Option C: Imaging

Table of Contents
C.1 – Introduction to imaging 1
Optical instruments 3
The simple magnifying glass 5
Aberrations 6

C.2 - Imaging instrumentation 7

The compound microscope and astronomical telescope 9
Radio telescopes 11
Interferometer telescopes 12

C.3 – Fiber optics 12

C.4 – Medical imaging (HL Topic) 14

C.1 – Introduction to imaging

Essential idea: ​The progress of a wave can be modeled via the ray or the wave-front. The
change in wave speed when moving between media changes the shape of the wave.
Understandings:
• Thin lenses
• Converging and diverging lenses

• Converging and diverging mirrors

Converging = concave
Diverging = convex
• Ray diagrams
• Real and virtual images
• Linear and angular magnification
• Spherical and chromatic aberrations

Applications and skills:

• Describing how a curved transparent interface modifies the shape of an incident wave-front
• Identifying the principal axis, focal point and focal length of a simple converging or diverging
lens on a scaled diagram
• Solving problems involving not more than two lenses by constructing scaled ray diagrams
• Solving problems involving not more than two curved mirrors by constructing scaled ray
diagrams
• Solving problems involving the thin lens equation, linear magnification and angular
magnification
• Explaining spherical and chromatic aberrations and describing ways to reduce their effects
on images

Guidance:
• Students should treat the passage of light through lenses from the standpoint of both rays
and wave-fronts
• Curved mirrors are limited to spherical and parabolic converging mirrors and spherical
diverging mirrors
• Only thin lenses are to be considered in this topic
• The lens-maker’s formula is not required
• Sign convention used in examinations will be based on real being positive (the
“real-is-positive” convention)

Utilization:
• Microscopes and telescopes
• Eyeglasses and contact lenses

Data booklet reference:

Review Questions:

Optical instruments
• ​Define​ the terms ​principal axis, focal point, focal length and linear magnification​ as
applied to a converging (convex) lens.

Principal Axis​: a straight imaginary line on which the focus lies that perpendicularly bisects
the lens
Focal length​: the distance from the focal point to the center of the lens.
Focal Point: ​the point on the principal axis through which a ray parallel to the principal axis
passes through after refraction in the lens.
Linear Magnification​: the ratio between the size of the image and the size of the object;
di hi
M = do = ho ; no units

• ​Define​ the ​power of a convex lens​ and the ​diopter​.

Power of a lens​: how much a lens bends light, the greater the power the more the refraction;
1
= f ocal length (m)
 1
Diopter​: unit of measurement of the power of a lens; = meter ; 1D=1m​-1

• ​Define​ ​linear magnification​.

Linear magnification​: the ratio of the image size to the object size

• Distinguish between a ​real image​ and a ​virtual image​.

Real Image Virtual Image

- rays of light pass through image - rays of light do NOT pass through
- can be projected onto screen image
- upside down image - canNOT be projected onto screen
- upright image

• Apply the convention “real is positive, ​virtual is negative​” to the thin lens formula.

**distances always measured out from the lens**

Real image- positive values for d​i​ and d​o​ b/c object and image on opposite sides of the lens
Virtual image- negative value for d​i​ b/c object and image on same side of the lens

• Solve problems for a ​single convex lens​ using the​ thin lens formula​.
 1 1 1
Thin lens formula: f
= do
+ di
- Determine the image distance for an object placed 45.0 cm from a convex lens having
a focal length of 15.0 cm.
1 1
f
= do + di1 → di1 = 1f − do
1 1
= 15 1
− 45 2
= 45 → d​i​ = 45/2 = 22.5 cm

The simple magnifying glass

• ​Define​ the terms ​far point ​and ​near point​ for the unaided eye.

Far point​: the farthest point that an eye can focus upon without straining
Near point​: the closest point that an eye can focus upon without straining

• ​Define​ ​angular magnification​.

Angular Magnification​: the ratio of the angle subtended by the object for the unaided eye to
the angle subtended by the object with the use of lenses

• Derive an expression for the ​angular magnification of a simple magnifying glass ​for an
image formed at the near point and at infinity.

