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Sssaj2018 10 0376
Sssaj2018 10 0376
L. Sharma
H
Univ. of Maine istorical application of K fertilizer in North Dakota has been mini-
College of Natural Sciences, Forestry,
and Agriculture, Cooperative Extension mal and infrequent because soil K levels were generally high (i.e.,
57 Houlton Road >150 mg K kg–1) through the 1990s. In 1980, 3% of soil samples
Presque Isle, ME 04769 tested in North Dakota indicated medium or lower exchangeable K levels
(<130 mg K kg–1) (Nelson, 1979). Grain K export has far exceeded fertilizer K
D.W. Franzen*
North Dakota State Univ. added to North Dakota soils for decades (Cassel et al., 1973; Dahnke et al., 1986;
School of Natural Resource Sciences IPNI, 2014). In eastern North Dakota, the recent cropping system change to corn
Dep. of Soil Science (Zea mays L.)- and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]-intensive crop rotations from
Dep. 7180, PO Box 6050
Fargo, ND 58108
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-dominated rotations has exacerbated grain K export
(IPNI, 2014). Increased grain K export without maintenance K fertilizer applica-
tion has resulted in accelerated soil K removal, and 16% of soil tests were below the
critical level in a 2015 soil test survey (IPNI, 2016).
Although the total K content of soils is relatively high compared with other
nutrient elements (Sparks and Huang, 1985), the amount of soil K readily available
to plants is much lower. For edaphic purposes, soil K has been classified into four
Core Ideas groups based on their relative availability to plants, in order of decreasing availabil-
• Use of dry soil K soil test was most ity: solution K, exchangeable K, nonexchangeable K, and structural K (Sparks and
predictive of corn response in North Huang, 1985). Many K recommendations for crops in the United States are based
Dakota.
on soil solution K and a portion of exchangeable K determined with an extrac-
• Consideration of clay chemistry tion solution (Warncke and Brown, 2012). Some K recommendations are based on
increased the prediction of yield
response by the K soil test. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 83:429–436
doi:10.2136/sssaj2018.10.0376
• A smectite/illite ratio of 3.5 separated Received 9 Oct. 2018.
Accepted 21 Dec. 2018.
the sites into one requiring a higher
*Corresponding author (david.franzen@ndsu.edu).
critical K soil test value and one with © Soil Science Society of America. This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND
a lower critical K value. license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj 431
Table 3. Agronomic information for experiment sites. dry equivalent mass of 2-mm sieved, field-moist soil was mea-
Previous Plant sured and incubated with a resin capsule and 30 mL deionized
Site Year crop Tillage† date Hybrid‡ Population§ water for 168 h at a constant temperature of 20°C. After the
plants ha–1
incubation period, the resin capsule was washed with deionized
Arthur 2014 soybean CT 5/18 PS 11–91 74,300
water to remove attached soil and leached with 50 mL 2 M HCl
Buffalo 2014 soybean CT 5/15 D 36–30 86,100
using a slow-drip leaching apparatus (UNIBEST Inc.). The resin
Fairmount 2014 soybean CT 5/23 GC 95–30 81,800
Gardner 2014 soybean CT 5/18 NT 5B782 68,900
capsule leachate was analyzed for resin-extractable K using AAS.
Milnor 2014 soybean CT 5/17 P 9917 77,500 In 2014, CEC was determined by the sodium-ammonium
Page 2014 soybean CT 5/25 R 2A550 74,300 saturation-displacement method (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff,
Walcott E 2014 soybean CT 5/30 D 36–30 78,900 1954). In 2015 to 2016, estimated CEC was determined by sum-
Walcott W 2014 soybean CT 5/23 D 39–07 77,500 mation of extractable cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na) and neutralizable
Wyndmere 2014 soybean CT 5/27 D 43–10 86,100 soil acidity (Warncke and Brown, 2012). Semiquantitative min-
Arthur 2015 soybean CT 4/25 D 36–30 68,100 eral identification and clay speciation was conducted using the
Barney 2015 dry bean ST 4/18 C 3899 73,200 Rietveld method (Rietveld, 1969) by Activation Laboratories
Casino 2015 soybean CT 5/1 R 4B953 74,100 Ltd. (Ancaster, Ontario, Canada) on a composite field-moist soil
Dwight 2015 soybean CT 4/18 C 3899 70,200
sample from each site; their diagnostic procedure did not distin-
Fairmount 1 2015 corn CT 4/26 GC 95–33 68,000
guish between smectite species (Borchardt, 1989). Soil clay con-
Fairmount 2 2015 soybean CT 5/2 P 9917RR 77,100
tent was determined by hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002).
