INSTRUCTO R ’S

M A NUA L
to ac c ompany

WRITING TODAY
Third Edition
and

WRITING TODAY
Brief Third Edition

Charles Paine
University of New Mexico

Richard Johnson-Sheehan
Purdue University

Frank deBoer
Purdue University

Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
 ! This work is protected by United States copyright laws and is
provided solely for the use of instructors in teaching their courses
and assessing student learning. Dissemination or sale of any part of
this work (including on the World Wide Web) will destroy the integrity
of the work and is not permitted. The work and materials from it
should never be made available to students except by instructors
using the accompanying text in their classes. All recipients of this
work are expected to abide by these restrictions and to honor the
intended pedagogical purposes and the needs of other instructors
who rely on these materials.

Instructor’s Manual to accompany Johnson-Sheehan/Paine, Writing Today, Third Edition

and Writing Today, Brief Third Edition
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Instructors may reproduce
portions of this book for classroom use only. All other reproductions are strictly
prohibited without prior permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

ISBN-10: 0-321-98479-X
ISBN-13: 978-0-32198479-1

www.pearsonhighered.com
CONTENTS
PART I Advice for New Instructors
Using Genres to Teach Writing 1
Preparing for a New Semester 9
The First Days of Class 18
Managing a Writing Classroom 23
Conducting Group Work and Peer Review 27
Designing Writing Assignments 36
Responding to and Evaluating Student Work 45
Interacting with Students 67
Working with Non-Native Speakers of English 70

PART II Course Plans and Syllabi

Model Syllabi 75

PART III Chapter-By-Chapter Teaching Strategies

Part 1: Getting Started
Chapter 1: Writing and Genres 85
Chapter 2: Topic, Angle, Purpose 89
Chapter 3: Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations 91
Chapter 4: Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically 94
Part 2: Using Genres to Express Ideas
Chapter 5: The Memoir 97
Chapter 6: Profiles 102
Chapter 7: Reviews 107
Chapter 8: Literary Analyses 112
Chapter 9: Rhetorical Analyses 116
Chapter 10: Commentaries 121
Chapter 11: Arguments 125
Chapter 12: Proposals 129
Chapter 13: Analytical Reports 133
Chapter 14: Research Papers 137
Part 3: Developing a Writing Process
Chapter 15: Inventing Ideas and Prewriting 142
Chapter 16: Organizing and Drafting 144
Chapter 17: Choosing a Style 146
Chapter 18: Designing 148
Chapter 19: Revising and Editing 150
iii
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Contents

Part 4: Strategies for Shaping Ideas

Chapter 20: Developing Paragraphs and Sections 152
Chapter 21: Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns 154
Chapter 22: Using Argumentative Strategies 156
Chapter 23: Collaborating and Peer Response 159
Part 5: Doing Research
Chapter 24: Starting Research 161
Chapter 25: Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence 163
Chapter 26: Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources 166
Chapter 27: Using MLA Style 171
Chapter 28: Using APA Style 172
Part 6: Getting Your Ideas Out There
Chapter 29: Writing with Social Networking 173
Chapter 30: Creating a Portfolio 175
Chapter 31: Succeeding on Written Exams and Assessment 178
Chapter 32: Presenting Your Work 180
Part 7: Anthology of Readings
Chapter 33: Memoirs 182
Chapter 34: Profiles 185
Chapter 35: Reviews 187
Chapter 36: Literary Analyses 189
Chapter 37: Rhetorical Analysis 191
Chapter 38: Commentaries 193
Chapter 39: Arguments 195
Chapter 40: Proposals 197
Chapter 41: Reports 199
Chapter 42: Research Papers 201

iv
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 PART I
Advice for New Instructors

1
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
USING GENRES TO TEACH
WRITING
W hile developing Writing Today and this instructor’s
guide, we aimed to create a textbook for writing
teachers across the experience spectrum. First-time
teachers will find its approach intuitive but rigorous,
with an abundance of ideas for in-class and out-of-class
activities and assignments. Veteran teachers will find an
approach that is both familiar and new, allowing them to
maintain much of what they have been doing while help-
ing them move in new and important directions.
Writing Today affords broad flexibility. Teachers and
programs can keep what has been working well for
them. They can also use its genre-based approach to ex-
tend and enrich their current practices in ways that will
help students respond to the writing situations they will
encounter during college and beyond.
Any transition from one approach for teaching writing
to another can be difficult. Writing Today is designed to
make that transition easier and more successful. It takes
an approach to genre that explains how genres work in-
tuitively. We don’t bog students (or teachers) down with
overly theoretical definitions. Rather, students learn
about genre by exploring examples within a genre, using
genres, playing around with them, bending and mixing
genres. It combines broad coverage with lean writing
and smart design. We’ve tried to make Writing Today a
textbook that is smart, flexible, and relevant to the de-
mands that have been placed on writing programs, as
well as the demands that will be placed on students in
college and in their careers.
The final section of this chapter describes how teachers
and programs can use Writing Today to help make the
transition from their current approaches to an approach
that makes genre a more central part of the curriculum.
What Is Writing Today’s Genre-Based Approach?
The primary aim of Writing Today is to help teachers
help students learn to use writing to get things done
with words and images. The book aims to help students
learn to enter diverse writing situations, size them
2
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
up, and respond to them by adapting their writing
appropriately. We believe that a genre approach is the
best way to achieve these aims.
Genre studies and genre theory have developed into
sophisticated and rich approaches for both rhetorical
study and the field of composition. Although genre theo-
ry permeates Writing Today, we have aimed above all to
make genres intuitive and useful, to give students just
enough conceptual understanding so that they can start
working with genres, and use genres to get things done
with writing.
Therefore, while we want students to gain an intuitive
grasp of how genres work, Writing Today takes a learn-
by-doing approach. In Part II we provide ten very useful
and common genres. In fact, we have found that our stu-
dents immediately recognize that these genres are rel-
evant to them because they represent the kind of writing
that they will be doing during their college years and in
their careers.
Students recognize that this writing course is impor-
tant to them for achieving their goals. Thus they become
more engaged, and because they are more engaged they
learn more deeply and enjoyably.
Introducing the Concept of Genres
Genres and the concept of genre are the heart of Writing
Today (see Figure 1.1). Genres are defined intuitively and
concisely in the first chapter, and they remain the focus
in every chapter and on almost every page. Throughout
Writing Today, we have maintained this intuitive and
learn-by-doing approach, which stresses above all that
genres are flexible tools that help both writers and audi-
ences adapt to diverse and ever-changing writing situa-
tions. Genres, and an intuitive understanding of genre,
help writers respond to those rhetorical situations effec-
tively and with versatility.
Writing Today likens genres to tools, defining genres in
terms of what they do—how they work and how they
help writers get things done. We explain that, and, more
important, we show how genres help students through-
out the writing process, from analysis of the rhetorical
situation, to inventing ideas, to designing, revising, and
editing.
Writing Today likens genres also to spaces, as both
“meeting places” and “meaning places.” This helps
students understand that genres are equally impor-
tant for audiences, who use their (often tacit) un-
 Using Genres to Teach Writing
derstanding of genre to make sense of a document
or other text. In fact, a focus on audience through-
out the book helps student writers understand that
writing is always a collaborative and interactive
undertaking.
Learning Genres by Using Them
Genres and the concept of genre help students develop
as capable and versatile writers, but concepts alone are
never enough. We believe that the best way for students
to understand genre as a concept is to start playing
around with lots of genres. In short, the basic approach
of this book is to learn about genre by doing genres.
We have structured Writing Today so that students gain
a better grasp of the concept of genre as they engage
and work with genres. Because we want our students
to leave our writing courses having become versatile
writers who understand that genres are flexible and are
always evolving, we have incorporated several features
that help them gain this understanding by working with
genres.
For students to grasp a rich and nuanced concept like
genre, they need to do work that allows them to expe-
rience how genres work. Explaining and emphasizing
alone will not work. We can tell students that the di-
versity of genres is boundless and always changing; we
can show them that although members of a genre set
share certain features and purposes, they can never be
boiled down to formulas; and we can stress that while
they should use genres to help them analyze rhetori-
cal situations and respond to them, they must carefully
adapt their own response to each situation. But to gain a
deeper comprehension of genres and writing in general,
students need practice using these concepts. The Micro-
genre and the end-of-chapter activities are designed to
help students gain this deeper comprehension.
Using the Micogrenre to Introduce New Genres
Each of the ten genre chapters in Part II of Writing Today
includes a feature called the Microgenre. Compared to
the main genres, microgenres tend to be shorter in length
and narrower in scope, like a subgenre (Figure 1.1). To-
gether, the main genre, the subgenre, and other related
genres can be seen as a genre set—a group of genres that
are related but that differ in key ways (purpose, audi-
ence, style, organization, medium, etc.). You can help stu-
dents get a feel for a genre set by having them examine
a variety of examples and create subgenres in the genre
set. (See the chapter “Designing Assignments” for ideas
3
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
about “sequencing.” See also Part II, “Model Syllabi,” for
specific plans for sequencing.)
The right-hand column of Figure 1.1 lists some of the
countless possibilities for creating your own microgenre
assignments. Many on this list come from Part III of this
Instructor’s Manual, and others can be found on the
Internet (e.g., the “Six-Word Memoir” from smithmag.
net). Notice that these categories “leak.” That’s because
genres arise not out of a fixed order of the universe but
from human activities and human beings, who cease-
lessly invent, re-invent, bend, blend, and parody genres.
By composing microgenres, your students will develop
an intuitive understanding of the way genres work and
the way that writers must continually reconsider and
readjust. Meanwhile, and just as important, students
really enjoy these activities. Related genres can be as-
signed in a variety of ways, but usually you will want to
make low-stakes assignments that encourage students
to take risks and experiment.
In addition, in every set of the end-of-chapter activities
(“Talk About This,” “Try This Out,” and “Write This”)
you’ll find several that ask students to consider alter-
native genres and subgenres. Every “Write This” set
includes a “repurposing” writing activity. When writ-
ers repurpose, say, a memoir, they are taking the same
or similar information but casting it into a new genre,
with a new audience, purpose, angle, and so forth. In this
way, students experience how any change in the rhetori-
cal situation should lead to significant changes in the
writer’s response. In addition to developing their gen-
eral writing abilities, they will also develop their capaci-
ties to respond with flexibility, versatility, and rhetori-
cal awareness.
Why Adopt a Genre Approach to Teaching
Writing?
Rather than use the very broad term “essay,” Writing
Today uses terms students will encounter throughout
their college careers and beyond (e.g., reports, propos-
als, evaluations). Even when describing documents that
are quite essay-like, we use more specific terms (e.g.,
literary analysis, commentaries, position papers). By
using the language of these ten genres, we hope to help
students understand how the abilities they’re develop-
ing in your course connect with the abilities they’ll de-
velop further in other courses and on the job.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
Reinforcing the WPA Outcomes Statement for First-Year
Composition
The field of composition and rhetoric has come a long way
since the days when freshman writing was conceived as
merely a liberal arts course in which students learned
to appreciate the beauty of the essay and to write toler-
ably decent ones themselves. While the essay genre has
remained a mainstay in the writing course, the field of
writing studies has been challenged with questions like
this one: Can a writing course that focuses solely on the
essay genre adequately prepare students for the contexts
they will encounter in their college years and beyond?
The Council of Writing Program Administrators strong-
ly urges writing teachers to consider teaching multiple
genres as part of an overall goal to develop what they call
“rhetorical knowledge.” The “WPA Outcomes Statement
for First-Year Composition” aligns closely with the aims
of Writing Today.
The WPA Outcomes Statement urges writing teachers to
treat writing as a rhetorical process that requires know-
how to analyze a writing situation and then to respond
appropriately to that situation, using one’s knowledge of
conventions, structures, and genres. But more than that,
it urges teachers to help students develop an attitude to-
ward writing that focuses not on formulas and mechan-
ics but on an always-changing rhetorical understanding.
Similarly, Writing Today can help your students acquire
this know-how and these attitudes about the nature of
writing.
From the WPA Outcomes Statement for First-Year Com-
position1
Rhetorical Knowledge
By the end of first year composition, students should
• Focus on a purpose
• Respond to the needs of different audiences
• Respond appropriately to different kinds of
rhetorical situations
• Use conventions of format and structure appropriate
to the rhetorical situation
• Adopt appropriate voice, tone, and level of formality
• Understand how genres shape reading and writing
• Write in several genres
Faculty in all programs and departments can build on
this preparation by helping students learn
You can find the entire Outcomes Statement online at wpacouncil.org
1
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The main features of writing in their fields
• The main uses of writing in their fields
• The expectations of readers in their fields
Teaching Genre and Rhetorical Awareness
Researchers have found that a large majority of college
seniors report that their essay-based courses were not
relevant to the writing they did in their majors, and re-
searchers investigating how well essay-writing skills
relate to other kinds of writing have found there is very
little transfer. Longitudinal studies that traced the path
of college students’ development as writers also found
that essay-based writing curricula are far from optimal
for preparing students for the writing they will do be-
fore graduating college. Even those disciplines that tend
to assign essays (like history and philosophy) require
new strategies and ways of thinking that most first-year
writing teachers cannot or do not have the time to cover.
So what can be done about this lack of connection be-
tween first-year writing and the writing that students
will soon be doing in college and in their careers? How
can we make sure that the abilities they gain in first-
year writing transfer to these other settings? Decades of
education research provide this answer: teach for trans-
fer by giving students principles about rhetorical knowl-
edge and rhetorical know-how and having them apply
and reflect on those principles in a variety of situations.
In a genre-based writing course, this means that students
should acquire rhetorical skills and genre knowledge, as
well as genre know-how. When students have rhetorical
skills and knowledge, they understand concepts such as
audience, context, purpose, angle, topic, rhetorical situ-
ation, and others. Genre knowledge means that students
can identify genres and their distinguishing features.
Genre know-how means that students can apply their
rhetorical skills and genre knowledge to real writing sit-
uations. It means they can analyze a rhetorical situation
and respond to that situation, with the proper content,
tone, organization, design, style, citations, and so forth.
In every strand of its DNA, Writing Today combines this
meta-knowledge with practice. It provides just enough
in the way of rhetorical principles to allow students to
engage in meta-cognition and reflection. At the same
time, the end-of-chapter activities invite students to put
their newly gained rhetorical skills and genre knowl-
edge to use.
4