The standard near point distance is 25 cm

 D
Angular magnification at near point M = f
+1
D
Angular magnification at infinity M = f

Aberrations
• Explain the meaning of ​spherical aberration​ and of ​chromatic aberration​ as produced by a
single lens.

Spherical aberration- when light rays which are farther away from the principal axis tend to
focus closer to the lens

Chromatic Aberration- Different light rays have different colors, which means different
wavelengths and refractive indexes. They will therefore focus at different points on the
principal axis, with light rays of longer wavelengths focusing farther from the lens.
• Describe how ​spherical aberration​ in a lens may be ​reduced​.

● Shutting off the light near the edge of a lens (aperture).

● Grinding the curvature
● Using a combination of lenses. (eg. Use two lenses instead of one thicker one)

• Describe how ​chromatic aberration ​in a lens may be ​reduced​.

-
● restricting wavelengths of light
● using a combination of lenses (convex-concave)

C.2 - Imaging instrumentation

Essential idea:​ ​Optical microscopes and telescopes utilize similar physical properties of lenses
and mirrors. Analysis of the universe is performed both optically and by using radio
telescopes to investigate different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Understandings:
• Optical compound microscopes
• Simple optical astronomical refracting telescopes
• Simple optical astronomical reflecting telescopes
• Single-dish radio telescopes
• Radio interferometry telescopes
• Satellite-borne telescopes

Applications and skills:

• Constructing and interpreting ray diagrams of optical compound microscopes at normal
adjustment
• Solving problems involving the angular magnification and resolution of optical compound
microscopes
• Investigating the optical compound microscope experimentally
• Constructing or completing ray diagrams of simple optical astronomical refracting
telescopes at normal adjustment
• Solving problems involving the angular magnification of simple optical astronomical
telescopes
• ​Investigating the performance of a simple optical astronomical refracting telescope
experimentally
• ​Describing the comparative performance of Earth-based telescopes and satellite-borne
telescopes

Guidance:
• Simple optical astronomical reflecting telescope design is limited to Newtonian and
Cassegrain mounting
• Radio interferometer telescopes should be approximated as a dish of diameter equal to the
maximum separation of the antennae
• Radio interferometry telescopes refer to array telescopes

Utilization:
• Cell observation​ (see ​Biology ​sub-topic ​1.2​)
• The information that the astronomical telescopes gather continues to allow us to improve
our understanding of the universe
• Resolution is covered for other sources in ​Physics ​sub-topic ​9.4
Data booklet reference:

Review Questions:

The compound microscope and astronomical telescope

• Construct a ray diagram for a compound microscope with final image formed close to the
near point of the eye (normal adjustment).
• Construct a ray diagram for an astronomical telescope with the final image at infinity
(normal adjustment).
• State the equation relating angular magnification to the focal lengths of the lenses in an
astronomical telescope in normal adjustment.
M =− ff oe

• Solve problems involving the compound microscope and the astronomical telescope

Link to IB Questions
Astronomical Telescope: pg. 1, 3, 6
Compound Microscope:pg. 5

• Describe and compare the performance of Earth-based telescopes and satellite-borne

telescopes

Disadvantage Advantage

Earth Telescopes ● The condition of ● Cheaper to maintain or

atmosphere can interfere
with the quality of the
image.
● Can’t capture a wide range
of wavelengths (UV,
infrared, gamma, x-rays)
repair.
● Can be constructed to be
larger than space telescopes.
● More readily available than
space telescopes.

Space Telescopes ● Harder to repair and ● Clearer image as the

maintain. atmosphere does not block
 ● Expensive to send out to
space.
● Takes time to send out.
the view.
● Can capture wide range of
wavelengths.
● Can be positioned so that it is
always away from the sun.
● Not disturbed by the
weather.