Leonard N 2015 soybean CT 6/1 P 9366 78,400
Milnor 2015 soybean CT 4/26 NS 9505 83,600
The statistical software SAS version 9.4 was used for analy-
Prosper 2015 soybean CT 4/28 P 9284R 73,600 sis (SAS Institute, 2013). Corn yield response to K fertilizer
Valley City 2015 wheat NT 4/29 NK N17P-3110 41,700 treatments was analyzed with PROC GLM (p < 0.05). Relative
Walcott 2015 soybean CT 4/29 PF 76S92 79,400 grain yield was calculated by dividing the average yield of the 0
Absaraka 2016 wheat CT 5/3 PF 92G84 76,900 kg K2O ha–1 treatment by the maximum average treatment yield
Colfax 2016 corn CT 4/22 D 48–12 82,400 at each experiment site. Relative grain yield of the unfertilized
Gardner 2016 soybean CT 4/30 NT 5B782 55,500 treatment and extractable K by various soil test K methods were
Lisbon 2016 soybean CT 4/23 P 9284R-NM61 74,800 regressed to fit linear-plateau, quadratic-plateau, quadratic, and
Valley City 2016 wheat NT 5/5 NK N17P-3000 50,210 exponential models using PROC NLIN.
† CT, conventional till; CTnw, conventional till but not worked; NT,
no-till; ST, strip-till.
Mineralogical analyses were related to soil test K and rela-
‡ C, Cropland; D, Dekalb; GC, Gold Country; NS, Nuseed; NT, tive grain yield using PROC PRINCOMP to identify principal
NuTech; P, Pioneer; PF, Peterson Farms; PS, ProSeed; R, REA. components between yield response and mineralogical variables.
§ Plant population at harvest. Experiment sites were partitioned by the smectite/illite ratio of
their clay-sized fraction using PROC CLUSTER and Ward’s
the same analysis procedure described for the air-dry method minimum variance method (Ward, 1963), and clusters were veri-
(Warncke and Brown, 2012). fied with PROC GLM; this identified two smectite/illite ratio
In 2015 to 2016, the laboratory study was expanded to in- clusters. Because the variance of mineralogical variables may be
clude additional soil test methods. Sodium tetraphenylboron unequal, variables were standardized to a Z-score using PROC
extraction, following the procedure of Cox et al. (1999), was STANDARD prior to cluster analysis. For each site cluster, rela-
used to determine the most reactive and total nonexchangeable tive grain yield and NH4OAc extractable K from air-dry soil
K fractions using 5-min and 168-h extraction times, respectively. were regressed to fit linear-plateau and quadratic-plateau models
A 0.5-g air-dry soil sample was weighed into a 50-mL Folin-Wu using PROC NLIN.
digestion tube with 3 mL extraction solution (0.2 M NaBPh4 +
1.7 M NaCl + 0.01 M EDTA). After the extraction period (5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
min or 168 h), 25 mL of quenching solution (0.5 M NH4Cl + Potassium fertilizer recommendations for corn in North
0.11 M CuCl2) was added to arrest K extraction. Digestion tubes Dakota prior to 2014 were based on the soil test K critical level
were placed in the digestion block at 150°C until precipitate dis- of 150 mg kg–1 (Franzen, 2014). A yield increase to K fertiliza-
solved completely (30–60 min). The suspension was diluted to tion is more likely using these recommendations for soils test-
50 mL with deionized water, mixed, and left to settle. A 20-mL ing <150 mg kg–1. Above the critical level, a yield increase was
aliquot of the supernatant was transferred to 50-mL flasks, cen- not likely. In the 2012 and 2016 experiments, yield responses
trifuged, and acidified with three drops of 6 M HCl to prevent were correctly predicted by the 150 mg kg–1 critical level at 16
Cu2+ precipitation. The extract was diluted (1:10) with deion- of 25 sites (Table 4). For responsive sites, the K fertilizer rate
ized water and analyzed for NaBPh4 extractable K by AAS. required to achieve maximum yield ranged between 84 and
Resin- extractable K was determined using a mixed-bed, 140 kg K ha–1. Corn grain yield increase was correctly predicted
cation- and anion-exchange resin capsule (UNIBEST Inc., Walla for 11 sites <150 mg kg–1. Furthermore, five sites with soil test
Walla, WA) based on the design of Skogley (1992). A 30-g air- K <150 mg kg–1 did not have yield increases to K fertilization,
which was contrary to the prediction for low soil test K. Six sites K saturation, although relationships defined by these methods
with soil test K above 150 mg kg–1 did not respond to K, which had lower R2 values than DK. The K saturation method, with
is in agreement with the original K soil test recommendations. the CEC determined by summation of extractable cations, has
However, three sites with K soil test >150 mg kg–1 had yield in- been found unsatisfactory in a review by Kopittke and Menzies
creases with K fertilizer, which was contrary to the prediction for (2007). Other problems with the summation method are that
high soil test K. North Dakota soils commonly have soil EC values >0.2 (Table
Overall, from 2014 to 2016, corn yield responses at eight 2), and Ca and Mg ions can be solubilized from the free lime
of 25 sites were contrary to prediction. In 2014, the relationship present in soils with pH >7 (Warncke and Brown, 2012). Soil
between relative yield response to K fertilization and soil test K test K methods with the ability to extract some portion of non-
was not significant, indicating a poor ability to predicted yield exchangeable K, interlayer K, or mineral K (i.e., TBK, RK) could
response to K fertilization (Fig. 1). This prompted more exten-
sive investigation of other soil test methods and consideration of
soil mineralogy for K recommendations for corn.