Figure 1.1 Genre and Microgenre
Chapter and genre
Chapter 5: Memoirs
Chapter 6: Profiles
Chapter 7: Reviews
Chapter 8: Literary Analyses
Chapter 9: Rhetorical Analyses
Chapter 10: Commentaries
Chapter 11: Arguments
Chapter 12: Proposals
Chapter 13: Reports
Chapter 14: Research Papers
Using Genres to Teach Writing
Microgenre Related microgenres that could
be explored
The literacy narrative Digital memoir, fictional memoir,
six-word memoir, manifesto,
desideratum, “This I Believe”
The résumé brief biography, Facebook advocacy
group, biosketch, obituary
The rave review the reviewer, comparison
review, book review, music review,
movie review, product review,
performance review, art review,
slam, rant, consumer report, “rotten
tomato”
The reading response book review, imitation piece, author
conversation, author interview,
literary parody
The ad critique DVD special features, pathos
through music, I’m an X and I’m a Y,
AdbustersTM, Ad Report Card (Slate.
com)
The letter to the editor the believing and doubting game,
arguing the opposite, stand-up
commentary, rant, rave, manifesto,
letter of complaint
The rebuttal white paper, argument,
parody, manifesto, letter of
recommendation, performance
review, debate
The pitch invention proposal, activist
proposal, marriage proposal,
“modest” proposal, job
application letter, letter proposing
improvements to business
The brief lab report, gender socialization
observation report, food diary
report, ad report, “The Explainer,”
consumer report, market research
report
The annotated bibliography position paper, argument,
proposal, report, magazine article
(all supported with research),
medical brochure, research
poster, and multimodal projects
that integrate outside research
(special news report, Public Service
Announcement)
5
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
Teaching Know-How: The Changing Role of Writing in
the World
Writing courses have been changing in response to
changes in students and in the world around them. To-
day’s students are less patient with courses that focus
on skills and knowledge that seem only distantly related
to their goals. Like the much-researched “adult learner”
of a few decades ago, most of today’s students want rele-
vance. While they understand that they will write essays
for some classes (mostly in the humanities), most of their
courses will ask for genres such as reports, proposals,
analyses, evaluations, and so forth.
With the explosion of electronic communication, stu-
dents come to our classes having lived in a world that
demands more communication, more often, and in more
ways than at any time in history. They are used to en-
tering a variety of communication situations and learn-
ing to respond to them appropriately. And while most
students don’t immediately see the connection between
their electronic communication and the writing they
do in college, their acquired communicative flexibility
makes them ready and eager for a first-year writing cur-
riculum that is equally flexible, vibrant, and useful.
In the world beyond college, words and images are be-
coming increasingly important. The CCCC Multiple Uses
of Writing Task Force has argued that, “As the world
grows smaller, we will live by words as never before, and
it will take many words framed in many ways to trans-
form that closeness into the mutuality needed to pursue
peace and prosperity for our generation and those to
come.” The authors continue:
writing instruction is being called upon to mul-
tiply its vision and expand student abilities, to
move outward from its traditional emphasis
on academic contexts and forms to include
public, cross-cultural, professional, personal,
and artistic contexts and forms. . . . To restrict
students’ engagement with writing to only aca-
demic contexts and forms is to risk narrowing
what we as a nation can remember, understand,
and create.
There is fairly broad consensus that the first-year writ-
ing course needs to extend and enrich its scope so that
students can learn to write effectively, clearly, persua-
sively, and appropriately in a variety of contexts and use
a variety of genres to meet the demands of those con-
texts.
6
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Teaching Versatility: A Changing Role for First-Year
Writing in the College Curriculum
Teachers and researchers of writing have come to rec-
ognize that there is no such thing as generic academic
writing. Of course, there are many strategies and moves
that genres across the curriculum tend to share (e.g., de-
veloping a thesis-driven purpose, pursuing certain kinds
of reasoning, describing opposing positions fairly). How-
ever, above all, students need to be prepared for the va-
riety of writing tasks they will face in college, writing in
different genres, for a wide variety of audiences, in order
to achieve various purposes.
Because of the large variety of writing situations, a first-
year writing course hasn’t the time to give students
practice in all the kinds of writing they will do in col-
lege—or after. However, first-year writing can help them
develop the ability to analyze the contexts and require-
ments of new situations. Students need to develop a keen
sense of rhetorical awareness and a wide-ranging set of
strategies to help them respond effectively to new situ-
ations.
First-year writing can be conceived as a transition
course from high school to college and beyond that helps
students understand, first, that writers need to analyze
writing situations and respond appropriately and,
second, how to do so.
How Can You Transition from Other Approaches?
You can feature genres in your writing course without
having to sacrifice the strengths of your current ap-
proach to teaching composition. The transition need not
be an all-or-nothing matter. Writing Today gives you the
flexibility to incorporate parts of a genre approach with-
out completely overhauling your own approach. It allows
you to enhance what you’ve been doing and keep what
works for you.
Consult Part II, “Model Syllabi,” for sample syllabi that
use Writing Today to enhance, not replace, five widely
established approaches to teaching writing. Here are
strategies for moving to a genre approach:
The Academic-Writing Approach
Writing courses that focus on academic writing help stu-
dents understand how discourse operates in the academy
and how to write for academic audiences. These courses
focus on teaching the strategies associated with general-
ized academic writing—the ability to make claims, to as-
sert arguments while acknowledging the merits of coun-
 Using Genres to Teach Writing
terarguments, to work with texts and incorporate them
respectfully into their writing, to argue from evidence,
and so forth. Teachers who use this approach most often
see the writing course as preparation for what the writ-
ing students will do in college. They understand that one
or two general writing courses cannot teach all there is
to know, and they expect that subsequent teachers will
help students continue learning about the genres and
other writing conventions in particular disciplines.
You will find that this approach and its goals align well
with those of Writing Today, which stresses to students
that their writing courses prepare them for the writing
they will do in college and beyond. Students understand
that they will write more than essays in college classes.
Throughout Writing Today, the connections between
the writing course and subsequent courses are stated
explicitly. For instance, the beginning section of each of
the genre chapters (in Part 2) describes how the genre
is used in college. Also, the example student papers are
most often from college courses in the disciplines, and
many of the end-of-chapter activities stress the work
students will do in college.
The Purpose-based (or Aims-based) Approach
Purpose- or aims-based writing courses focus on the
intentions of the writer, such as narration, description,
evaluation, definition, classification, analysis, argument,
causal analysis, compare and contrast, and others. Pur-
pose-based courses most often (but not always) focus
on purposes discretely, allowing students to learn about
and experiment with them one at a time before moving
on to the possibilities of combining purposes, adapting
purposes to specific rhetorical situations, and so forth.
In such a course, students learn the constituent elements
of writing in order to prepare them for the writing they’ll
do in college and beyond.
Writing Today accommodates this approach with strong,
straightforward chapters on its purposes (or aims or
strategies). But Writing Today can extend that approach
in a way that is similar to traditional applications. When
students are ready to move beyond a discrete strategy,
they can combine strategies into genres—a concept that
subsumes the activity of adapting the usual ways of do-
ing things with writing (organization, tone, style, and,
purpose) to specific rhetorical situations.
Students who are learning about narration and descrip-
tion will find it is a natural to apply their mastery to a
“real world” genre, such as memoir or profile. Teach-
ers might also help students understand that narration
7
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
and description occur in almost any genre. Writing To-
day consistently describes and displays the ubiquity of
these purposes. For instance, students might suspect
that narration is all about personal writing, but Writ-
ing Today explains and shows that narration is an im-
portant strategy in reports, proposals, and other genres
that are not usually associated with personal writing.
Thus, Writing Today can enhance a purpose- or aims-
based approach by helping students understand and
apply what they’ve learned to genres that are common
in college and beyond.
The Patterns-based Approach
A patterns-based approach is similar to the aims-based
approach, but it puts even more emphasis on master-
ing specific commonplaces of writing. This approach
focuses on teaching students a set of archetypes (or
modes) that can be used in a variety of rhetorical situ-
ations. They include narration, definition, comparison,
classification, description, analysis, and argument. Like
a purpose-based approach, this approach usually moves
students beyond the patterns themselves and toward
combining patterns, often in ways that respond to spe-
cific rhetorical situations like those they’ll encounter in
other subsequent college courses.
The genre approach is a natural extension of a patterns-
based approach. Genres are not patterns, but genres (as
explained in the first chapter in Part I) are typical ways
of writing and speaking that help people interact and
work together. Therefore, typified organizations—or
patterns—constitute a key aspect of genres. And, the
idea of genre enhances a patterns approach in a way
that is similar to traditional extensions. Students can
take what they’ve learned about a pattern and apply it
to academic and workplace genres.
The Argumentative-Writing Approach
Writing courses that focus on argument and argumen-
tative writing have become increasingly common in
the past fifteen years. Teachers, writing programs, and
colleges have recognized that students must be able to
think critically and argue civilly and effectively if they
are to succeed in college , in the workplace, and as citi-
zens in a democracy.
A focus on arguments and the language of argumenta-
tion permeate Writing Today. It keeps the language of
argumentation intuitive and straightforward so that
students need not master a lot of complex terms that
can make argument seem only an academic enterprise.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Instead, they can write in a genre that makes an argu-

ment or uses the strategies of argument. They’ll learn
about argumentation by doing argument with genres
that transfer easily to other college courses and their ca-
reers.

You will find the language of argument everywhere in

the book, even in unexpected places. For instance, while
everyone understands that genres like position papers
and commentaries are argumentative, many may be
surprised to find Writing Today helping students under-
stand that the memoir can make an argumentative claim,
even when that claim is not made explicitly. And the
book takes a similar approach with each genre. Writing
Today can enhance an argumentative-writing approach
to helping students understand argument intuitively by
having students employ argumentation in all the writing
they do.

Works Cited
CCCC Multiple Uses of Writing Task Force. “CCCC State-
ment on the Multiple Uses of Writing.” 19 November
2007. Web. 7 September 2009.

Council of Writing Program Administrators. “WPA Out-

comes Statement for First-Year Composition.” April
2000. Web. 7 September 2009.

8
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PREPARING FOR A NEW
SEMESTER
T eaching writing can be both challenging and reward-
ing. Teaching first-year composition is especially
challenging because the students are diverse and they
are at a formative age. In a typical composition course,
students will have a variety of majors and come from
a range of backgrounds. Most of them will be 18 or 19
years old, but you will also have older students who
started college later in life or have returned to college.
Many of your students will be living away from home for
the first time.
Writing Today is designed to give you maximum flexibil-
ity to meet the needs of diverse students. Some of your
students will be excellent writers already; if so, Writing
Today offers opportunities to learn advanced writing
skills that will keep these students challenged. Some of
your students will struggle to produce clear, organized
prose; Writing Today addresses fundamental aspects of
writing that will help them improve their ability to com-
municate.
Writing Today is designed to give you a large body of ma-
terial to work with: there is more material in this book
than you could possibly cover in one semester. You’re
not expected to cover it all; instead, you should look for
ways to fit these materials to your interests and your
students’ needs.
Keep in Mind: This is a Transformational Time for
Your Students
The students in your class are at an important moment
in their lives. Many of them are passing from adolescence
into adulthood. They are forming new relationships and,
in some sense, pulling away from the only people and
places they have known. It’s an exciting time for them—
and an anxious time.
If you think back to your own experience as a first-year
college student, you can probably remember the excite-
ment and apprehension of that first year. Will you fit in?
Will you make friends? Will you succeed? As they enter
your classroom, your students are asking these kinds of
9
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
emotional questions. They will do their best to play it
cool, but most of them aren’t sure what to expect from
college, or from you.
More importantly, your students want college to be a
transformational experience. They want college to be
different from high school, and they want the campus to
be different from their hometown. They hope to expe-
rience college events that their friends and family have
told them about. They hope that they will be changed for
the better.
You are part of their transformational experience. You
and their college instructors will help them grow and
mature in these crucial years. So, as you prepare for a
new semester, keep your students’ hopes for transfor-
mation in mind. In the rush to pull everything together
for a new semester, don’t lose sight of what your students
really want. Creating a syllabus, establishing policies,
preparing lesson plans, designing assignments, choos-
ing readings, thinking up activities—they are enough to
make the most experienced professor’s head swim. But,
if you set the goal of transformation as a cornerstone of
your course, you will find the preparation process more
meaningful.
Creating Your Syllabus
Experienced teachers typically begin preparing for a
new semester by sketching out a syllabus. A syllabus is a
week-by-week and sometimes day-by-day description of
the course. Your syllabus will list lecture topics for each
week, readings, and due dates for assignments. We have
found that the best syllabi are those that students can
post above their desk, so they can easily see what is ex-
pected of them each week.
There are many ways to fashion a syllabus for a first-
year writing course, and we will share our favorite ap-
proach. In Part II of this Instructor’s Manual, we offer
several model syllabi that you can adapt to your own
teaching approach. You might also talk to other experi-
enced writing teachers to learn other ways to create a
syllabus. Eventually, you will come up with something
that works for you.
Step 1: Look at the Academic Calendar
Begin by looking at your university’s academic calendar.
Most American universities follow a 16-week semester;
a few follow the quarter system, with 10-week semes-
ters.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

On your own calendar, mark down when the term begins The Future Education
and when it ends. Identify any scheduled breaks: Labor Mating and Dating Safety
Day, fall break, Thanksgiving Break, Martin Luther King Food Animals and Pets
Jr. Day, and spring break. Then highlight finals week. Alcohol and Drug Violence on Campus
Abuse
Take note of religious holidays during the term, such
My Major, Current Events
as Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (fall), Ramadan and My Career
Eid (varies), Hanukkah (December), Passover (spring),
On the Road Advertising
and Good Friday (spring). Identifying these holidays is
Psychology Campus Organizations
important because your students may ask for days off.
When possible, avoid setting due dates for assignments Poverty Homelessness
on or right after important holidays. College Life Literature
Sports Environment
Step 2: Divide the Term into Sequences Economics Politics
A sequence is a segment of time that you will devote to
Architecture Fashion
one issue, theme, or type of project. For example, you
Science and Health Care
might build a sequence around an issue like “violence on Technology
campus,” or a theme like “music,” or a project like “re-
Race Gender Issues
search.” Each sequence will usually take three to four
Famous People Not-So-Famous People
weeks, and each will include two or three assignments
to be handed in. History Communities
You should always look for ways to put your personal
As shown in Figure 1.2, a 16-week semester can be di-
spin on whatever themes you use. In Figure 1.2, we have
vided into three or four sequences that are four or five
given each theme an interesting title that adds energy
weeks each. A 10-week quarter can be divided into two
and appeal.
or three sequences that are three or four weeks apiece.
Each sequence typically ends with the due date of a sig- Our suggestion is that you choose three themes for a 16-
nificant paper or project. Within each sequence, you can week course and two themes for a 10-week course. The
highlight due dates for smaller papers or projects. final weeks in your course should be reserved for work-
ing on a writing portfolio.
Step 3: Choose Interesting Themes for Your Sequences
After carving the term into sequences, think of themes Step 4: Decide What Genres, Skills, and Issues You Want
that will interest both you and your students. A theme is to Teach
a broad topic on which you are going to focus a sequence. If you are new to teaching writing, the thought of fill-
For example, “At the Movies” allows you to build a se- ing a semester with meaningful content might seem a
quence around movie-related assignments. A theme like bit daunting. As you become more experienced in the
“Identifying Myself” lets you craft assignments and ac- writing classroom, you will discover that sixteen or ten
tivities that allow students to explore who they are and weeks is never enough time to cover all the topics you
where they come from. want to teach your students.
Here is a list of common themes appropriate for sequenc- To help you decide what you are going to teach, create
es used in composition classes: a three-column “Genre, Abilities, Issues” chart like the
Pop culture Women and Men one in Figure 1.3. In the “genres” column, list the genres
Music Making Campus Better you want to teach this term. In the “abilities” column, list
Movies Celebrities all the writing skills your students should learn this se-
Television Body Image mester. And in the “issues” column, list any special chal-
lenges or issues you would like your students to address.
War and Peace Who Am I?
The 1960s Travel A sequence is typically developed by bundling one or
The 1970s Crime and Punishment two smaller assignments with a related larger assign-
The 1980s The Place Where I’m From ment. Let’s say you want to create a sequence called “At
The 1990s Religion the Movies.” You might ask your students to write a rave
10
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Preparing for a New Semester

Figure 1.2 Sketching Out a Syllabus

SIXTEEN-WEEK SEMESTER
WEEKS SEQUENCE AND THEMES ASSIGNMENTS AND READINGS
One to Four Sequence 1: The Place Where I’m Literacy Narrative
From
Memoir

Profile
Five to Eight Sequence 2: At the Movies Rave

Review

Commentary
Nine to Twelve Sequence 3: Research Paper Brief

Research Report

Proposal
Thirteen to Sixteen Sequence 4: My Work at its Best Reflection

Portfolio
FINALS WEEK

TEN-WEEK SEMESTER
WEEKS SEQUENCE AND THEMES ASSIGNMENTS AND READINGS
One to Four Sequence 1: My Side of the Story Letter to the Editor

