Relevance of Biology as an interdisciplinary approach

Introduction

• The biological sciences have long benefited from the input of ideas and techniques from other disciplines,
including medicine, chemistry, engineering, and mathematics.
• Not only does biology require the intervention from other subjects, biological processes and organisms could
be an inspiration in designing new materials.
• ‘Bioinspiration’—using phenomena in biology to stimulate research in non-biological science and
technology—is a strategy that suggests new areas for research.
• Biological processes as well as organisms are an ideal source of inspiration due to following characteristics –
1. Function: Organisms seldom waste energy on the generation of structures that serve no function.
Most often the strategies of living organisms are the best solutions.
2. Simplicity: Many biological systems are marked by elegance in design; complex mechanisms and
structures blend to become apparently simple functions.
• Bioinspired research is, in a sense, a return to the classical origins of science: it is a field based on observing
the remarkable functions that characterize living organisms, and trying to abstract and imitate (or mimic) those
functions.

Echolocation

• Echolocation, or biosonar, is an active process, used by the species that have it for sensing the environment
when vision is ineffective, for example at night or in turbid water.
• It involves the production of sound, and the reception of echoes that return from objects. By comparing the
outgoing pulse with the returning echoes — which are modified versions of the outgoing pulse — the brain
can produce images of the surroundings.
• The location of a target in three dimensions can be determined from its range and direction.
• Echolocating animals can determine how far away objects are — their range — by measuring the time delays
between call production and reception.
• Position of the object can be determined by measuring the difference between intensity of reflected sound in
left ear and right ear.
• Echolocation has evolved to its greatest sophistication in bats and toothed whales (dolphins and their
relatives), though simple forms of echolocation are also used by cave swiflets and oilbirds, and by small
nocturnal mammals such as shrews and rats.
• The main function of echolocation is orientation — calculating one’s own position relative to the surroundings
— although many bats and dolphins also use echolocation for detecting, localising and even classifying prey.
Echolocation in bats

• Most bat echolocation calls are ultrasonic (>20 kHz), and hence inaudible to human ears. High frequencies
have short wavelengths, and therefore reflect strongly from very small targets such as insects.
• Narrowband signals span a narrow range of frequencies, and are relatively long in duration. They allow ranging
of distant targets, and are well adapted for the detection of acoustic glints from flying insects. Broadband calls
span a wide range of frequencies and are typically short — they are well adapted for localisation.
• A bat hunting insects will switch from using narrowband signals to broadband ones once the target has been
detected and needs to be localized for capture.
• The broadband signals are emitted at an increasingly rapid rate as the bat approaches the prey, resulting in a
‘feeding buzz’.
• Bats produce airborne tonal sounds.
• Bats produce sounds in the larynx, direct the pulses through their mouths or nostrils, and receive echoes at
their large pinnae.
• Most other bats have to adjust the duration of the outgoing signal so they receive echoes after they have
finished calling — call and echo are separated in time, and this is important because the bats’ middle ear
muscles contract during calling so the bat does not deafen itself.

Echolocation in toothed whales

• Call is produced with the complex system of passages connected to the blowhole, which is a nostril in the top
of the head.
• They transmit sound through a waxy melon on the forehead to remove the impedance mismatch with water,
and receive echoes via their lower jaws to the inner ear.
• Call involves rapid series of clicks with frequency up to 200kHz.
• Call of an dolphin or whale/ Click is typically shorter in duration but high frequency.