Radio telescopes
- Intended to collect EM signals in radio region that originate from astronomical objects

-
- All rays parallel to principal axis brought to a focus at same point
- Larger area of dish → greater power collected; improvement in resolution
- Radiowaves are very long → resolution important → aperture needs to be much
greater
- Problems: difficult moving dish; dish may deform from ideal parabolic shape under its
own weight
- Fix: build dish into cavity in the ground BUT dish cannot be steered

Interferometer telescopes
- Built to overcome inherent design problems of dish & inability to steer telescope built in
crater
 -
- Various formats - 2+ radio telescopes combined ⇒ signals from source combined in
individual components of telescope to produce total signal
- Baseline B: the dimension across the individual dishes that make up the telescope
- Resolution: sinθ = λ/B
- Formats: a series of small steerable dishes (low cost, no engineering problems), very
long baseline (combine signals worldwide)

C.3 – Fiber optics

Essential idea:​ ​Total internal reflection allows light or infrared radiation to travel along a
transparent fiber. However, the performance of a fiber c​an be degraded by dispersion and
attenuation effects.

Understandings:
• Structure of optic fibers
- Twisted pair
- Coaxial cable
- Optic fibers
• Step-index fibers and graded-index fibers
- Step-index ​fiber: w/ abrupt change in refractive index at the interface between core &
cladding
 - Graded-index ​fiber: w/ gradual reduction in refractive index from center to outside of
core
• Total internal reflection and critical angle
https://youtu.be/pTakwkDtBDw

• Waveguide and material dispersion in optic fibers

- Dispersion:​ change the shape & cause pulse to spread out as it travels along fiber
- If 2 pulses that were initially separate overlap through dispersion → receiving
system cannot disentangle them
- Imposes upper limit on rate a fiber can transmit info
- → repeater needs to: re-shape pulse into original square format &
boost amplitude of signal
• Attenuation and the decibel (dB) scale
- Repeater: ​device that carries out re-amplification of signal
- Attenuation:​ the gradual loss in intensity of the power to the cable

-
- Bel scale: ​logarithmic scale to measure attenuation
- Attenuation in bel = log 10 II
0

- I: attenuated (output) power level of signal

- I0: input intensity level
- Attenuation in decibel (dB) = 10log 10 II
0
Applications and skills:
• Solving problems involving total internal reflection and critical angle in the context of fiber
optics
• Describing how waveguide and material dispersion can lead to attenuation and how this can
be accounted for
• Solving problems involving attenuation
• Describing the advantages of fiber optics over twisted pair and coaxial cables

Guidance:
• Quantitative descriptions of attenuation ar​e required and include attenuation per unit
length
• The term ​waveguide dispersion ​will be used in examinations. Waveguide dispersion is
sometimes known as ​modal dispersion​.

Utilization:
• ​Will a communication limit be reached as we cannot move information faster than the
speed of light?

Data booklet reference:

C.4 – Medical imaging (HL Topic)

Essential idea:​ ​The body can be imaged using radiation generated from both outside and inside.
Imaging has enabled medical practitioners to improve diagnosis with fewer invasive procedures.

Understandings:
• Detection and recording of X-ray images in medical contexts
• Generation and detection of ultrasound in medical contexts
• Medical imaging techniques (magnetic resonance imaging) involving nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR)

Applications and skills:

• Explaining features of X-ray imaging, including attenuation coefficient, half-value thickness,
linear/mass absorption coefficients and techniques for improvements of sharpness and contrast
• Solving X-ray attenuation problems
• Solving problems involving ultrasound acoustic impedance, speed of ultrasound through tissue and
air and relative intensity levels
• Explaining features of medical ultrasound techniques, including choice of frequency, use of gel and
the difference between A and B scans
• Explaining the use of gradient fields in NMR
• Explaining the origin of the relaxation of proton spin and consequent emission of signal in NMR
• Discussing the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasound and NMR scanning methods, including a
simple assessment of risk in these medical procedures

Guidance:
Students will be expected to compute final beam intensity after passage through multiple layers of
tissue. Only parallel plane interfaces will be treated.

Utilization:
Scanning the huma​n brain (see ​Biology ​sub-topic ​A.4​)

Data booklet reference: