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 78 ○
8 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 9 5
2 PC6 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 63 ○
9 4 2 5 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .0
7 8 2 2 2 6
1 9 4 5 5
3 PC7 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 65 √
0 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 8 5
3 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 65 √
1 PC1 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 2 2 6
8 0 5
3 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 67 ○
2 PC2 3 2 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 2 6
8 6 5 5
3 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 75 ○
3 PC3 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .4
3 5 3 2 6
8 4 5
3 PPH 0. 0. 1 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 80 √
4 PC4 2 8 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 2 6
4
3 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 0 0. 3 10 √
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 6.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 8
4 8
3 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 0 0. 3 90 √
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .2
C2 3 3 1 1 1 1 6
4 9
3 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 0 0. 3 10 √
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
7 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
3 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 1 60 0. 3 13 √
8 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 1.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
3 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 60 0. 3 11 ○
9 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C2 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 0
4 9
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
0 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 7.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 7
4 1
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 60 0. 3 10 √
1 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C4 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 1
4 3
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 5 3 1 60 0. 3 95 √
2 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .0
C5 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 60 0. 3 93 ○
3 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .3
C6 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 90 0. 3 91 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .5
C7 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 12 0. 3 90 ○
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .2
C8 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 1
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 15 0. 3 90 ○
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .8
C9 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 5
4 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 1 18 0. 3 88 ○
7 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . 8 0 2 0 1 5 .7
C10 3 2 1 1 1 0 6
4 5
4 PC1 0. 2 2. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 43 ○
8 6 5 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 6
0
4 PC2 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
9 7 5 1 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 2 2 5 5 6
5 2
5 PC3 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
0 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .3
2 2 1 5 6
5 9
5 PC4 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 50 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 60 ○
1 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .6
2 2 1 5 6
5 7
5 PC5 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 78 ○
2 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 5 5
5 PC6 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 63 ○
3 4 2 5 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .0
7 8 1 2 2 6
1 9 7 5 5
5 PC7 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
4 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 8 5
5 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
5 PC1 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 6
8 6 5
5 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 67 ○
6 PC2 3 2 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 2 6
8 4 5 5
5 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 75 ○
7 PC3 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .4
3 5 1 2 6
8 7 5
5 PPH 0. 0. 1 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 80 ○
8 PC4 2 8 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 1 6
8
5 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
9 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 6.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 8
4 2
6 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 0 0. 3 90 ○
0 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .2
C2 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 3
6 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
1 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 0
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 1 60 0. 3 13 ○
2 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 1.
C1 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 60 0. 3 11 ○
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
3 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C2 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 0
4 7
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 7.
C3 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 7
4 5
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C4 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 1
4 5
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 5 3 1 60 0. 3 95 ○
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .0
C5 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 60 0. 3 93 ○
7 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .3
C6 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 90 0. 3 91 ○
8 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .5
C7 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
6 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 12 0. 3 90 ○
9 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .2
C8 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
7 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 15 0. 3 90 ○
0 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .8
C9 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
7 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 50 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 1 18 0. 3 88 ○
1 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . 8 0 2 0 1 5 .7
C10 3 1 1 1 1 0 6
4 9
7 PC1 0. 2 2. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 43 ○
2 6 5 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 6
0
7 PC2 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 2 0 2 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
3 7 5 1 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .9
2 2 2 5 5 6
5 2
7 PC3 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 2 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 40 ○
4 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .3
2 2 1 5 6
5 9
7 PC4 0. 2. 3. 22. 0. 75 0 2 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 60 ○
5 7 5 1 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .6
2 2 1 5 6
5 7
7 PC5 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 78 ○
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
6 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 5 5
7 PC6 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 63 ○
7 4 2 5 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .0
7 8 1 2 2 6
1 9 7 5 5
7 PC7 0. 1. 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
8 4 2 5 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
7 8 1 2 6
1 9 8 5
7 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 65 ○
9 PC1 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 6
8 6 5
8 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 67 √
0 PC2 3 2 63 0 . . 0 0 2 1 5 .1
3 5 1 2 2 6
8 4 5 5
8 PPH 0. 1 1. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 75 ○
1 PC3 3 2 63 0 . 0 0 2 1 5 .4
3 5 1 2 6
8 7 5
8 PPH 0. 0. 1 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0. 3 80 ○
2 PC4 2 8 63 0 0 0 2 1 5 .7
7 1 6
8
8 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
3 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 6.