Rhetorical Analysis

Position Paper
Five to Eight Sequence 2: Research Paper Pitch

Proposal

Research Report
Nine and Ten Sequence 3: My Work at Its Best Reflection

Portfolio
FINALS WEEK

11
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Figure 1.3 Genres, Abilities, Issues

GENRES ABILITIES ISSUES

Memoir Narrowing a Topic Gender and Identity
Profile Defining a Purpose Ethics and Morality
Review Reader Analysis Wealth and Poverty
Commentary Interpreting Rhetorical
Situations
Proposal
Critical Reading
Report
Prewriting
Rhetorical Analysis
Writing Introduction
Portfolio
Plain Style
Using Similes and Metaphors
Clear Sentences
Topic: Sentences in Paragraphs
Paragraph Flow
Describing
Classifying
Revising and Editing
Proofreading
Using Argument Patterns
Document Design
Using Graphics
Persuasion
Narrating
Writing in a Team
Doing Research
Finding Sources
Citing Sources
Quoting and Paraphrasing
Public Presentations
Writing Essay Exams
Overcoming Writer’s Block
Grammar and Syntax
Improving Diction

12
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Preparing for a New Semester
about a movie they like. Then ask them to write a review
of a current movie in the theaters. For their final assign-
ment, have them write a commentary in which they cri-
tique the kinds of movies that are being produced today.
These three assignments build on each other and rein-
force a month-long discussion of film.
Step 5: Pick the Writing Abilities You Want to Lecture
About
Start sorting these writing skills into your 16-week or
10-week syllabus. In Figure 1.4, for example, we show
one sequence with the abilities included in the “Topics”
column. As the first sequence in the syllabus, it tends to
focus on information drawn from the first chapters of
Writing Today.
Early in the semester, you will want to help your students
learn the basics, such as choosing their topic, identify-
ing their purpose, and profiling their readers. Later in
the semester, you can teach them more advanced abili-
ties like visual design, doing research, and putting their
writing on the Internet. Some genres are tailor-made
for teaching particular writing abilities: The report is
a good genre for teaching research methods and citing
sources; the memoir is good for teaching narrative and
personal expression.
You aren’t going to be able to teach your students every-
thing about writing, nor should you feel an obligation to
do so. Instead, look at the list of abilities in your “Genres,
Abilities, Issues” chart, decide which abilities you be-
lieve are most important for them to learn, and match
those abilities with specific genres.
Step 6: Complicate the Issues and Readings from the
Anthology
When teaching composition with a book like Writing To-
day, you have many choices for discussion and writing
topics. Let’s say you are interested in asking students to
explore issues of “Gender and Identity” that shaped their
upbringing. You might have them write about how the
place where they grew up shaped their views of what it
means to be a woman or a man. In this way, having an
issue chosen allows you to complicate your assignments
and decide on appropriate readings from the anthology
of Writing Today. Your goal is to enrich your students’
writing experience by asking them to discuss and incor-
porate specific issues into their writing. These issues
will deepen their writing and make it more personal and
challenging.
13
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Step 7: Finishing Your Syllabus
We recommend completing your course by having stu-
dents submit a portfolio of the work they did in your
class. In Writing Today, Chapter 30, “Creating a Portfo-
lio,” offers a full description of what materials should be
included in a writing portfolio.
When creating your syllabus, you should save time in the
last few weeks for your students to revise their earlier
writings, write a reflection of what they learned, and
workshop their portfolios with other students. To help
them prepare their portfolios, you can go over revising
and editing one more time.
Creating Your Policies
Your policies are the rules of the road for your class. A
good set of policies spells out your guidelines for grad-
ing, attendance, late papers, equal access, academic in-
tegrity, and plagiarism. It is important to have a clear,
specific set of policies, because they are needed most
when you have to resolve a problem in your class.
Here are the elements of a basic set of policies. You can
add or subtract items to fit your own teaching approach
and university guidelines:
Header
List your name, office address, office hours, office tele-
phone, e-mail address, and other ways to communicate
with you (Facebook, Twitter, etc.). If your course is online
or has a companion Web site, list the full Web address
here.
Introduction to Your Course
Write a brief greeting that welcomes your students to the
course and explains what composition is about. Explain
why the course is important to your students’ future at
the university and in their careers.
List the Course Texts and Explain Where to Obtain Them
List the books for the course, including Writing Today,
and tell the students where they can buy them (local
bookstores, campus book store, Amazon.com). Be sure
to include author, title, publisher, and the edition. It’s
best to include the ISBN numbers of the books to avoid
problems.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Figure 1.4 Sorting Out the Abilities by Genre and Difficulty

TOPICS ASSIGNMENTS AND READINGS
WEEK 1 What is Writing and Composition? Readings: Writing Today,
Genres and the Writing Process Chapters 1, 2, 4
THEME: “THE PLACE
Due: Literacy Narrative
WHERE I’M FROM” Defining Your Topic, Angle, and
Purpose (In-class assignment)
Writing a Memoir
WEEK 2 Sharpening Your Purpose Statement Readings: Writing Today,
(Thesis) Chapters 3, 14
Pre-Writing and Invention
Profiling Readers and Interpreting
Contexts
WEEK 3 Writing a Profile Readings: Writing Today,
Organizing a Text Chapters 5, 15, 19

Writing Introductions and Due: Memoir

Conclusions
WEEK 4 Writing Plain Style Sentences Readings: Writing Today,
Revising and Editing Chapters 16, 18
Peer Editing Workshop
DUE: PROFILE
(FIRST CLASS DAY OF WEEK 5)

Figure 1.5 The Final Sequence of the Syllabus

TOPICS ASSIGNMENTS AND READINGS
WEEK 13 Creating a Portfolio Readings: Writing Today,
Chapters 8, 30
THEME: “MY WORK AT Writing a Reflection as a Rhetorical
ITS BEST” Analysis

Reflecting on Your Own Work

WEEK 14 Putting Your Work on the Internet Readings: Writing Today,
Chapters 18, 29
Editing and Proofreading
Due: Portfolio Reflection
Portfolio Workshops
WEEK 15 Portfolio Workshops Readings: Writing Today,
Chapters 31, 32
Writing Essay Exams

Giving Public Presentations

WEEK 16 Presentation of Portfolios DUE: PROFILE
FINAL EXAMS Examination in Classroom

14
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Preparing for a New Semester
List of Course Assignments and Their Value Toward Final
Grade
List all the assignments for the term and state their per-
centage value toward the overall course grade. Your final
number, of course, should add up to 100 percent. If you
are including participation grade, it should be reflected
here.
Description of the Differences Among Grades
Describe the basic differences between the A, B, C, D, and
F grades. Briefly articulate what you are looking for at
each grade, and show what distinguishes work at one
grade level from another (what distinguishes A work
from B work, and so on).
Here is a typical description of grades:
90–100 (A- to A)—You did what the assignment
asked of you at a high-quality level, and your work
shows originality and creativity. Work in this range
shows all the qualities listed below for a B; it also
demonstrates that you took extra steps to be original
or creative in developing content, solving a problem,
or developing a verbal or visual style.
80–89 (B- to B+)—You did what the assignment
asked of you at a high-quality level. Work in this
range needs little revision, is complete in content, is
organized well, and shows special attention to style
and visual design.
70–79 (C- to C+)—You did what the assignment
asked of you. Work in this range tends to need
some revision, but it is complete in content and the
organization is logical. The style, verbal and visual,
is straightforward but unremarkable.
60–69 (D)—You did what the assignment asked at a
low level of quality. Work in this range tends to need
significant revision. The content is often incomplete
and the organization is hard to discern. Verbal and
visual style is often nonexistent or chaotic.
Below 60 (F)— I usually reserve F for people who
don’t show up or don’t do the work. Occasionally,
people fail assignments because they didn’t
understand what was being asked of them. If you
feel you put in your best effort and still received an
F, you should talk with me about why your work was
not considered passable.
You can use number or letter grades.
Explanation of Your Attendance Expectations
Be specific about how many absences students are al-
lowed before they will be penalized. Typically, students
15
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
should be given a maximum of two weeks total absence
from a 16-week semester. That means they can miss six
class days in a MWF format or four classes in a TR or MW
format. Explain that if a student reaches the absence lim-
it, you will penalize him or her one grade for the course
(A becomes a B, C+ becomes a D+). If the student goes
over the limit, he or she will receive “no pass” for the
course.
You can decide whether you will accept excused absences.
For the most part, we recommend not accepting excuses.
If you give your students two weeks’ worth of absences,
that should be enough to handle common illnesses, sur-
prise family visits, funerals, and other issues. However,
if a student experiences an extraordinary event (car ac-
cident, death of a parent) you should make allowances.
If a student needs to miss more than a month of class for
any reason, we recommend you ask the student to drop
or withdraw and take the class next semester.
You might be tempted not to include an attendance policy
because you believe students are adults and should take
responsibility for their own learning. The problem is that
some students are not mature enough to make that de-
cision. Without an attendance policy, students will find
other ways to spend their time and your classroom will
be half full. This lack of attendance often causes a break-
down in classroom morale because the students who do
come to class feel cheated. In our experience, the lack of an
attendance policy leads to a lack of attendance.
Definition of Tardiness
You should expect your students to be in class early or
on time. So, set a limit on the number of times each stu-
dent can be late to class. And make clear to them when
they will be officially tardy (e.g., when you close the door,
when you start the class, when you take attendance).
Also, state when a late arrival will be counted as an ab-
sence (e.g., fifteen minutes after the class starts). Then,
in your policies, allow a few late arrivals and explain
that any late arrivals after that limit will be counted as
absences.
If you do not explain your timeliness expectations to
your students, they will start strolling into class a few
minutes late, then ten minutes late, and then a half hour
late. If a significant number of your students are late for
class each day, your teaching will be disrupted and the
morale of the other students will deteriorate. Moreover,
late students invariably miss important announcements,
and this will cause further problems for you in the fu-
ture.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
Explanation of Your Late Paper Policy
Likewise, be specific about when a paper is late and how
penalties will be assessed. We recommend docking a
late paper one grade per day it is late, including weekend
days. An assignment is officially late if it is not handed
(or e-mailed) by classtime or whatever deadline you set.
Be sure to mention that computer problems (broken
printers, “lost” e-mails) or paper-eating canines are not
valid excuses for being late.
Statement About How You Will Address Grammar and
Spelling Problems
Offer a brief statement about the importance of correct
grammar in determining grades on papers. Composition
is not a course in grammar, so students need to be
aware that you expect them to have mastered basic
grammar rules. Tell them that excuses like “I’m just a
bad speller” and “I’m just not good at grammar” are no
longer acceptable. If they are having grammar-related
problems, they need to go to your campus writing lab for
help or brush up on grammar rules themselves. You can
offer to work with them during office hours.
The importance of grammar is hotly debated in the aca-
demic field of composition. Some researchers believe
grammar is a separate issue from composing. Some will
complain that standard American English discriminates
against regional and cultural dialects. In our experience,
students need to learn the basic grammatical rules of
standard American English, which is used in colleges
and the workplace.
We suggest you penalize papers that have a few gram-
mar errors. Papers that have more than a handful of er-
rors should be returned to the student for correcting and
given a “no pass” until a grammatically correct version is
returned.
Statement of Your Policy for Handling Issues Related to
Disabilities
Your policies should include a statement about disabili-
ties. Your university will have an office that handles is-
sues related to disabilities. If a student claims a disability
and wants you to make allowances, he or she first needs
to be registered with that office. Here is a disabilities
statement that is included in policies at Purdue Univer-
sity.
Students with disabilities must be registered with
Adaptive Programs in the Office of the Dean of
Students before classroom accommodations can be
provided. If you are eligible for academic accom-
16
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
modations because you have a documented disabil-
ity that will impact your work in this class, please
schedule an appointment with me as soon as pos-
sible to discuss your needs.
Definitions of Academic Integrity and Plagiarism
Be clear that students will be failed for an assignment or
the course and reported to the Dean of Students if they
knowingly plagiarize, use the work of others, or cheat
on examinations. Your Dean of Students office or your
Writing Program Administrator should have guidelines
about handling plagiarism situations.
Your university will have definitions of academic dishon-
esty and plagiarism on its Web site. You can likely take
wording directly from that source. It’s a good idea to
use the university’s phrasing because doing so will help
the university support you if a student challenges your
claim that a paper was plagiarized.
Statement About Professionalism
Urge your students to conduct themselves professionally
at all times. Tell them they should not harass, threaten,
or belittle any one in any way and they should listen
respectfully to the views of others in the class. Also,
tell them that their mobile phones and iPods should be
turned off and in their bag (not on their desk) and they
should not be reading a newspaper in class. Tell them you
will give them one warning if they do any of these things.
If they continue, you will ask them to leave the room.
If they continue further, they can be asked to leave the
class or failed for the course. We recommend consult-
ing with your Writing Program Administrator in any of
these situations.
Giving Your Syllabus and Policies to Your
Students
Your syllabus and policies should be given to your stu-
dents on the first day of class. Most instructors make
hard copies and pass them out. Some instructors put the
syllabus and policies on line and ask students to down-
load them. Although we support the paperless classroom,
our recommendation is to make copies to be passed out
the first day. Your syllabus and policies will form much
of the lecture on the first day of class, and putting these
documents in your students’ hands will give them some-
thing to refer to as you explain your policies.
You should advise students to write down all assignment
deadlines in their calendars, and you might tell them to
post your syllabus somewhere near their workspace, so
 Preparing for a New Semester

they can keep track of which readings are expected for
each week.
Remember that your policies are the rules of the road
for your class. If everything goes well, you won’t need to
refer to them; however, you will need them if you have a
conflict with a student. The clearer your policies are at
the beginning of the course, the easier it will be to re-
solve a conflict during the semester.
At any point during the semester, if you alter any of your
policies, the course calendar, or assignment require-
ments, be sure to give students the revised versions in
writing. To avoid having to make copies of the amended
versions, consider e-mailing students the new drafts as
PDFs and posting the files online.
their posts or responses, you should treat the missed
items as absences or a lack of participation.
We feel strongly that a change in medium should not
cause you to change your course significantly. Instead,
you should find new methods for achieving an online
experience comparable to the physical classroom. Most
classroom management systems, like Blackboard or
Moodle, will allow you to replicate physical classroom
features like discussions, group work, quizzes, and sub-
mission of work. Take advantage of these features. It
won’t take long for your students to recognize that these
features are analogous to the classroom that they al-
ready know.

Preparing to Teach an Online or Hybrid Course

Writing Today was written with online and hybrid cours-
es in mind. We recognize that writing courses are in-
creasingly being offered completely or partially through
computer networks and other media. You will find that
Writing Today is the ideal book for working in these
kinds of electronic teaching environments because it is
comprehensive and the information in the book is easily
accessible.

Writing instructors who haven’t taught online may as-

sume that their syllabus and policies need to be different
for computer-based courses. That’s not true. The authors
of Writing Today have taught both online courses and
hybrid courses, and we recommend that you keep your
course basically the same. Ask your students to write the
same assignments and submit their work by the usual
due dates. Cover the same issues, and plan for the same
kinds of class discussions.

The main difference between classroom and online

courses is that you will need to rely on Writing Today
to provide much of the content for your online course.
Instead of lecturing, you will ask your students to read
the chapters carefully and write comments on what they
read. Class discussions of chapters and readings will
happen in chat rooms or on blogs.