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj 433
Table 5. Soil test K analysis of 2015–2016 experimental sites using various soil test methods and relative yield response of unfertil-
ized treatment.
TBK
Site, year Relative yield† DK‡ MK 5 min 168 h RK K sat. ECEC
% ———————————— mg kg–1 ———————————— % cmolc kg–1
Arthur, 2015 89.7 90 84 282 1260 8.3 1.0 33.8
Barney, 2015 100 160 199 384 2460 22.1 1.6 31.5
Casino, 2015 85.3 87 103 284 1210 13.0 2.1 20.1
Dwight, 2015 100 109 101 249 1290 12.3 1.4 28.4
Fairmount 1, 2015 91.4 169 143 497 2610 7.8 1.8 31.7
Fairmount 2, 2015 86.6 100 82 250 1160 7.2 0.9 36.3
Leonard, 2015 100 444 428 1150 3480 79.5 4.1 29.1
Milnor, 2015 83.5 134 129 284 1160 13.8 1.4 38.2
Prosper, 2015 100 163 143 548 2640 13.7 2.1 28.8
Valley City, 2015 100 203 235 551 2200 25.3 2.8 17.1
Walcott, 2015 92.4 111 135 223 707 21.7 2.4 11.5
Absaraka, 2016 89.4 163 115 366 1900 14.0 1.4 30.6
Colfax, 2016 89.8 84 56 166 797 12.0 0.7 30.5
Gardner, 2016 86.5 84 55 225 1140 5.8 1.3 16.8
Lisbon, 2016 76.8 69 45 160 689 12.0 0.8 23.0
Valley City, 2016 100 201 171 504 2520 13.7 2.2 24.1
† Relative yield, relative grain yield of unfertilized treatment to maximum yield.
‡ DK, NH4OAc extractable K from air-dry soil; ECEC, estimated cation exchange capacity via summation of extractable cations; K sat., K saturation
of estimated cation exchange capacity; MK, NH4OAc extractable K from field-moist soil; RK, resin extractable K; TBK, tetraphenylboron K.
not be related to relative yield. The coefficients of determination nent analysis indicated that smectite and illite were the mineral
for DK models still indicate high residual variation, and about components most strongly [r = 0.33 (sig p < 0.05) and 0.25 (sig
one-third of site yield responses were not accurately predicted us- p < 0.05), respectively] associated with relative yield (data not
ing the 150 mg kg–1 soil test K critical level. shown). Subsequently, Ward’s minimum variance cluster analysis
was used to determine if experimental sites could be partitioned
Consideration of Clay Mineralogy by their smectite/illite ratio. Cluster analysis indicated that the
Soil mineralogical analysis indicated that K-feldspar con- experimental sites could be separated into two groups: smectite/
tent was similar across sites (Table 7); however, the smectite/ illite ratio >3.5 and smectite/illite ratio <3.5.
illite ratios of the clay fraction were different. Principal compo- Separating experimental sites into two smectite/illite ra-
tio groups improved regression analysis of
Table 6. Regression models for relative yield of unfertilized corn plots and various relative yield response and soil test K (Table
soil test K methods for 2015–2016.