SONAR

• Sound Navigation Ranging

• SONAR is a process of communicating or detecting objects underwater.
• used by ships, submarines to detect underwater objects like rocks, icebergs which causes serious risk to the
ships, determine depth of sea, fishing etc.
• 2 Types
1. Active Sonar: Active sonar transducers emit an acoustic signal or pulse of sound into the water. If an
object is in the path of the sound pulse, the sound bounces off the object and returns an “echo” to the
sonar transducer. If the transducer is equipped with the ability to receive signals, it measures the
strength of the signal. By determining the time between the emission of the sound pulse and its
reception, the transducer can determine the range and orientation of the object.
2. Passive Sonar: Passive sonar systems are used primarily to detect noise from marine objects (such as
submarines or ships) and marine animals like whales. Unlike active sonar, passive sonar does not emit
its own signal, which is an advantage for military vessels that do not want to be found or for scientific
missions that concentrate on quietly “listening” to the ocean. Rather, it only detects sound waves
coming towards it.
 • Applications of sonar include
1. Sea bed mapping
2. Navigation of ships
3. Detecting icebergs
4. To search for large population of fishes by fishing ships
5. Military operations- detect, identify, and locate submarines

Ultrasonography

• Usage of principle of Sonar in medicine

• Short bursts of sound are sent out into the ultrasound transmission medium at regular intervals.
• It normally uses sound frequencies in the 3 to 10 MHz range. Using piezoelectric materials that can convert
mechanical energy into electricity or vice-versa
• When placed in a varying electric field, such substances vibrate and produce ultrasound. And when they are
deformed by mechanical pressure, for example, because of the reflected ultrasound, they produce electric
fields that are detected as the signals in ultrasound scanners.
• The signals can be used to get an image of the organs
• Medical ultrasound-imaging systems have resolution capabilities of 1 to 10 mm.
• Can be used to image organs of patient such as kidney, uterus, gall bladder, liver etc.
• Helps to detect abnormalities
• Examination of fetus during pregnancy
Walking stick

• Dean Waters, a scientist working on bat echolocation at the University of Leeds, recently helped to develop a
walking stick which emits ultrasonic signals through four sensors.
• A small computer calculates the direction and relative range of an object, and sends information to four
vibrating buttons on the handle.
• The walking stick is now marketed as an ‘ultracane’, and has received excellent reviews from visually impaired
users.

Photosynthesis

• The process of synthesis of carbohydrates (Glucose) with water and carbon dioxide as raw materials by using
energy of sunlight.
• photosynthesis is transformation of solar energy/radiant energy/light energy (ultimate source of energy for
all living organisms) into chemical energy.

• 2 phases of photosynthesis
1. Light reactions
2. Dark reactions
Light reactions

• Light is an electromagnetic wave.

• Light is also a particle, which we call a photon. Each photon contains an amount of energy that is called a
quantum.
• The visible-light region of the electromagnetic spectrum especially in red and blue regions are
photosynthetically most active
• Light is the source of energy for photosynthesis, and the first set of reactions which begin the process
requires light – thus the name, light reactions, or light-dependent reactions.
• When light strikes chlorophyll (or an accessory pigment) within the chloroplast, it energizes electrons within
that molecule. These electrons jump up to higher energy levels; they have absorbed or captured, and now
carry, that energy. High-energy electrons are “excited.”
• The excited electrons leave chlorophyll to participate in further reactions, leaving the chlorophyll “at a loss”;
eventually they must be replaced. That replacement process also requires light, working with an enzyme
complex to split water molecules. In this process of photolysis (“splitting by light”), H2O molecules are
broken into hydrogen ions, electrons, and oxygen atoms. The electrons replace those originally lost from
chlorophyll. Hydrogen ions and the high-energy electrons from chlorophyll will carry on the energy
transformation
• Excited electrons that have absorbed light energy are unstable. However, the highly organized electron
carrier molecules embedded in chloroplast membranes order the flow of these electrons.
• This flow of electrons allows clear separation of positive charge (protons) from negative charge (electrons).
This gradient can direct the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase or ATP pump.
Dark reactions

• During the light reactions, which occur in the thylakoid of the chloroplast and use energy from sunlight, ATP
and NADPH are produced. These molecules will be used during the dark reactions, which occur in the stroma
(or open space within the chloroplast) and do not obtain any energy from sunlight.
• The energy used to power the dark reactions comes from the ATP and NADPH that are produced during the
light reactions. The dark reactions of photosynthesis are often referred to as the Calvin cycle, after Melvin
Calvin who discovered it.
• carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms are taken from carbon dioxide and water molecules and are broken up
and rearranged into new substances: carbohydrate.
• Oxygen is released as biproduct.
• The most abundant protein in nature is the chloroplast enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase
(RuBisCo) which is involved in the carbon fixation reactions of photosynthesis.