We recommend that your lectures mainly respond to and

augment the material in Writing Today. We have done our
best to write a clear, accessible book that covers all the
topics in a typical first-year composition course. But you
may want to add your own spin or give the students ad-
ditional information or strategies. If your course is com-
pletely online, write out your lectures for your students.
17
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
THE FIRST DAYS
OF CLASS
E xperienced instructors will tell you that the first
week of the semester is important—and a bit daunt-
ing. You’re nervous. Your students are nervous. Nobody
is quite sure what to expect. If the first week goes well,
chances are good the semester will go well. If the first
week goes badly, the semester isn’t doomed, but you will
need to build confidence with your students.
The first week is a honeymoon of sorts. Your students
are giving you the benefit of the doubt. Your goal is to
prove to them that you merit their attention and respect.
If you are clear about your expectations this first week
and competent in your delivery, your students will pri-
oritize your course and resolve to give your class special
attention. In this chapter, we talk about strategies for en-
suring you have a successful first week.
Your Appearance
Before the first day of class, you need to decide what im-
age you will project to your students. This includes how
you will behave and what clothing you will wear.
Crafting Your Persona: Playing a Role
Start by deciding what persona you want to project. The
word persona means “mask” in ancient Greek, and your
persona is the mask you put on before entering the class-
room each day. If you’re a new teacher, you will soon find
that effective classroom teaching is a lot like acting. The
best teachers are those who have figured out their per-
sona and the role they will play in the classroom. Walk-
ing into the classroom, they put on their mask and be-
come the person their students expect.
Some people will advise you to just be yourself in front of
the class. That advice is helpful for people who are expe-
rienced as teachers. But if this is your first time teaching,
you may never have been in this kind of situation before
and you may be uncertain about who you are as an in-
structor.
Instead, decide who you want to be. Sometimes it helps to
remember a favorite teacher from your past. Recall this
teacher’s mannerisms and behaviors; try to remember
18
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
how he or she captured and held your attention. Then,
as you craft your own persona, try to adopt or imitate
those mannerisms and behaviors. Your goal is to play a
role, using that teacher’s techniques to help you figure
out what works for you.
Imagine yourself stepping into the personality of a
teacher you respected. That image will help you through
the initial crafting of your own persona. If this kind of
acting feels a little artificial, that’s to be expected. As you
become more experienced as a teacher, you will shed the
mannerisms of your favorite instructor and take on your
own. You will develop your own teaching persona.
Dress Appropriately
Our best advice about clothing is that you dress semi-
formally the first week. That doesn’t mean a suit or an
evening gown. Instead, you should look professional and
be clearly identifiable as the instructor. You should wear
a nice shirt or blouse and some good pants, not jeans. For
men, a tie is not a bad idea on the first day. For women, a
skirt, dress, or nice pants will work. Good shoes, not ten-
nis shoes or flip-flops, will properly finish off your look.
Suppress any urge to show off tattoos or piercings.
After the first week, you might step down to “casual pro-
fessional.” For both men and women, that means a nice
shirt or blouse and casual pants. At some universities,
nice jeans are acceptable; we think you are better off
with casual pants.
You want to look comfortably professional. If you look
like a student, your students will treat you like a student.
If you look like a faculty member, they will treat you like
a faculty member. You’re better off dressing up too much
than dressing down.
First Day of Class: Introductions
If you are new at teaching a college course, you may re-
ceive contradictory advice about what to say and do on
your first day. Some people will tell you to keep the first
day short and dismiss the class early. Others will tell
you to put in a full day or students will expect to be dis-
missed early every day.
We believe the first day should be a relaxed one for you
and your students. You need time to adjust to your new
role as teacher, and your students need to settle into stu-
dent mode, often after a long break from the classroom.
For students in a first-year composition course, this may
 The First Days of Class
be their first day as a college student, so they aren’t sure
what to expect.
Letting students leave without doing anything substan-
tive signals to them that you have low expectations for
them and the class. So, on the first day of class, you should
handle a few important classroom management issues:
• Welcome your students to the course
• Introduce yourself
• Discuss your policies
• Have students introduce themselves
Welcoming Your Students
Show up at least five minutes early. Introduce yourself
to the students who arrived early and ask their names
and where they are from. Talk about the weather, sports,
whatever; as students arrive, greet them and hand them
your syllabus and policies. Keep making small talk.
The purpose of this pre-class small talk is to lower that
psychological barrier between the students and you. By
meeting and chatting with a few students before class,
you will start to relax, and you will give your students
the sense that you are friendly and approachable.
Also, as students enter the classroom, your verbal ex-
changes with them will signal that you are the instructor
for the course. This identification will help if you are a
younger instructor because you probably don’t look like
a stereotypical professor. At many colleges and universi-
ties, you won’t be the oldest person in the room. Students,
especially first-year students, will automatically assume
that the oldest person in the room is their instructor.
By being up front and talking in the classroom, you will
dispel that assumption because they will see you as the
person in charge.
When class is scheduled to start, do a quick headcount.
If all or almost all of the students are present, you should
begin on time. If a significant number of students are
missing, wait a few minutes. The missing students are
probably looking for the classroom. It’s better to start a
couple minutes late than endure repeated interruptions
as you welcome the class.
When you’re ready to begin, clear your throat and wel-
come everyone to the class. You should have rehearsed
this opening:
“Hello. Welcome to composition, English 101. My
name is _________ and I will be your instructor
19
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
this semester. Today, we are going to get to know
each other and go over the course policies. I will
also answer any questions you have about the
course.”
Consider whether you want students to know this is your
first teaching experience.
Instructors who want to appear more laid-back and ap-
proachable often let their students know on the first day
that it is their first experience teaching first-year writ-
ing. Doing so can break the ice and show students you
relate to their anxiety about entering unfamiliar terri-
tory: you are a new instructor, and most of them are new
college students.
However, some instructors want to appear more assured
and maintain some emotional distance from students
and therefore choose not to reveal their lack of experi-
ence. If you are closer to your students’ age group and/or
do not want to make yourself vulnerable, we recommend
that you not reveal that you have never taught before.
Doing so may cause your students to be less confident
in you, and some might look for an opportunity to chal-
lenge you.
Prior to class, consider what effect sharing this type of
background information might have on your pedagogi-
cal ethos.
Introducing Yourself
After your brief welcome, spend a minute or two intro-
ducing yourself. Tell your students where you are from
and where you went to college. Tell them about your pro-
fessional background and your research interests.
Also, tell them about your personal interests. What are
your hobbies? What sports do you like? What do you
do when you aren’t teaching? But don’t tell them where
you go to escape the academic world. If there is a cafe,
tavern, or other place where you relax with friends, don’t
reveal it to your students or they will track you down,
making it no longer a place to relax. And, socializing with
your students outside the classroom creates potential
conflicts of interest.
At the end of your self-introduction, say that you are
looking forward to working with the students this se-
mester. Tell them that you enjoy teaching (even if you
have never done it before) and use your enthusiasm to
inject a good feeling into the classroom. If you show them
you are excited about teaching the class, your students
will be more excited about taking it.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
One thing to avoid is trying to be cool. You’re now the
teacher; by definition, that makes you the least cool per-
son in the room. That’s fine. You’re not your students’
friend, and they know it. Students are rightfully suspi-
cious of an instructor who tries to act like their buddy.
They know you are the person who will evaluate and
graduate them, so they expect you to act like their teach-
er.
Discussing Your Policies
One of the easiest and safest ways to fill up that first
class day is to go over your course policies. If you hand
your policies out on paper, your students will be looking
at them, not at you. That will help you adjust to being in
front of the classroom and being the teacher.
Your policies should cover all the topics we mentioned
in the chapter Preparing for a New Semester: textbooks,
attendance, late papers, plagiarism, etc. They should ex-
plain what the course is about, your goals, and why the
course is important to your students. You should review
all these topics with your students. (It is unlikely your
students will read your policies on their own.) Highlight
attendance, tardiness, and anything else that you need
them to know.
Going over your policies on the first day is time well
spent. If you are not clear up front about your expecta-
tions for attendance and timeliness, a few of your stu-
dents will assume that you have no expectations. Then,
you have to deal with conflict when they skip class or
repeatedly stroll in late.
Finish the discussion of your policies with a review of
the course calendar or syllabus. Highlight due dates for
assignments. Tell students your expectations for their
reading the textbooks. Explain how you will handle quiz-
zes and exams if you are using them.
The discussion of your policies should take about 20
minutes. Make sure you ask your students if they have
any questions.
Asking Students to Introduce Themselves
You should ask students to introduce themselves to the
class by giving basic information such as name, major,
where they are from, and what they enjoy doing. Some
teachers will ask students to tell what they hope to get
from the class. With first-year students this approach
can be risky; you are likely to hear “I’m taking this class
because it’s required” or “I hate writing, and I hope this
20
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
class will help me hate it less.” Be careful what you ask
for.
You want to use icebreakers to help students introduce
themselves. Here are some to try:
Two truths and a lie: Put students into small
groups. Each person takes turns telling two truths
and one lie about himself or herself. The group
tries to figure out which one is the lie.
Matchmaker: On 5x7 cards, ask each student to
write his or her last name in the center of the card.
Then ask them to list three favorite movies in the
upper left-hand corner; three favorite musicians
or bands in the upper right-hand corner; three fa-
vorite non-school activities in the bottom left-hand
corner; and three adjectives that describe himself
or herself in the bottom right-hand corner. Shuffle
and tape the cards on the classroom walls, and ask
your student to walk around and read them. Stu-
dents should identify three people who are most
like them and three people who are least like them.
Then have them get into groups with the people
who are most like them and then with the peo-
ple who are least like them. Have them introduce
themselves to the people in each group.
Who am I?: On sticky notes or cards, write down
the names of famous people whom everyone would
know (e.g., celebrities, historical figures). Put one
of these notes on each student’s back where he or
she cannot see it. Then have them go around the
room trying to figure out whose name is on his
or her back. They can each ask people they meet
two questions. That person asked should give his
or her best answer without giving away who is on
the other person’s back. If a person guesses whose
name is on his or her back, that person sits down
and cannot answer any more questions. Eventually
the game boils down to a few people who cannot
figure out who they are.
Introducing Each Other: Ask students to write
down five things that they would like to know
about someone else in the class. Then randomly
pair people and have them interview each other.
After the interviews, each person introduces the
person he or she was paired with to the class.
 The First Days of Class
Opposites Attract: Randomly pass out cards with
opposite terms on them (e.g., Black/White, Left/
Right, Excited/Bored, Hot/Cold). Ask students to
find their opposite and find out five things about
that person. Then, ask students to introduce their
opposites to the rest of the class.
Shipwrecked: Ask each person in the class to list
ten things he or she would want to have if ship-
wrecked alone on an island that has no electric-
ity or other power source. Put the students into
groups of five and have them collaborate to create
one list of ten items for their group. Then have each
group share their list of items and explain why they
would want each one.
You can find more icebreakers on the Internet. You will
find that a good icebreaker starts the class out with
laughter as students get to know each other. These good
feelings and familiarity will help them work together on
their writing and make them more comfortable sharing
their ideas during class discussion.
Ending the First Day
The first class day should end with a brief discussion of
what will happen on the second day. Tell students you
will lecture briefly the next day and then ask them to
write a diagnostic essay. You can tell them what the topic
of the diagnostic essay will be, so they can think about
that topic before the next class. Also, tell them to bring
pen and paper to the next class for writing the diagnos-
tic. If you want them to read something for the next day
(e.g., the first chapter of Writing Today), make sure you
tell them clearly what you expect.
Second Day of Class: Diagnostic
You’ve made it to the second day. Start the class on time
by making announcements. Take attendance. Tell stu-
dents what to read for the next class day. Ask if there are
any questions about the policies and syllabus, now that
they have had a chance to look them over.
Lecture briefly on an introductory topic. For their first
lecture, most writing teachers will go over the kinds of
information provided in Chapter 1 of Writing Today. They
will talk about why writing is important to students’ col-
lege and professional careers. They will also talk about
writing as a process that needs to be learned.
Because genre is a central concept in Writing Today, you
might clarify your understanding of that term. Putting
students into groups, you could have them list movie
21
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
genres they know and five movies that fit into each
genre. Then, in groups, they can talk about each movie
genre and what distinguishes it as a genre. Your lecture
and this activity should last about 15–20 minutes.
Then ask students to write a diagnostic essay. The pur-
pose of a diagnostic essay is three fold.
• You want to gather baseline samples of their writing
to determine what each student needs to learn and
what you should stress during the semester. Also,
this will help you in an academic dishonesty case
if you need to show how well a student composed
when he or she was writing on his or her own.
• You need to identify any students who are struggling
with basic writing or second-language issues. If a
student struggles with the diagnostic essay, you
may need to recommend additional help (e.g., tutors,
writing lab, conversation groups) that will help him
or her improve literacy or language skills. In some
cases a diagnostic may hint at learning disabilities.
One in-class writing opportunity isn’t enough to
make that kind of diagnosis, but it may alert you
to the possibility. If a student does badly on the
diagnostic, you should schedule an appointment
with that student in the next few days to figure out
whether he or she needs help and what kind of help
is needed.
• You will learn something about your students and
learn their names. A good diagnostic prompt allows
them to introduce something about themselves that
you will be able to remember.
In your diagnostic essay prompt, you can ask students
to write about almost anything. Hometowns are always
fertile grounds for writing ideas; or you can ask students
to write about a memorable event in their life or a person
who influenced them. You can ask them to write about
their first experiences in college and how they felt about
them.
The subject of the diagnostic isn’t important; you want to
collect a few hundred words of their writing, preferably
on a topic that interests them and which will help you
remember something about each student.
Diagnostic essays are not graded. You should put light
commentary in the margins and forgo marking grammar
or spelling errors. If you mark the errors, your students
will assume that you’re more concerned about errors
than you are about their ideas. It’s hard to shake that
reputation once it has been made.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
We suggest you keep a copy of the diagnostic or collect
it again when students have finished reading your com-
ments. You can give it back to them for their writing port-
folio at the end of the semester to show that they learned
something in your class. They will notice the improve-
ment in their writing by comparing the diagnostic with
the polished materials in their portfolio.
Third Day: The First Out-of-Class Assignment
Your final day of the first week, usually the third day,
starts resembling a typical class day. In the following
chapter, Managing a Writing Classroom, we go over how
to create lesson plans for a typical day. This last day of
the first week is when you should hand students their
first out-of-class assignment.
Give your students the assignment sheet and have one
of them read it aloud. Go over the assignment carefully,
helping students understand exactly what is being asked
of them and when it is due. This close reading and dis-
cussion will help them properly read future assignments
and carefully determine your expectations.
Sometime today you should preview what will be hap-
pening in the next week. Congratulate your students for
surviving the first week. Warn them that from now on
things will only become harder in your class and in other
classes. Advise them to have fun this first weekend, but
also tell them that they must not allow themselves to fall
behind.
You, Your Students, and Surviving the First Week
As we said at the beginning of this chapter, the first week
is a critical one. You want your class to start out on a solid
foundation. You want to make a good impression. You
want to survive.
Keep in mind that your students want these things too.
They are expecting you to be professional, competent,
and in control of the class. They want you to be someone
they can trust and someone who has something impor-
tant to teach them.
If you get off to a good start, your students will tend to
work with you throughout the semester. So, it’s worth
spending some time scripting this first week, so you meet
both your and your students’ expectations. You can suc-
ceed, not just survive.
22
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Welcoming Students in Online and Hybrid
Courses
In online and hybrid courses, greeting your students
can be a little more challenging. For online courses, we
recommend writing an introduction and, if possible, cre-
ating a brief audio introduction that can be put on the
course Web site. Video is fine, but most instructors feel
more comfortable making a podcast.
You should not expect to “go live” with your students on
your first day of class. In other words, asking all of them
to be virtually present at the same time on the first day
of class risks too many problems: The university’s server
might crash; students who are unfamiliar with online
courses will struggle to join; students won’t have the
right password. Instead of going live, we recommend
allowing students to access your welcome materials on
their own time. You can tell them you will be available
during specific hours if they need help.
You should encourage your students to explore the online
environment. Have them open files or enter a chat room.
It will take them awhile to figure out where things are
and how to communicate with you and other students.
For hybrid courses—courses that alternate between a
classroom and a computer environment—prior to class,
send them an e-mail explaining the class’s format and
participation expectations, as some students may not
be aware they’ve enrolled in a hybrid course. Also, you
should meet your students in the classroom the first day.
This will help them make a connection to you as a person
and the teacher of the course. You can conduct a virtual
class later in the first week.
You are going to need to help your students learn how to
navigate the course Web site for online and hybrid cours-
es. Some students will be experienced with this kind
of learning environment, but many won’t know what to
do. You need to be clear about what is expected of them,
while showing them that you are sympathetic to their
computer-related problems. Nevertheless, it will be each
student’s responsibility to learn how to use the course.
You should send students your e-mail address and an of-
fice phone number where they can reach you if they have
problems.
MANAGING A WRITING
CLASSROOM
College teaching has come a long way in a few decades.
Not long ago, the lecture was the standard form of
delivering information. In a typical lecture, the professor
would stand in front of the room, often behind a lectern,
and offer a monologue. Some time might be reserved for
questions and perhaps a little discussion. This is what
we call a static classroom because the students were
expected to sit still and remain passive.
Today’s writing classrooms are much more dynamic and
interactive. The ideal composition classroom has a blend
of activities. Your students shouldn’t be sitting still for
too long: they should be discussing, debating, writing,
researching, moving, listening, and asking questions.
We call this the dynamic classroom. It’s a place where
students need to pay attention and stay engaged.
There are several reasons to strive for this dynamic
classroom.
▪▪ People learn better when they are engaged with the
instructor and the materials.
▪▪ Young people have grown up in a world that expects
them to stay in motion. For better or worse, they
expect to remain active. That’s how they live their
lives, and that’s how they learn best.
▪▪ A dynamic classroom is better for teaching a subject
like writing. Writing is doing. It’s not supposed to
be passive. People learn to write by writing, not
by sitting around listening to someone talk about
writing.
In other words, people learn best by doing, so you want
to keep students active in your classroom. Lectures
have an important role in the dynamic classroom, but
they should be brief, and they need to be much more
interactive to engage students.
Developing a Lesson Plan
You should begin structuring each class day by first
dividing it into an opening, a middle, and a closing
(Figure 1.6, Template for a Lesson Plan).
23
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Opening
Mistakenly, some instructors walk into the classroom
and immediately launch into their lecture or activities
for the day. This approach doesn’t give students or
instructors time to warm up and settle in. As a result,
the students start cold and often stay cold. Because they
aren’t ready to engage with the materials, the instructor,
or each other, most of them sit still. A few will try to
figure out what is going on, but even these students find
themselves needing to play catch-up.
A better way to begin each class day is to spend the first
3–5 minutes explaining what will happen that day and
making announcements. A typical opening will have the
following moves:
▪▪ Welcome the students.
▪▪ Identify the topic or topics you will cover this day.
▪▪ Tell students specifically what they will learn this
day.
▪▪ Explain why this learning is important to them.
▪▪ Forecast the class day’s activities.
Make announcements about readings for the next
class and remind them when the next assignment
is due.
An opening that makes these moves will help set a context
for the class. Your students will understand what you
are doing and what you want to achieve. They will also
understand why you are teaching them this information
and how if fits into the overall arc of the class.
You might find it helpful to outline the day on the
chalkboard or whiteboard at the front of the room,
usually in an upper corner. This outline helps students
see what you want to cover that day, and it allows them
to follow the progress of the class.
Making your announcements in the opening is especially
important. First, it’s best to tell students at the beginning
of the class what you want them to read or do for the
next class. If you try telling them at the end of the class,
you will need to talk over the packing of bags and the
shuffling of feet. It is unlikely all students will hear you,
and they are unlikely to write down the reading in their
notes. Second, it’s a good idea to repeat every class day
when the next major assignment is due. This reminds
students that they need to make steady progress to
reach that deadline.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
At the end of your opening, ask students if they have
questions. Usually, the response is silence. If so, that’s a
good moment to transition to the middle of your lesson.
Occasionally, though, a student will have questions about
readings or due dates, and this is a good time to address
those questions, because other students probably have
the same questions but haven’t spoken up.
The Middle
When you are finish the opening, you should move to the
activities you have planned for the day. In a 50-minute
class period, you can schedule 2–3 activities. In a
75-minute class period, you can schedule 3–4 activities.
Activities include:
▪▪ Review—Spend about 5–10 minutes reviewing
what was covered the prior day, what was assigned
from Writing Today, or what was learned previously.
Reviews are a good way to cement important
concepts and strategies in your students’ minds.
▪▪ Lecture—Lectures should be kept to about 15
minutes, and they should be as interactive as
possible. The content for your lecture can come from
Writing Today; however, we recommend drawing
from your own experiences to augment the material
you find in the book. Also, as you lecture on a topic,
ask your students questions to keep them engaged.
▪▪ Small group discussion—Put your students into
groups of 3–5 to discuss readings or to do small
projects together. Turn to the “Conducting Group
Work and Peer Review” chapter in this text for ideas
about how students can work in small groups.
▪▪ Panel discussions—Ask small groups to answer
prepared questions about a reading. Then ask
each group to send one person to the front of the
classroom to summarize what the group talked
about and field questions from the rest of the class.
▪▪ Four-way discussions—Divide the class into four
groups. The groups should be “strongly for,” “kind
of for,” “kind of against,” and “strongly against” the
argument in a reading. For five minutes, have each
group decide how someone with their position
would argue the situation assigned. Then have the
groups debate the issue as a class, role-playing their
assigned position on the issue.
▪▪ Full class discussion—You can also have a full-
class discussion in which everyone will participate
24
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
in discussing a reading, current events, or other
interesting topics.
▪▪ In-class writing—Give your students chances to
pre-write, draft, design, or edit in class. The tasks
could be small in-class projects that will be handed
in. Or you could give them time to work on the larger
assignments they will be turning in later. Have your
students turn to the chapters in Part 2 of Writing
Today for ideas about how to use this workshop time
effectively.
▪▪ Peer editing—Give students time to edit each
other’s writing. Peer review and peer editing can
happen at any time in the writing process, but it is
especially helpful just prior to an assignment’s due
date. Turn to the “Conducting Group Work and Peer
Review” chapter in this handbook for ideas about
conducting peer editing.
▪▪ Quiz or challenge—Occasionally give your students
a quiz or timed challenge to test whether they have
read the materials or learned what you have been
teaching them. Quizzes and challenges don’t always
need to count toward their grade in the class. Even
quizzes that don’t count give students a chance
to articulate what they have learned. Meanwhile,
quizzes and challenges give you an opportunity to
check whether your students are retaining what you
have taught them.
▪▪ Games—Sometimes the best way to learn new
concepts is to play games. You can play a variety of
games, including game-show formats (e.g., Jeopardy
or Who Wants to Be a Millionaire), memory games,
and matching games.
Some instructors, especially those new to teaching, find
it helpful to create a lesson plan like the one shown in
Figure 1.6. A lesson plan allows you to organize what
will be happening each day. It also encourages you to
identify the objectives you are trying to reach with each
activity. The lesson plan format shown in Figure 1.6 is
for a 50-minute class. For a 75-minute class, add a third
activity.
The Closing
The closing of your class should be brief. A successful
class will usually teach students 3–5 new ideas. So,
before they leave, ask them to tell you 3–5 things they
learned this day. You can do this verbally in small groups
 Managing a Writing Class

or as a full class. Or, you can ask students to write the

3–5 things on a piece of paper and hand it in.

Your students will groan about this review exercise, but

it has two important purposes. First, it cements in their
minds what was learned that day. They go away with a
clear idea of what they were supposed to learn. Second,
it gives you a chance to see if they learned what you
wanted them to learn. When your students say or write
what you expected, the class was a success. If they seem
confused about what they were supposed to learn or say
the wrong things, you might want to review your lesson
plan to see why they took away ideas you didn’t expect.

Also, re-state the reading for the next day. That will show
students you expect them to read those materials.

Your students are likely to begin stuffing their bags and

shuffling around when you signal you are concluding the
class. Demand, in a polite way, that they sit still while
you finish. There will be plenty of time to stuff bags and
move toward the door when the class is finished.

The Importance of Organizing Your

Class Day
It’s always important to consciously organize and
manage your class day. Experienced teachers may often
appear not to be working from a pattern or a script; in
most cases, these teachers have internalized a pattern
that they follow. When you are learning how to teach,
though, it is helpful to be conscious of the opening,
middle, and closing of a class day. It is helpful to script
the activities you are going to do each day and identify
the objectives you are going to reach.

As you become more experienced, you will find that

organizational patterns have become a regular part of
your teaching. At that point, you can be less deliberate
about formulating them.

25
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Figure 1.6 Template for a Lesson Plan

Subject: Date:
Opening
What are today’s activities?

What will students learn today?

Why are these concepts and strategies important to students?

What are the readings for the next class?

Review or Quiz

Activity 1: Learning Objectives for Activity

Activity 2: Learning Objectives for Activity

Closing
What three things did students learn today?

Repeat readings and homework for next class.

26
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
CONDUCTING GROUP situations and readers, and they can be adapted to fit
various situations. But as with writing or reading other
WORK AND PEER REVIEW unfamiliar genres, in order for the writing classroom
collaboration genre to be effective, students need to
By Mellisa Huffman understand why one does it and how to do it. Students
bring a range of experiences with collaboration to our
classrooms, so instructors who employ this genre in
their classrooms need to provide students the genre

C
knowledge and strategies to successfully collaborate.
ollaborative learning allows students to draw on
their own knowledge and experience to learn and co-
create new knowledge together, while receiving coaching Designing Group Activities
and direction from the instructor. Writing instructors Consider your purpose for assigning a group activity.
who use collaborative learning techniques such as small Every collaborative activity should have a clear objective
group activities and peer review see several educational in the context of your course. Prior to creating and
benefits: assigning collaborative activities, ask yourself the
following:
Benefits of Group Work ▪▪ Which student learning outcomes do I want the
▪▪ It encourages active learning, which better engages group activity, project, or peer review task to
and empowers students, instead of regurgitation of address?
lecture notes.
▪▪ What is this activity attempting to teach students
▪▪ It can supplement other teaching styles. in the context of this writing assignment and/or in
the context of this course? Is it helping them better
▪▪ It allows space for all students to get feedback in a
understand related content? Practice a skill they’ll
non-threatening way (especially those who normally
need in order to complete the assignment? Find an
would not) and to gather ideas for their papers from
angle? Plan their drafts? Revise and/or edit their
classmates.
drafts? Reflect on their writing?
▪▪ It can create community in the classroom and
If you are unsure of a group activity’s purpose, students
generate some fruitful impromptu discussion.
will be as well.
▪▪ It exposes students to viewpoints they may not have
Align the activity with your purpose. After
considered.
determining what you want your students to learn or
discover through collaboration, pick a type of group
Benefits of Peer Review activity that will facilitate their doing it. The categories
▪▪ It encourages students to see writing as a recursive below provide some suggestions:
process and consider readers’ needs and values.
Dedicate adequate class time. After assigning group
▪▪ It can be conducted at different stages of the writing activities a few times, you’ll discover the amount of time
process in order to facilitate planning, drafting, students need to complete certain tasks. Activities often
revising, editing, and proofreading. taken longer than we anticipate, so do not ask students to
complete too complicated a task within the time allotted.
▪▪ It introduces students to strategies other writers
are using.
The Nuts and Bolts of Conducting Collaborative
It’s important, however, to consider several things
Activities
prior to assigning group work and peer review in
Prepare Your Students In addition to preparing the
order for these activities to work successfully. Think
group activity itself, you will need to prepare your
about collaborative activities as genres. Chapter 2
students to collaborate.
provides several genre characteristics that apply here.
Collaborative activities are ways of writing and speaking
that help people interact and work together, they shape
27
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
Below are some suggested steps to take prior to asking
students to complete group work:
Assign group work often. Assigning group tasks
throughout the semester will help students get to know
each other and thereby create an environment more
conducive to group work. If you only occasionally ask
them to do group work, they will not know each other
very well and will not be accustomed to working together.
Explain group exercise’s purpose. Ensure they
understand how the group task is somehow relevant to
the writing sequence they are working on or to mastering
a specific student learning outcome.
Provide written instructions. Write the group task
prompt on the chalk board, handout, or projected
document, noting the following:
▪▪ clear directions for the activity itself,
▪▪ what the deliverable should look like (ex: written
list, numbered set of group’s answers, responses to
peers’ writing, etc.),
▪▪ any extra items needed to complete task (textbook,
worksheet, etc.),
▪▪ how much time allowed, and
▪▪ how they’ll be credited for completing
(participation points, grade, etc.).
Assign group members specific roles. Chapter 23
in Writing Today outlines specific roles students might
assume in the context of a group project. See Figure 1.8.
However, also consider allowing students
determine who does what in each group.
Let’s say you were attempting to help students apply
fundamental terms from Chapters 1, 2, and 3: genres,
angle, purpose, readers, and context. Figure 1.9
suggests a group activity for doing so and applies the
aforementioned strategies.
Notice how the sample in Figure 1.9 tells students what
they will need to complete the activity, how long they
have, what they will be doing, and how members need
to participate.
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Forming Groups
Use a strategy for grouping students. If you simply
tell students to get in groups, most will group only with
their friends or only classmates sitting in their general
area. At the beginning of the semester (when you don’t
yet know your students), you may want to assign groups
by simply numbering off. (Designate each student as a 1,
2, 3, or 4, depending on how many groups you want, and
group 1’s with 1’s, 2’s with 2’s, and so on.)
There is no magic formula for grouping students, but
each class is comprised of a unique configuration of
students with various backgrounds and skill levels. Some
students work well together, and some do not. Once you
have had some time to gauge students’ skill levels and
personality types (introverted versus extroverted, for
example), consider forming groups with a mixture of
personalities and skill sets. You might also try grouping
all extroverts together and introverts together. Doing so
might encourage the more talkative students to listen
to the other assertive ones, and less talkative students
to speak up. Or you might take into consideration which
students work well together and which do not. Avoid
grouping students who are friends or who are dating
because these students tend to avoid providing useful
criticism and can easily get off topic.
it Base group size on group activity. Consider the task
when considering how many members to put in a group.
For most group activities, assigning four or five students
per group works well. Forming groups with more than
five members can hinder productivity. However, peer
review can work with as few as two or three students.
to
Consider assigning permanent teams. Placing
students in assigned teams for longer blocks of time
(throughout a writing sequence or the entire semester,
for instance) allows them to form relationships and build
trust. Having assigned teams also helps group work go a
bit faster since students already know whom they’ll be
grouped with and can more quickly form groups. Give
them team names (or let them pick their name). Switch
teams every sequence (or task) if teams are dysfunctional
or if you want to provide some variety.
28
 Conducting Group Work and Peer Review
Appropriately arrange the classroom. Since many
classrooms were designed to facilitate the lecture
approach to teaching and therefore contain desks in
a row/aisle configuration, you may have to alter the
physical arrangement of the classroom (desks, chairs) so
that group members are facing one another.
Conducting Group Work
Allow students a few minutes to get acquainted. Some
initial supposedly “unproductive” conversation may
need to be allowed when students first work together so
that they begin to build trust. They also may need a few
minutes to review and discuss the prompt.
Don’t intrude. Allow groups to work independently
once you’ve assigned the task. Periodically walk around
to answer questions, but do not discuss their responses
with them while they are working.
Check their progress. To check their progress,
periodically remind them how many minutes they have
left and inquire if they think they will be finished within
the allotted time frame. You may have to give some
groups a few more minutes to complete the task.
Help them resist groupthink. Ask students to consider
and present dissenting opinions (or more than one
opinion) so that they understand all group members do
not have to conform to the same way of thinking.
Assigning and Conducting Peer Review
Preparing Students
Ask students to practice reviewing. Prior to assigning
peer review, ask them to analyze and critique models—
conduct a genre analysis of sorts. For example, you
might assign a group activity, blog prompt, or homework
assignment that asks students to read a sample paper
written in the genre they are currently writing and
critique it using terms and dimensions found in the
assignment’s rubric. Asking them to do this accomplishes
several things simultaneously: it helps them discover
strategies for writing this piece, helps them practice
critiquing someone else’s writing, and makes them more
aware of your expectations for the assignment.
29
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Illustrate how to provide useful feedback. When
completing peer review sheets, students often provide
brief, shallow responses that fail to provide the writer
useful feedback. Just prior to their completing peer
review, show them a developed and seemingly helpful
response to one of the review questions and explain why
it works. Also, point out how the review is similar to
the critiques of sample papers they’ve been previously
completing.
Emphasize the benefits of peer review. Students often
think that since you assigned peer review and because
it often accounts for a portion of their grade, they are
writing the review to fulfill your expectations instead of
helping their peers and learning from them. They often
fail to realize its intended value. Explain the benefits of
peer review and why it’s important.
Ask students to discuss their previous peer review
experiences. Students bring various peer review
experiences to the classroom, some positive, some
negative. Consider discussing these experiences as a
class and discover strategies the group thinks can make
this activity more useful. What has gone wrong before,
and how can we as a class remedy these issues?
Conducting Peer Review
▪▪ Match the questions/instructions to the assignment
prompt.
▪▪ Avoid including yes/no questions in review/editing
prompts—students need to provide substantive,
specific responses in order for feedback to help the
writer.
▪▪ Limit the number of assigned questions so that they
have time to focus and complete the review.
▪▪ Conduct more than one review session. Ask
students to review a draft for global or big ideas and
organization one day, and edit and proofread drafts
in the following class.
▪▪ Consider having the students write their own
questions.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

▪▪ Make sure more than one peer reads the paper.
Oftentimes, students claim they failed to find any
needed revisions in a peer’s draft, so it’s important
to have more than one peer read the draft, as another
peer might offer suggestions the first did not. Also,
to frequently rotate review/editing partners so
that students review with a range of writers and
reviewers.
▪▪ Ask students to submit review sheets along with
final paper/project. Doing this allows you to track a
writer’s progression and see if and how students are
incorporating peers’ feedback. Additionally, you can
gauge how thoroughly and effectively students are
completing the review sheets. You can then adjust
peer review instruction, questions, and groupings
accordingly.

▪▪ Require students to provide praise along with ▪▪ Ask students to reflect on their experiences at the
criticism in their critiques. end of assignments and the semester. At the end of
a writing sequence or the semester, you might ask
The review sheet at the end of this chapter illustrates
students to write a brief, anonymous reflection
how one might apply these strategies in a global proposal
about their peer review experiences. In what ways
peer review session. Notice it avoids asking only yes/no
did it help them? In what ways might you improve
questions; asks few, very focused questions; requires
the process? You might use some of their suggestions
more than one read; allows students to write some
to modify your approach. Plus, it builds rapport with
of their own questions; encourages praise along with
students if they think you care enough about their
criticism; and credits students with quiz points.
learning experience to ask for their feedback.

Dealing with Reluctant Students

As much as we try to employ effective strategies when
assigning peer review, some students resist doing it for
various reasons. Some feel self-conscious about their
writing, feel they lack authority to critique a peer’s
writing, or think peers fail to give them useful feedback.
The list below provides some strategies for addressing
these issues.

▪▪ Assure them that no one’s writing is perfect.

▪▪ Tell them that peer review looks for effort, not

perfection.

▪▪ Explain that they help the writer to see how real

readers respond to their work.

▪▪ Remind them that you will rotate review partners

and they will at some point be grouped with a peer
that gives them useful feedback.

▪▪ Allow them to work with classmates with whom they

are more comfortable—if they complain about being
too self-conscious about their writing to participate.

Evaluating Peer Review

▪▪ Give credit for peer review—participation grade,

percentage of assignment grade, or percentage of
course grade.

30
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Conducting Group Work and Peer Review

Figure 1.7 Some Suggested Types of Group Activities 1

PROBLEM-POSING STRATEGY THE EVIDENCE-FINDING STRATEGY

The instructor assigns an open-ended, The instructor provides a sample paper

thought-provoking, relevant question to
which students co-construct an answer
supported by evidence/examples.
THE FRAME STRATEGY
and asks students to analyze how another
writer uses evidence in his/her argument,
or the instructor can ask groups (outside
of class) to locate evidence to support an
assigned topic and present their findings to
the class.
THE NORMING SESSION STRATEGY

The instructor assigns a writing prompt
or thesis statement, and groups create and
outline (or complete a diagram) with topic
sentences or main points supported by
evidence.
THE QUESTION-GENERATING STRATEGY
The instructor distributes sample pieces
that respond to the assignments students
are currently working on. The groups assign
the samples a grade and a justification for
the grade.
THE “ROUGH DRAFT WORKSHOP”
STRATEGY

The instructor assigns a general topic Students bring drafts of papers, swap
or provides a list of topics, and students drafts with classmates, and provide specific
design three questions about the topic. This responses to questions on peer editing
works particularly well when students are sheet provided by instructor.
generating research questions or methods.
THE BELIEVING AND DOUBTING
STRATEGY

The instructor assigns a controversial topic

and asks groups to present arguments for
both sides or from multiple perspectives.

1 Bean, John, “Coaching Thinking Through the Use of Small Groups.” In Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to

Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1996.
149–168. Print.

31
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Figure 1.8 Specific Roles in a Group Project

Facilitator: The facilitator is responsible for
keeping the group moving forward in order to
complete the task. His or her responsibility is
to make sure the group stays on task, always
keeping an eye on the clock. When the group
goes off on a tangent or runs out of ideas, the
facilitator refocuses the group.
Innovator: The innovator should feel free to
come up with new and unique ideas that help
the group see the issue from other perspectives.
He or she looks for creative approaches, even
though the rest of the group might disagree
with these ideas.

Scribe: The scribe takes notes on what the
group says or decides and shares them with the
other members. If the group runs out of talking
points, the scribe should look back through the
notes to pick out topics that could benefit from
more discussion.
Designated Skeptic: The designated skeptic’s
job is to keep the group from reaching easy
consensus on issues. He or she should bring
up concerns that someone else might use to
raise doubts about what group members have
decided.

Figure 1.9 Sample Group Activity

Needed Materials: Writing Today, paper, and a writing implement

Time: 45 minutes
Group prompt: I have brought three different texts to class today. Your group will
complete a brief rhetorical analysis of each item. Your group will get approximately 15
minutes to work with each item. When the 15 minutes is up, I will ask you to pass the text
to the next group. Your group will answer the following about each text. Please label each
analysis according to the number printed on the front of the text:
• Genre: What is the text’s genre? What textual features made you think this?

• Purpose: What is this text’s rhetorical purpose?

• Readers: What are the expectations, values, and attitudes of the targeted readers?
How does the text try to consider these things?

• Context: Describe the place and medium of the text. How do these contextual factors
influence how readers respond to it?

Additional Considerations/Directions:
• Write your name at the top of your analysis.
• Every group member should contribute to discussion.
• Allow each member to briefly skim each item.
• Consider splitting up the work by having group members work on specific questions.
• Although group members may record identical answers to the questions, each
member should respond to all the questions and submit a set of responses.
• One person should be prepared to share your answers with the class.
• If members disagree on a question, consider sharing both perspectives.

32
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Conducting Group Work and Peer Review

Figure 1.10 Sample Peer Review Sheet

English 102
Global Peer Editing Suggestions
Proposal

Author___________________________

Editor 1___________________________ Quiz Points Awarded: ( )

1–2=Weak; 3–4=Adequate; 5=Effective/Useful

Editor 2____________________________ Quiz Points Awarded: ( )

1–2=Weak; 3–4=Adequate; 5=Effective/Useful

Directions: Before reading the draft, read your review partner’s rhetorical situation. Use this
information to answer the questions that follow. If your partner did not bring a draft, let me know.

In addition, two of your classmates will read your proposal. The first reader will look at three
things/aspects you really want him/her to notice or look for. So, you’ll create the questions for the
first reader to follow. For the second reading, the reviewer will respond to the questions I provide
under “Second Reader” section.

First Reader:
Please read my draft and look for:
1.

2.

3.

What reader noticed/suggested you revise:

1.

2.

3.

33
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Second Reader:
1. Read the introduction and underline the thesis statement. How well does the thesis clearly
articulate and forecast the writer’s main idea?

Did well:

Needs to improve:

2. Read through the draft. Below, outline the claims and evidence used to articulate the problem.
Considering the constructed rhetorical situation, how well does the writer articulate the problem
and support his/her claims?

Outline:

Did well:

Needs to improve:

3. Below, outline the claims and evidence used to articulate the solution. Considering the rhetorical
situation, how well does the writer articulate the solution and support his/her claims?

Outline:

Did well:

Needs to improve:

34
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Conducting Group Work and Peer Review

4. Below, outline the claims and evidence used to justify the solution or account for objections.
How well does the writer account for objections to his/her solution?

Justification Examples in Draft:

Did well:

Needs to improve:

35
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
DESIGNING WRITING
ASSIGNMENTS
D
esigning meaningful assignments is an art, not a sci-
ence. Each term, you want your students to be chal-
lenged, and you want them to learn how to write a set of
useful genres. You also want your assignments to refine
and strengthen your students’ writing processes. Each
assignment should reinforce the idea that writers follow
a recursive process that begins with interpreting the
rhetorical situation and ends with revising and proof-
reading the final version of their text.
Figure 1.11 A Writing Process
36
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
We recommend that you think of each assignment as
leading students through a writing process that is simi-
lar to the one shown in Figure 1.11. This diagram is dis-
cussed in Chapter 1 of Writing Today, and it shows the
general flow of the writing process as well as its recur-
sive nature. Genre is the guiding concept that guides and
reinforces each stage the writing process. In this chapter
we discuss how to use genres and the writing process to
design assignments that are meaningful and challenging
to your students.
Designing a Single Assignment
Students, like most people, learn best by doing. You can
lecture about writing until you are blue in the face, but
your students won’t learn how to write until you ask
them to put words and images on the screen or a piece
of paper. Each assignment you give your students should
 Designing Writing Assignments
keep that “learn by doing” goal in mind. You want your
assignments to give your students challenges that they
need to overcome and learn from.
Identifying Genre, Skills and Abilities, and Special Issues
When you set out to write an assignment, first decide
which genre you would like the students to learn how
to write. Then devise an assignment that features this
genre and the specific skills and issues that you want
your students to learn, experience, and consider.
In the chapter “Preparing for a New Semester” you
learned how to use a Genre/Abilities/Issues chart, like
the one shown in Figure 1.12, to invent the content of
your first-year composition course. That same chart is
useful for devising a good assignment. Name the genre in
the left column. List the skills and abilities you want stu-
dents to learn in the middle column. Identify issues you
want your students to address in the right hand column.
Figure 1.12 shows how a writing instructor might fill out
a Genre/Abilities/Issues chart for an assignment that
teaches reviews as a genre. In this chart, the instruc-
tor writes “Review” in the left column and then begins
listing in the middle column all the skills and abilities
students should learn about while they are writing the
assignment. In the right column, “Issues,” the instructor
Figure 1.12 Scripting an Assignment
GENRE ABILITIES
Review Pre-writing strategies
(Movie Review) Writing a good thesis statement
Writing clear sentences
How to view a movie critically
Audience awareness
Awareness of visual cues
37
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
puts down a few issues that could be used to complicate
the assignment. These issues are the political, cultural,
social, economic, and ethical complexities that the in-
structor wants students to engage with as they are writ-
ing the text.
When filling out a Genre/Abilities/Issues chart, limit
the number of writing skills or abilities that you want
to cover in a given assignment. You cannot cover every-
thing students require in order to master this genre. But
you can feature a limited set of specific writing skills or
abilities to which you will pay special attention as the
students are completing this assignment.
Anticipating the Rhetorical Situation
In your assignment, you should describe the rhetorical
situation in which your students will be writing. The
rhetorical situation includes the following elements:
Topic—What the student is supposed to write about.
Purpose—What the student’s writing is supposed to
achieve.
Readers—Whom the student is writing for.
Context—The situations in which the student’s writing
could be used.
ISSUES
How stereotypes are used as
cultural shortcuts in movies (for
good or ill)
How movies are used to reinforce
or challenge cultural expecta-
tions
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
You should define these elements for your students in
your assignment sheet. Or you should consciously choose
not to define one or two of these elements, encouraging
students to define them for themselves.
Let’s say you want your students to write a movie re-
view. Here is how you might sketch out the rhetorical
situation.
Topic—A movie currently playing in local theaters.
Purpose—To review the movie to determine if it is
worth watching or not.
Readers—College students on this campus, perhaps
staff members or professors.
Context—The campus newspaper “Arts and Entertain-
ment” section.
Your assignment sheet, like the one shown in Figure
1.13, would describe this rhetorical situation to your
students. In this case, the assignment sheet describes
all the elements of the rhetorical situation. However, we
could decide to leave something out, like a description of
the readers. Then we would spend time in class urging
students to figure out who the readers of their campus
newspaper are.
Highlighting Featured Writing Skills
In your assignment sheet, you should also clearly iden-
tify the writing skills and abilities that you want your
students to concentrate on while they are working on
this assignment.
For instance, in Figure 1.12, our three-column chart lists
a handful of skills and abilities that the assignment was
designed to teach our students. Then, in our assignment
sheet in Figure 1.13, those skills and abilities are high-
lighted in two places. First, the paragraph that begins
“Here are a few things to keep in mind” specifically men-
tions several of these skills and abilities. Second, the list
of “objectives” toward the end of the assignment sheet
tells the students what skills and abilities we want them
to demonstrate in their movie review.
Specifying Special Issues
A well-rounded assignment does more than help stu-
dents learn a genre and some writing skills and abilities.
It also introduces them to political, social, economic,
or ethical issues that will complicate and deepen their
writing. You want your students to consider the cultural
themes and complexities that imbue all forms of writ-
ing. In an assignment like a movie review, for example,
38
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
you want your students to go beyond simply telling their
readers whether they liked the movie or not. You would
also like them to consider the deeper cultural themes
that are at work in the movie.
The assignment sheet in Figure 1.13 includes this in-
struction: “Pay attention to how movies use cultural ste-
reotypes as shortcuts to introduce and shape characters.
How do movies reinforce or challenge cultural expecta-
tions for how people behave?” Most students probably
won’t have much to say about this issue. However, your
advanced students will pick up on this issue and use it to
add complexity and depth to their writing.
In more complex genres, such as memoirs, commentar-
ies, position papers, proposals, and research reports,
these issues become much more important. You can ask
your students to explore issues involving race, gender,
economic fairness, equality, identity, security, and many
other political, social, economic, and ethical issues.
Providing Due Dates and Information About Format
At the end of your assignment sheet, make sure you spec-
ify your requirements for length and format. Give your
students a word count or page length. Specify whether
you want their document to be single-spaced or double-
spaced. Give them guidelines for font size and margin
width. If you want them to write in a medium other than
paper (Web site, presentation, podcast, etc.), be specific
about what you want.
The due date is especially important. You should be clear
about when the assignment is due by listing both the day
and the time. If you identify only the day, some students
will assume they can e-mail it to you anytime that day,
even after your class meets. If you want the document at
class time, tell your students it’s due during class.
Increasingly, assignments are being submitted electron-
ically via e-mail or a course Web site. If you would like
students to submit the file electronically, explain how
they should do it. Specify which formats are appropriate
(.doc, .docx, .pdf, .rtf, etc.) and whether you want the file
as an attachment.
Figure 1.14 shows a worksheet that will help you design
your assignments with all the features discussed in this
chapter to this point.
Designing a Sequence of Assignments
An assignment sequence is a package of assignments
that addresses a similar issue and reinforces comple-
 Designing Writing Assignments

Figure 1.13 An Assignment Sheet

Write a Movie Review

Write a movie review suitable for publication in our campus newspaper. You should review a
movie that is currently in the theaters or recently came out on DVD.