8). The regression models shown in Table 8
Model† Equation‡ X§< Maximum R2 P>F were the best-fit models (linear vs. quadratic)
Linear-plateau for the smectite/illite ratio groups. The two
DK 31.5 + 0.664X 93 93 0.49 0.017 smectite/illite ratio groups had different soil
MK 32.6 + 0.998X 61 93 0.47 0.022 test K critical levels. Consideration of clay
TBK 5 min 74.2 + 0.0636X 333 95 0.33 0.090
chemistry is probably related to crop contri-
TBK 168 h 81.9 + 0.00704X 2028 96 0.30 0.117
butions of K from nonexchangeable K, which
RK 84.2 + 0.528X – no maximum 0.16 0.140
is not a significant source of K extracted by
K sat. 74.1 + 12.7X 1.56 94 0.42 0.037
Quadratic-plateau
the DK method (Brar et al., 2016; Cox et al.,
DK -5.2 + 1.72X - 0.0075X2 115 94 0.52 0.012 1999; Zhang et al., 2011). However, the in-
MK −34.8 + 3.67X - 0.264X2 69 93 0.47 0.022 vestigations of soil extraction methods that
TBK 5 min 60.5 + 0.178X - 0.00023X2 389 95 0.36 0.068 might include extraction of nonexchangeable
TBK 168 h 77.3 + 0.0148X - 0.00000293X2 2522 96 0.31 0.109 K (tetraphenylboron K and resin K) were
RK no model fit – – – – ineffective in improving the soil test relation-
K sat. 62.1 + 35.9X - 10.2X2 1.77 94 0.39 0.052 ship to yield response, whereas the use of the
† DK, NH4OAc extractable K from air-dry and field-moist soil; ECEC, estimated cation soil clay fraction smectite/illite ratio was very
exchange capacity via summation of extractable cations; K sat., K saturation of estimated
cation exchange capacity; MK, NH4OAc extractable K from field-moist soil; RK, resin- effective.
extractable K; TBK, tetraphenylboron K. Regression models in Table 6 suggest that
‡ Equation applies only for X values less than the value at which the segmented model joins the soil test K critical concentration should
(i.e., critical level corresponding to 100% maximum predicted yield by model shown).
–1
range from 93 to 115 mg kg–1, depending on
§ X = soil test K (mg kg for DK, MK, TBK 5 min, TBK 168 h, RK; % for K sat.).
whether the linear-plateau or quadratic-plateau model was used. 16 of 25 site responses correctly. Alternative soil test methods
The maximum of the quadratic model for sites with a smectite/ were explored, but none was superior to the standard NH4OAC
illite ratio of <3.5 is 126 mg kg–1 soil test K, and the intersection extraction on dry soil.
of the linear regression equation for the sites with a smectite/illite After mineral analysis for K-bearing minerals, cluster anal-
ratio >3.5 with 100% of maximum yield is 200 mg kg–1 soil test ysis indicated that experimental sites should be separated in
K. This indicates that the critical soil test K level for sites with a groups with smectite/illite ratios greater or less than 3.5. The soil
smectite/illite ratio <3.5 should be ?130 mg kg–1, and sites with test K critical level for soils with smectite/illite ratio <3.5 was
a smectite/illite ratio >3.5 should be ?200 mg kg–1. 128 mg kg–1. The soil test K critical level for soils with smectite/
Using these soil test K critical concentrations, yield response illite ratio >3.5 was ?200 mg kg–1. Using these soil test K critical
prediction for sites with smectite/illite ratios >3.5 was correct for levels for each clay mineralogical group, response prediction was
14 of 16 sites. For sites with smectite/illite ratios <3.5, yield re- increased from 16 of 25 sites to 19 of 25 sites. For soils with soil
sponse prediction was correct for five of seven sites. Overall, the test K between 128 and 200 mg kg –1, these criteria will improve
two-soil test K critical levels improved yield response prediction yield response prediction that would have been considered non-
for 19 of 25 sites. Other studies have recognized the contribution responsive based on soil test K alone. Therefore, clay mineralogy
of soil clays to soil K availability to plants; however, there has been should be considered for improved soil test prediction of corn
little work to define how the contribution could be used within a yield response to K fertilization in North Dakota. A clay miner-
fertilizer recommendation strategy (Bhonsle et al., 1992; Sharpley, alogy map of North Dakota has been produced based on a 144-
1989). These separate soil test K critical levels identify additional soil sample survey that includes soil samples from at least two
criteria for predicting corn yield response to K fertilization. major soil groups within each county in the state (Franzen and
Bu, 2018). The state clay mineralogy map will serve as a guide to
Conclusions
Potassium fertilizer rate experiments in corn were conduct-
Table 8. Regression models for relative yield of unfertilized
ed from 2014 to 2016 in southeastern North Dakota where the corn plots and soil test K for separated sites with smectite/
transition from wheat-dominated cropping systems to corn–soy- illite ratio greater or less than 3.5.
bean cropping systems has resulted in a rapid decline in soil test Smectite/illite ratio n Equation R2 P > F
K levels over the past 30 years. The previously published soil test <3.5 16 2
15.44 + 1.36X – 0.0054X 0.52 0.001
K critical level in North Dakota of 150 mg kg–1 only predicted >3.5 9 75.272 + 0.1131X 0.37 0.01
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj 435
doi:10.2136/sssaj2006.0186
the probable soil smectite/illite ratio expected in a field without
Martins, P.O., N.A. Slaton, T.L. Roberts, and R.J. Norman. 2015. Comparison
expensive analysis by individual farmers. of field-moist and oven-dry soil on Mehlich-3 and ammonium acetate
extractable soil nutrient concentrations. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 79:1792–
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