Photovoltaic cells

• The PV cell is composed of semiconductor material such as silicon.

• The semiconductor material absorbs photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are
captured, an electric current is formed that can be used as electricity.
• In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic
technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics.
• Photovoltaic effect, process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce an electrical voltage
when struck by light.
• If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light shining on the PV cell, then that cell can
efficiently make use of all the available energy.
• This current is extracted through conductive metal contacts – the grid-like lines on a solar cells

Bionic leaf

• Bionic leaf turns sunlight into liquid fuel” – Article published in Harvard Gezette.
• Daniel Nocera, Patterson Rockwood Professor of Energy at Harvard University, and Pamela Silver, the Elliott
T. and Onie H. Adams have co-created a system that uses solar energy to split water molecules and hydrogen-
eating bacteria to produce liquid fuels.
• The system converts solar energy to biomass with 10 percent efficiency, far above the 1 percent seen in the
fastest-growing plants.
 • The process of splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen is powered by utilizing solar electricity from
photovoltaic cells. cobalt-phosphorous alloy catalyst of PV cell is used to split water, producing Hydrogen and
oxygen.
• Dipping the bionic leaf in water and holding it upto sunlight allows it to split water molecules.
• Starved microbes (Ralstonia spp.) are added to feed on the hydrogen, which converts and enables the release
of carbon dioxide into the form of alcohol fuels like Isobutanol and Isopentanol.
• In newest version of bionic leaf for every kilowatt-hour of electricity used the microbes could scrub 130 grams
of CO2 out of 230,000 liters of air to make 60 grams of isopropanol fuel.
• This new bioreactor could help mitigate planet-warming pollution problems while bringing cleaner fuels to
people

Aviation - Flight in birds and aeroplanes

• Birds have mastered flight through centuries of evolution.

• Any object in order to stay afloat would need to balance certain forces acting on it.
1. Lift- Lift is a force produced by the motion of the airplane/Bird through the air. Lift is a force that
directly opposes the weight of a flying object.
2. Thrust- Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through the air. Thrust is used to overcome the
drag of an airplane, and to overcome the weight
3. Drag- Drag is the force that opposes the motion of a bird or an aeroplane. It is due to the resistance
of the air to the motion of the flying object.

• Birds have evolved in such a way that they have optimised lift, thrust and drag for efficient flight.

Adaptations in birds for flight

• Birds have a streamlined body to minimise the friction with the medium surrounding it i.e., the air.
 • Birds have hollow bones that helps in decreasing the weight. Hollow, air-filled bones lighten the weight of the
skeleton.
• The wing is of the same basic construction as the human arm. The wings have a thick strong leading edge with
a concave lower surface and a convex upper surface. This helps in increasing the air pressure below and
reducing the air pressure above (Lift). Thus the bird can fly upward and forward during flight. The wing is
covered with feathers.
• The wing can be used in any of the following flying actions
1. Flapping wings
2. Gliding wings
3. Oscillating wings
• Feathers increase wing efficiency as a much lower frequency of flapping is required to keep a bird airborne
than a bat or butterfly of similar wing. Some of the feathers are involved in providing propulsion while others
help in providing constant lift.
• Tail feathers maintain the stability and balance, especially in slow flight, where the tail is widely spread to
enhance the flow over the wing.
• The streamlining is achieved by specially arranged feathers that reduce the friction that would otherwise act
as a drag against the forward-moving body.
• Oil glands present on their body ensure that the bodies of birds are considerably unwettable.
• Seagulls, eagles have very efficient flying capacity with highly adaptable and dynamic wings that allow them
to fly in various types of gutsy winds.

Airplane design based on birds

• In 1505, Leonardo da Vinci wrote a book on the flight of birds and designed — but never built — a flapping
device for flight called an ornithopter.
• Later based on the wings of gliding birds gliders were made.
• Wilbur and Orville Wright designed and flew the first successful airplane.
• Engineers used the shape of the birds as inspiration to model the planes. Most airplanes have a streamlined
shape so that they do not face air resistance when they are in motion.
• Airplane wings are designed based on the overall design of a bird wing.

• Birds groom their feathers with their beaks to makes sure that their body is smooth as they fly . Airplanes also
have polished surfaces, and this prevents air resistance.
 • When birds want to take off, they raise their wings thereby creating a low pressure, and the body goes up
through the process of ‘lift’. Airplanes use the same notion while taking off and landing.
• When birds are in the air, they extend their wings to reduce air drag and helps them to stay high – as in a
gliding bird such as hawk. When birds want to move faster, they close their wings – as birds of prey do in an
attack dive to catch prey as in seagulls. This is a feature that could be advantageous for the planes to have.
• Adaptive wings could provide a significant increase in performance, including fuel saving, longer range.
• Studies are being conducted to mimic the soundless wings of an owl. In most birds and planes the sound is
created due to the turbulence when air flows over the surface of their wings. In some owls the feathers are
arranged like comb which muffle the sound by enabling the air to pass easily through.
• An airplane wing has a variety of flaps, slots which effectively alter the shape of the wing, increase its
curvature and allowing thus to divert more air, and thus create more lift.

Lotus leaf effect

• Defined as an effect of the very high water repellency and self-cleaning due to the unique way of deposition
of wax on the leaves of the lotus.
• Water spilled on a superhydrophobic surface does not wet the surface, but simply rolls off. Additionally, as
water moves across the superhydrophobic surface, it picks up and carries away any foreign material, such as
dust or dirt.
• How a water droplet interacts with a solid surface determines if it is categorised as super hydrophobic,
hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The higher the contact angle the higher the hydrophobicity of a surface. The
surface is known to be hydrophilic when the water contact angle is less than 90°, hydrophobic when the water
contact angle is greater than 90°and superhydrophobic when the water contact angle is larger than 150°.

• In lotus leaf the contact angle is 160°.

• The hydrophobicity is due to the wax nanostructures on the surface of lotus leaf.
• upper epidermis of the lotus leaf has developed some unrivaled optimizations.
• extremely reduced contact area between surface and water drops due to presence of papillae
• Papillae are the little bumps on the surface of lotus leaf.
• The microstructure is composed of plant cells grown in little mounds known as a “papillae” with small
channels for air flow in between called “stomata.”
• The nanostructure is composed of hair-like wax crystal towers (epicuticular wax) built on the peaks of the
papillae topography. The elevated wax towers combined with the stomata trap air and reduce the contact
area of the water with the surface.
• Applications may include -coatings that reduce the water drag on boats and protect surfaces and equipment
exposed to fresh or salt water, building materials that remain clean with little maintenance and are better
protected from wear from the elements, and textiles that are resistant to staining and/or remain dry when
submerged in water.

Plant burrs and Velcro

• Plant burrs are a type of seeds that have been adapted for dispersal by the presentce of hooks
• These seeds stick on to animals with the help of these hooks and are taken to faraway places.
• The bur must be able to easily detach from the plant and easily attach to for example the fur of an animal.
• Velcro was designed based on the design of burrs. Velcro is a nylon pressure tape fastner.
• Velcro is made up of two strips of fabric, one covered in thousands of tiny hooks and the other with thousands
of tiny loops, the materials gripped together firmly while still allowing easy release.
• George de Mestral patented the invention in 1952.
• Popularised after NASA used it.
• Later used in popular shoe brands such as Adidas and Reebok.
• Velcro is a versatile type of closure used in clothes shoes, diapers, safety belts, fastners.
• Velcro is convenient to use and reusable.