Your readers are college students who have not seen the movie. They want you to summarize
and describe the movie without giving away the ending. They also want you to explain why
you thought the movie was worth seeing or not.

Here are a few things to keep in mind:

• Movies follow specific genres (e.g., romantic comedy, horror, action, science fiction,
documentary). How well does this movie measure up to the genre and other movies in
this genre?
• People have commonly held expectations (criteria) about what makes this kind of movie
good or bad. What are these criteria and how well does the movie satisfy them?
• Your readers are college students, not the broader public. What expectations and
interests do they have that might influence whether they would like or dislike the film?
• Pay attention to how movies use cultural stereotypes as shortcuts to introduce and
shape characters. How do movies reinforce or challenge cultural expectations for how
people behave?

In this assignment, your objectives are to

• Demonstrate that you can write a review

• Use pre-writing strategies to invent your ideas
• Write clear, straightforward sentences
• Describe or summarize your subject for your readers
• Form and use a solid thesis statement
• Analyze your readers and adjust your text to their needs.

Your review should be 600–700 words long, single-spaced, with one-inch margins. Include
at least one still photo or screen shot from the movie in the text. Your movie review is due on
_____________________ at the beginning of class. Please make sure your name appears at the top
of the first page.

39
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

mentary genres, writing skills and abilities, and issues. topic: the final assignment asks them to write something
A sequence typically contains two or three assignments more challenging.
based on a similar theme. For example, an “At the Mov-
Figure 1.16 shows an assignment sheet for a rhetorical
ies” sequence might ask students to write a rave, a re-
analysis that could be used as a final assignment in an
view, and a rhetorical analysis about three different
“At the Movies” sequence. The rhetorical analysis urges
kinds of movies.
students to do more than tell their readers why they
Starting with Low-Stakes or No-Stakes Assignments liked or didn’t like a movie (in this case a documentary).
The first assignment in a sequence is typically a low- It asks them to discuss critically why the documentary
stakes or no-stakes assignment that simply gets stu- was persuasive or not persuasive.
dents writing. Often this first assignment in a sequence
In this assignment, the instructor is asking students
is designed to be completed in class or as an overnight
to take a much more critical perspective. The students
assignment. The assignment is usually simple and
need to study how the documentary affects the audience
straightforward, asking mostly for a response, an opin-
with its use of reasoning (logos), authority (ethos), and
ion, or a reaction. Figure 1.15 shows how such an assign-
emotion (pathos).
ment might look.
This final assignment builds on the students’ experienc-
The Microgenre feature of Writing Today offers a good
es with writing a rave and a movie review. Each assign-
basis for creating these kinds of low-stakes assignments.
ment is more complex, and each requires a more critical
You can ask students to write an in-class or overnight re-
perspective than the one before it. In this way, students
sponse to a microgenre prompt. This low-stakes writing
keep deepening their engagement with the theme of the
will offer them an immediate familiarity with the larger
sequence.
genre. It’s also fun. The microgenre-based assignment
shown in Figure 1.15, for example, lets students write Do You Need to Sequence Assignments?
about their favorite movie in exaggerated terms. No, sequences are just one way to help students think
more deeply about a particular topic or theme. We rec-
Continuing with a Medium-Sized Assignment
ommend sequences because we believe they help stu-
The next assignment in a sequence should be a medium-
dents achieve more complex forms of writing and engage
sized project that adds more complexity and invites stu-
issues at a more critical level. Nevertheless, we know it
dents into the full genre. The movie review assignment
is possible to teach successive assignments that are not
shown in Figure 1.13 earlier in this chapter is a good ex-
sequenced. We have also seen writing instructors suc-
ample of a medium-sized assignment that specifies the
cessfully use one topic or theme to anchor an entire writ-
topic, purpose, readers, and context for the assignment.
ing course.
It also asks students to demonstrate how the review
genre is used. Our recommendation is that you try sequencing your
assignments. The Microgenre feature of Writing Today
We prefer to build the medium-sized assignment directly
gives you ready-made opportunities to develop engaging
on the low-stakes first assignment in the sequence. For
sequences that your students will enjoy. When students
instance, the rave review assignment shown in Figure
write the Microgenre first, they have a much better un-
1.15 can be used to lead into the movie review assign-
derstanding of how the broader genre works.
ment shown in Figure 1.13. The students might write
about two different movies, but the experience of writ- Experiment with your assignments. Give your students
ing a rave about their favorite movie will help them write ample opportunities to express themselves and learn
a review of a movie now in the theaters. the genres that will be important in college and their ca-
reers.
Finishing with a Large, Complex Assignment
The final assignment in a sequence should be the largest
and most complex assignment of the set. Ideally, it asks An Argument for “Low-Stakes” Writing
students to take a critical perspective and write about Assignments
a complex cultural issue. The first two assignments in We would like to conclude this chapter by supporting the
the sequence gave students a working background in the concept of low-stakes or no-stakes assignments. These

40
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Designing Writing Assignments

Figure 1.14 A Worksheet for Making Assignments

ISSUE WHAT STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW WORKSPACE

Genre: What genre am I writing in? Is it a clearly
defined genre, or am I supposed to play around
with the genre by stretching it or blending genres?
Genre

Patterns: Are there specific patterns, structures,

and formats I need to adhere to? If so, what are
they specifically?

Topic: What will I write about? Is the topic speci-

fied in the assignment, or do I have some latitude?

Angle: What angle am I taking on my topic? Is the

angle specified by the assignment, or do I have
latitude?

Purpose: What is my text supposed to achieve for

Rhetorical Situation

my readers? Is it supposed to inform, explain, per-

suade, or entertain? Or do I need to figure this out
myself?

Readers: Who am I writing for? Am I writing just

for my professor, or is there a real or imagined au-
dience? Why would they be reading this and what
are they expecting?

Context: In what context and medium will my au-

dience experience my text—a printed document, a
magazines, an electronic blog, a presentation, etc.

What educational purpose will I achieve in com-

Assignment

pleting this? Will it give me practice mastering

Purpose of

certain skills or learning outcomes, and if so,

which ones? Will this paper flow into a larger, ma-
jor assignment?

What is the due date? Will there be drafts due?

Will drafts be peer reviewed? Am I expected to
Schedule
Process,

turn in just the final draft or a package (a mini-

portfolio) that includes invention work, peer re-
views, reflections, etc.?

Is there a rubric that will help me understand how

my work will be evaluated and what I should focus
Criteria

on? How much will this work count toward the fi-
nal grade—is it low stakes or high stakes?

41
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

kinds of assignments give students a chance to write
in a low risk environment, allowing them to try out the
genre, experiment with new styles, and just have some
fun with writing.
Early in the process toward the final product, you might
have students do one or more of these low-stakes activi-
ties:
▪▪ Experiment and have fun with genres that are simi-
lar to the genre of the final product. For instance, if
your students were working toward a review as a
final product (Chapter 6), you might have them play
around with the genre by first writing a “a rave” and
“a slam” (the Microgenres in Chapters 6 and 7).
▪▪ Develop their understanding of the rhetorical situa-
tion, by working on the concepts in Part 1 of Writing
Today, asking, for instance, “Who is my audience?”
“What are my angle and purpose?” (Part 1 of Writing
Today).
▪▪ Work on specific aspects of the writing process, from
inventing ideas, to organizing, to choosing a style,
designing, and editing (Part 3).
▪▪ Research their topics, with students, for instance, re-
porting on what they have done and found, and how
their research has altered their understandings of
their topic.
▪▪ Learn new skills, such as quoting and citing sources,
using word processing to design documents, or us-
ing the Internet to publish their work.
▪▪ Draft sections of a larger work, such as the introduc-
tion to a position paper, the “lead” for a memoir, or
the methods section of a report.
• Draft complete rough drafts, with students turning
in and receiving feedback on their work before they
receive a final grade on their revised and polished
final performance, when there’s still time to revise
and improve it—and learn from the revision process.
Ensuring that Students Understand the Value of Low-
Stakes Work
Ideally, all students in a class would always be intrinsi-
cally motivated to do low-stakes work. But few classes
are ideal. Nonetheless, you can help students understand
the value of working diligently at low-stakes work. Here
are a few tips for helping ensure students understand
the value of low-stakes work:
• Always provide a written (print or electronic)
assignment that clearly explains the “purpose” of the
assignment—how this assignment will help students
develop their abilities, or how this assignment will
connect with and improve the quality of the final
high-stakes assignment.
• Have students share their work with others in and

Figure 1.15 The First Assignment in a Sequence

Write a Rave Review

For our first assignment in this “At the Movies” sequence, I would like you to write a “rave
review” of your favorite movie. According to Chapter 6 in Writing Today, a rave review is an
“over-the-top review that is more about feelings and reactions than reason.” I want you to
pick a movie that you really love and tell us why you love it so much.

Feel free to amplify and exaggerate your feelings for the movie. Your goal is to persuade your
readers that they must see this movie. Describe the movie in very favorable terms.

Your rave should run about 200–300 words, and it should be written to appear on a movie
review Web site.

42
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Designing Writing Assignments

Figure 1.16 A Rhetorical Analysis Assignment

Write a Rhetorical Analysis of a Documentary

For the major paper in this sequence, write a rhetorical analysis of a documentary movie.
The documentary you choose can appear in any media (e.g., television, Internet, magazine,
newspaper, radio, virtual world).

In your rhetorical analysis, explore why this documentary is effective or persuasive with its
target audience (or perhaps why it fails). For example, you might explore why the movie Super
Size Me (2004) by Morgan Spurlock was effective at raising awareness of the effects of fast
food on American culture (and waistlines). Or, you could write about why the documentary
Earth (2007) was such a powerful story about global climate change.

Your rhetorical analysis should describe and summarize the documentary and offer relevant
background information about the director who made it, the company that released it, and
the times and places where it appeared. Then use the rhetorical concepts of ethos, pathos,
and logos to analyze the documentary and explain why the movie was effective or not. (Brief-
ly define and explain ethos, pathos, and logos for readers who may have never heard of them
before.)

Later in your rhetorical analysis, offer a broader discussion of why documentaries like the
one you studied are effective or ineffective. What conclusions can we draw about these kinds
of documentaries?

Your rhetorical analysis should be written to appear in a popular print or online magazine
like Slate.com, Newsweek, Time, or Forbes. Adjust your writing style to fit the kinds of people
who read these magazines.

In this assignment, your objectives are to:

• Demonstrate that you can write rhetorical analysis

• Define a subject
• Form and use a solid thesis statement
• Use a clear introduction, body, and conclusion to organize your writing
• Interpret the rhetorical elements of a text
• Explain why a text is persuasive or effective (or not)
Your rhetorical analysis should run 900 to 1000 words, and it should include images and have
an interesting title. Make sure your name appears at the top of the first page. Headings are
encouraged to separate larger sections.

This assignment is due on at the beginning of class.

43
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

out of class. We are all more motivated to express

ourselves when our ideas will have an impact on
others (see “Sharing Student Work” below).
• Let students have fun with their writing. Many
of the microgenres in Writing Today and in those
described in Part 3 of this guide encourage students
to let loose and have fun. Meanwhile, they provide
practice writing and can lead to valuable insights.

Making Low-Stakes Work Count toward the Final Grade

This focus on response and improvement in low-stakes
assignments doesn’t necessarily mean that no grade
whatsoever is associated with the work. It means the
grade consequences of low-stakes work are relatively
minor. Most students are extrinsically motivated by
grades, and some students simply won’t do the work if
they know there are no grade consequences (even if they
believe it is “good for them”).

Here’s the point: the impact on final grades by early work

should be relatively minor so that they don’t prevent ex-
ploration and trying out new ideas and new strategies.
There are many grading schemes for making low-stakes
writing count but only to a minor extent:

• Make all the semester’s low-stakes work count in

aggregate for between 10% and 40% of the final
grade, and use a simple and straightforward grading
system (e.g., “plus,” “check,” “minus”; see “Using
Rubrics” below). Students who get mostly pluses
earn full credit, students who average about a check
get three-quarters credit, etc.
• Make a specific draft count just a small percentage
toward the final grade, e.g., from less than 1% up to
5%.
• Use countless other schemes to make low-stakes
assignment writing collectively amount to a large
portion of the grade, without any one of them having
an enormous impact.
This low-stakes grading practice allows students to en-
joy and learn from the assignment. Just as important, it
can allow you to enjoy the assignment, focusing on en-
couragement and learning. By focusing almost solely on
response, you can provide feedback to students in much
less time and with far less stress.