C1 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 8
4 2
8 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 0 0. 3 90 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .2
C2 3 2 1 1 1 1 6
4 3
8 PPU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 0 0. 3 10 ○
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C3 3 2 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 0
8 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 1 3 1 60 0. 3 13 √
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 1.
C1 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 2
4 6
8 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 60 0. 3 11 √
7 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C2 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 0
4 7
8 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
8 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 7.
C3 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 7
4 5
8 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 4 3 1 60 0. 3 10 ○
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
9 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 2.
C4 3 1 1 1 1 1 6 1
4 5
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 5 3 1 60 0. 3 95 ○
0 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .0
C5 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 6 3 1 60 0. 3 93 ○
1 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .3
C6 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 90 0. 3 91 ○
2 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 1 5 .5
C7 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 7
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 12 0. 3 90 ○
4 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .2
C8 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 0 2 2 3 1 15 0. 3 90 ○
5 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . . 0 2 0 1 5 .8
C9 3 1 1 1 1 1 6
4 8
9 HU 0. 0 0. 22. 0. 75 0 0 0 1 2 2 3 1 18 0. 3 88 ○
6 HP 2 3 63 0 . . . 8 0 2 0 1 5 .7
C10 3 1 1 1 1 0 6
4 9
Note: “○” means no spalling under fire and “√” means spalling.
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Table 8 Comparison between test and predicted results of ANN networks
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se1 se1 se1 se1 se1 se1 se1
se1 se2 se3 se4 se5 se6 se7 se8 se9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tes
tin
g 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 03 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N2
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se1 se1 se1 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se3 se3 se3
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
Tes
tin
g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N2
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tes
tin
g 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N2
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se4 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se6 se6 se6 se6 se6
9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
Tes
tin
g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N2
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se6 se6 se6 se6 se6 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se8
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Tes
tin
g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
N2
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Tes
tin
g 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
res
ult
AN
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N1
AN
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N2
AN 89.
N1 6%
Accurancy:
AN 84.
N2 4%
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Table 9 Comparison between test and predicted results by the simplified method [33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se1 se1 se1 se1 se1 se1 se1
se1 se2 se3 se4 se5 se6 se7 se8 se9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Test
resul 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
meth
od
[33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se1 se1 se1 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se2 se3 se3 se3
7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2
Test
resul 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
d 1 1 1
meth
od
[33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se3 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4 se4
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Test
resul 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
d
meth
od
[33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se4 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se5 se6 se6 se6 se6 se6
9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
Test
resul 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
1 1 1
d
meth
od
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
[33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se6 se6 se6 se6 se6 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se7 se8
5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Test
resul 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
d 1 1 1
meth
od
[33]
Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca
se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se8 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9 se9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Test
resul 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
t
The 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
simp
lifie
d
meth
od
[33]

Accuracy: 17.7%
 Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Figure captions
Fig. 1 Hierarchical structures of ANN1 and ANN2. (a) hierarchical structure of ANN1, (b)
hierarchical structure of ANN2
Fig. 2 Heating rate calculation for multi-stage heating processes
Fig. 3 Relationship between the input parameters and spalling observation outcome for the collected
dataset
Fig. 4 Standard ISO834 fire and furnace heating curves
Fig. 5 Sample distribution in accordance with moisture content and compressive strength. (a) Sample
distribution in accordance with moisture content, (b) Sample distribution in accordance with
compressive strength
Fig. 6 Sample distribution in accordance with water/binder ratio. (a) Sample distribution in
accordance with moisture content, (b) Sample distribution in accordance with compressive
strength
Fig. 7 The combination effect of compressive strength and moisture content on spalling tendency for
hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (based on test results). (a) For 150×150×150 mm concrete
cubes, (b) For 100×100×100 mm concrete cubes
Fig. 8 The combination effect of compressive strength and moisture content on spalling tendency for
hybrid fiber reinforced concrete (based on collected datasets). (a) For 150×150×150 mm
concrete cubes, (b) For 100×100×100 mm concrete cubes
Fig. 9 The combination effect of compressive strength, steel fiber content and PP fiber content on
spalling tendency for hybrid fiber reinforced concrete. (a) For 150×150×150 mm concrete
cubes, (b) For 100×100×100 mm concrete cubes
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060
Accepted manuscript doi:
10.1680/jmacr.23.00060