44
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
RESPONDING TO
AND EVALUATING
STUDENT WORK
As your students’ writing instructor, you have probably
set a variety of goals, but your foremost goal is helping
your students become better writers. This chapter will
show you how to provide feedback that helps students
understand what good writing is, aspire to write more
effectively, and become better writers.
There are three keys to effective response and evaluation:
▪▪ Transparency. This chapter will show you how
to respond and evaluate in a way that helps your
students understand your grading criteria and
standards—what constitutes good writing for a
particular assignment. You will find strategies
for making your values and standards more
transparent because, in any activity, novice writers
perform better when they have a clear idea about
what constitutes excellence.
▪▪ Motivation. Feedback for students on any
assignment should tell them not only what they
need to improve but also what they’ve done well
and can build upon. Every assignment should
motivate students to keep trying, to turn in their
best work, and to improve as writers.
▪▪ Strategies for improvement. This chapter pro
vides specific guidance for helping students under-
stand how they can improve
writing.
A Key Distinction: Responding versus Evaluating
Students need feedback on their writing if they are to
improve, and you’ll help your students succeed if you
provide feedback that is appropriate for the task at hand.
Evaluation—grading—is obviously an essential
component of almost every college writing course.
However, in order to improve their writing, most
students also need response, which focuses not on
grades but on improvement and learning. Sometimes
it’s most appropriate for you to play the role of coach
45
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
by providing the kind of response that leads to learning
and improvement. At other times, it’s more appropriate
to play the role of umpire, judging a student’s work
against a set of performance criteria. The distinction is
illustrated in Figure 1.17, and here in a nutshell:
▪▪ Response is about teaching, learning, and improving
student performance. It is formative. A response
provides feedback that interacts with the student’s
work and informs the student (and others) what
could be improved and how. A response includes
comments and other feedback that provide advice
for revising or for general improvement.
▪▪ Evaluation (or grading) is about judging student
performance. It is summative. An evaluation
measures a student’s performance against some
standard, and it is represented by a grade, or a score.
An evaluation includes a grade, but it also includes
response, which allows students (and others) to
understand the evaluation process that was used to
determine the grade.
Feedback should almost always provide both evaluation
and response. A good evaluation includes response,
and a good response gives some evaluation. Therefore,
the response/evaluation distinction is always a matter
of emphasis, and you should choose your emphasis
consciously.
Even before they begin drafting an assignment, your
students should understand clearly how you will
approach their work, whether you’ll focus on response
and developing or focus on judging and assigning a grade.
Responding to Drafts, but Evaluating Final Products
As a rule of thumb, focus on response when giving
feedback about early drafts and low-stakes work, and
focus more on evaluation when providing feedback to
students about their final products and other high-stakes
work. The terms low stakes and high stakes refer to the
grade or other consequences associated with the work.
Low-stakes activities have relatively minimal grade
consequences but invite students to focus on trying out
new things, having fun, and taking risks with new ideas
or strategies. (See Figure 1.17.)
Separating Response from Evaluation
Coaching and judging are usually at cross purposes. We
coach writers, but we judge writing performances. When
students know they’re being judged, they focus on the
judgment, not the comments and advice. That’s why
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
sequencing assignments—moving stepwise from early,
draft-like, low-stakes assignments and ending in a high-
stakes final product—can be helpful. You can mostly
coach in the early stages, offering encouragement,
praise, and advice. Then you become in large part a judge
for the final product. But even here, if you use a portfolio
or if you allow students to revise their work for a better
grade, grades can still be formative, helping students
improve their work and become better writers.
If you use a portfolio system in which the final portfolio
counts for a significant part (50 percent or more) of the
final grade, you can achieve even greater separation
between coaching and judging.
Responding to (Not Evaluating)
Low-Stakes Work
In order to write effectively about a complex idea, writers
need to orchestrate countless intellectual, emotional,
and even physical skills and abilities. These are broken
down in Writing Today and explained as principles that
students can understand quickly and meaningfully.
Nonetheless, to develop mastery, novice writers need
practice and guidance. Further, in order to orchestrate
skills and abilities into a single performance, they need
even more time, practice, and guidance.
When you respond to—rather than merely evaluate—
low-stakes work, it encourages students to try out new
ideas and strategies in a low-risk context. This is how
writers develop best, by trying out new things before the
consequences are large.
Consider this teaching analogy: A coach wants to help a
young tennis player learn how to hit a strong backhand.
Obviously, the wrong approach would be listing the
101 things that a tennis player has to consider and do
to return the ball. Instead, a coach would first instruct
the player how to hold the racket and place her feet—
and then the coach would hit a few balls to the player
for practice. The coach might then move on to specifics
about moving the wrist and forearm—and then hit a
few more practice balls, and so on toward competence
and mastery. The coach would focus on teaching for
improvement by encouraging the player, pointing out
what the student is doing well and what needs more
thought and work.
It’s the same with teaching writing. When students are
learning something as complex as writing, they need
to be given a chance to focus on a few principles and
abilities at a time. Once they’ve mastered them, they can
46
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
move to others and eventually move on to orchestrating
all those principles and abilities into an effective and
coherent performance.
General Principles for Responding to Student
Work
If you are new to teaching writing, you might be uncertain
which role you are supposed to play as you look over
your students’ work. Here are strategies to help you read
and respond to their work effectively.
Reading like a Reader
In the real world, writers do not write in order to be
judged on the quality of their writing but in order to
communicate with other human beings who, they hope,
will be interested in their ideas. Readers read in order
to find out new things, encounter new and interesting
juxtapositions, and so forth.
Every person learns best when he or she is highly engaged
and motivated. When you show your students that you
are interested in their ideas, you are treating them like
writers, and they will be far more eager to continue
writing and work hard at it. Obviously, your job is to
advise and criticize them, but they’ll be better listeners
to that criticism if they value you as their reader.
Identifying both Strengths and Places for Improvement
When reading student work, you might find that the
weaknesses jump right off the page—grammar lapses,
faulty reasoning, the missing transition or topic
sentence, and so forth. It’s usually harder to discern
writing strengths (or what might become a strength
with revision) than it is to see problems. The capacity
to notice strengths does not come naturally, but if you
mindfully read student work it will soon become second
nature.
Encouraging Revision
Students should always be thinking about improving
their work and becoming more accomplished and
confident writers. Your responses should always point
them in that direction. With early drafts, help them
think ahead to the next draft. Even when dealing with a
final product (at the end of a sequence), your responses
should encourage revision. You can make that a reality
by allowing your students to revise final products for a
better grade. If you use portfolios, point out how their
work can be improved for the portfolio.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Figure 1.17 Responding to Drafts, Evaluating Finished Products

Writing teacher acts like a coach. Writing teacher acts like a judge.

Teacher gives advice to student Teacher assigns grades to students’

writers to help them improve their performances to assess levels of
skills and revise their writing. mastery.

Teacher encourages experimenting Teacher encourages refining,

with new ideas, and writing
strategies, focusing on insights and
taking risks.
Students work on drafts, works in
progress.
Assignments are “low-stakes,”
completed early in an assignment
sequence.
The goal is formative assessment.
polishing, focusing on accuracy and
completeness.
Students work on perfecting final
product.
Assignments are “high-stakes,”
completed at the end of an
assignment sequence.
The goal is summative assessment.

Being Cautious About Humor or Expressing Frustration
Almost all writers are a little touchy about their writing,
and this is especially true of novice writers. What strikes
you as a humorous or nonthreatening response may be
interpreted as snide, dismissive, or belittling. Even if
you’re responding face to face in a conference, think
carefully before making a joke that might be interpreted
as slighting the writer.
And if you ever find yourself feeling frustrated with a
student or the writing, remain objective. When you are
advising, offer advice, not shame or expressions of your
own disappointment. Don’t convey a patronizing tone,
but do provide encouragement. Never shame. Never
adopt the role of punisher.
Attending to the Details but Focusing on the Big Picture
Don’t try to cover every aspect of a student’s work.
Choose strategically what you attend to, what you
comment on, and how you mark papers (see “Commenting
47
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
and Marking” below). You can spend time on details, but
make sure that your overall response leaves students
with a clear understanding of what they’re doing well
and what needs improvement.
Trying to Respond Promptly
Students learn best when they receive feedback on their
writing while their memory of writing is still fresh.
Therefore, structure your due dates in a way that makes
waiting periods as short as possible. If your students
turn in work on Wednesday, it may be unrealistic for you
to have your responses done by Friday. However, if they
turn in work on Friday, it might be realistic to have it
ready to return on Monday or Wednesday.
Losing the Red Pen
Even many accomplished adult writers admit that seeing
red ink on their manuscripts evokes an almost visceral
response of dread. There’s no getting around the reality
that for many students, having had punitive English
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
teachers for twelve years or more, red ink is associated
with error, shame, and punishment. Red is the color of
blood and slaughter, the scarlet letter of shame, distress,
and danger. Red can mean “STOP what you’re doing right
now!” Students will notice your comments no matter
what color ink or pencil you use, so choose any color
besides red.
Remembering That What Worked for You May Not Work
for Your Students
It’s natural to assume that what worked for you will work
for others. Many writing teachers have stories like this:
“The person who made me a good writer was Professor
Grundy, who wrote brutal comments. That sea of red ink
shocked me into buckling down and working harder.” But
keep in mind that your students are by and large different
from you. People who choose to become writing teachers
are most often relatively gifted writers and just as often
high achievers. When it comes to mechanical issues,
writing teachers tend to find grammar issues interesting
and important. However, very few of your students will
go on to become writing teachers. They may not find
grammar and reasoning inherently interesting. Appeal
to your students by responding to what they care about,
not what you care about.
Marking and Commenting on
Students’ Work
Students need to receive comments that address their
work and them specifically. Every writing assignment
that gets a response should include some comment,
however brief.
Making Comments in the Margins
Show your students that you’re reading their work and
engaged with it by providing marginal comments, some
offering praise, some offering advice, but all offering
encouragement.
Write descriptive, not summative, comments.
Avoid simple declarations of problems. Students do not
benefit from cryptic (or snide) comments such as “This
doesn’t make sense,” “doesn’t flow,” “faulty logic,” or
(even worse) “awk” or “frag.” Those comments convey
diagnoses and judgments, not advice. Describe what
you’re experiencing as a reader in specific terms and,
when appropriate, suggest strategies for improvement.
For instance, suppose a student is not clearly announcing
paragraph topics with topic sentences. You might be
tempted to simply tattoo each paragraph with “topic
48
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
sentence” or “Where is the topic sentence?” It’s much
more helpful to write a comment that announces your
experience as a reader (the issue) accompanied by advice:
“This paragraph has plenty of details, but I’m having
trouble understanding its overall issue. Can you provide
a sentence that announces the issue this paragraph will
deal with?” You may also choose to use the term “topic
sentence,” and you might even point the writer to a
particular section of Writing Today.
If the work is missing details, a comment like “unclear
what you’re getting at” or just “unclear” does little good.
You can be more encouraging with a comment such as,
“I’d like to hear more about . . . For instance, what is . . .”
The same is true when responding to higher-level,
rhetorical issues. If a student is summarizing the
argument of a reading but forgets to state the source’s
overall claim, offer encouragement followed by advice.
For instance: “You’ve done a good job describing the
details of Smith’s article with paraphrase and quotations,
but I’m still unclear about Smith’s main claim.” And you
might or might not choose to complete your comment
with explicit advice: “Can you explain his claim directly
and prominently?”
One last example: Suppose you’re responding to a
proposal and you find that the writer has not sufficiently
explained why the problem addressed in the proposal is
a significant problem that readers should care about and
want to remedy. A comment that says simply “Problem
not clear” conveys an entirely different message than
this one: “I understand the issue the proposal addresses,
but I still don’t understand why I should care about it.”
And again, depending on the student and the stage of the
draft, you might also provide more explicit advice and
note where the principle is discussed in Writing Today.
Comment only on the issues that are most important
for the particular student and work. You may be
thinking, “I don’t have time to write such detailed
comments.” That’s true, and that’s why you should
comment only on selected issues. Remember, playing
copyeditor does nobody any good. Commenting on
ten or more issues will overwhelm your student. But
commenting on a few strategically chosen issues shows
the student how to proceed.
Before commenting, think carefully about what will
benefit this particular student at this particular time.
Provide the guidance that you feel will help this student
make the most important improvements and make the
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work
learning advances that are most important for him or
her.
Dealing with Grammar and Issues of Correctness
Undoubtedly you’ve seen student writing that was
returned with every page filled with dozens of grammar
and mechanical errors circled and labeled. There may
be encouragement and advice included in that sea of red
ink, but it would be hard to find it. Even if thoughtful,
encouraging, and helpful comments are present, the
message to the student is clear: “You can’t write, and I
want you to focus on grammar.”
Then there are the teachers who use grammatical
correctness as punishment: “Papers with three or more
grammar errors will not be read or responded to and
will receive a grade of F.” An obsession like this produces
students who are themselves so obsessed with error
that they focus on nothing but error avoidance. They
lose interest in writing about interesting ideas or taking
risks, and they turn in boring—but grammatically
correct!—papers.
With drafts especially, it doesn’t make sense to overstress
grammar because the writer, you hope, will conduct a
major revision of most sentences. Further, your students
should be focusing on big-picture, rhetorical issues in
their revisions. Direct their attention to those issues.
This is not to suggest that you ignore grammar and other
surface-feature issues entirely. Most writing programs
consider it essential to teach students to write Standard
American English. Indeed, students should understand
that they need to attend to and improve their grammar
and mechanics. Here are strategies for getting that
message across without demoralizing or paralyzing your
students.
Help students understand why grammar matters.
Your students won’t share your expertise with grammar
issues and they may not understand why you’re such a
fussbudget about correctness. They may not understand
why grammatical correctness is important. Highlight the
rhetorical consequences of grammatical error:
▪▪ An abundance of errors makes a writer seem
untrustworthy, and thus the writer will be less
successful in informing, persuading, or entertaining
readers. In short, errors harm the writer’s ethos.
▪▪ Errors can interfere with readers’ ability to
understand what a writer is trying to convey. When
49
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
readers’ attention is sidetracked by errors, they
can’t attend to the writer’s ideas.
Help students understand how grammar issues can
interfere with their overall goals as writers. Writing
Today stresses that writing is a way to get things done
in the world. Writing is less effective when it is marred
by error.
Two strategies for dealing with correctness issues.
Students need to understand that correctness is an
important issue for effective writing, but you want to
avoid sending the message that it is the only or even the
primary issue.
Don’t attempt to teach grammar with your marginal
comments. It won’t work for the majority of students, so
don’t waste your time. But you can help them understand
that they are making grammatical mistakes, and you
can put them in a position to learn grammar in another
setting. Here are two ways to convey this message
appropriately.
▪▪ Option 1: Attend to grammar in just one paragraph
or page. Choose just one paragraph or one page and
mark every grammar and mechanics issue. Include a
comment like this: “The grammar issues I’ve marked
in this paragraph occur throughout your paper, but
I’ve marked up just this one. You need to get a handle
on these issues, especially run-on sentences and
fragments.” You can then offer advice about finding
help: by consulting the Handbook section of Writing
Today, by instructing the student to see you to set up
a conference, or advising the student to go to your
campus writing center (if you have one).
▪▪ Option 2: Minimal marking. Although grammar
errors leap off the page for you, novice writers
have trouble seeing them, and they need practice
identifying errors, not just fixing them. If you diagnose
problems for your students, say by bracketing a
sentence and writing “run-on sentence,” the writer
may succeed in fixing the problem there but will not
improve her ability to diagnose her own sentences.
With “minimal marking,” developed by Richard
Haswell, the responsibility for finding errors shifts
from the teacher to the student. Errors are indicated
but not diagnosed: a small x or check mark is written
in the margin to indicate there is a grammar problem
in that line, but the error is not specifically named.
Students then are pointed to the vicinity of an error
and are responsible for figuring out what it is. If they
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
still have trouble understanding the issue, encourage
students to see you in conference, to consult fellow
students, or to visit the writing center.
Composing the Final Comment
Even when you’re using a rubric to guide your response
or evaluation, students will benefit from a final comment
that is concise and focused. Writing a long, drawn-out
response may seem like an expression of loving care to
you, but students may perceive it as a lot of criticism,
especially if the comments focus on problems. Here are
guidelines for composing those final comments.
Tell your students what they’ve done well. Use
language similar to the language used in the writing
prompt (and in Writing Today). Look to the future,
explaining how these competencies will help them in
future writing. This will help writers take what works
from this draft and build upon it as they tackle a new
set of issues in the next draft, the next assignment, or
the next time they need to write in college or in the
workplace.
Focus on no more than three major issues. Plan your
comment before you start writing, selecting just two
or three major issues. For each issue, connect what
they’ve done well with what they need to do in the
future, providing specific strategies for making those
improvements. Some examples:
▪▪ For a literary analysis: “I enjoyed reading this,
Michael. The hard work you did in workshop paid off
in a creative new interpretation for understanding
Danticat’s short story. It made me see things I never
noticed before. You could improve the persuasiveness
of your fine interpretation by including more direct
quotations from the text, which would serve as
evidence to back up your interpretive claim. For
instance, you say that Big Guy’s death is a moment
of triumph (not defeat). Show me specifically where
the text leads you to that conclusion with quotations
and paraphrase.”
▪▪ For a report: “In your discussion, you’ve done a
great job of summarizing your results and how
they confirm your hypothesis. This is thorough and
clearly written. Now work on coming up with the
implications and future directions. You might start
by brainstorming a list of implications or making a
concept map. And if you’d like to talk more about all
this, see me or consult our textbook.”
50
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
▪▪ For a position paper: “You’ve presented your side of
the issue clearly and compellingly, providing sources
that back up your main claim. And you’ve developed
several fascinating and new juxtapositions. For the
next draft, focus on doing justice to the opposing
side. Currently you explain only what’s wrong
with their position, but surely there must be some
merit to it or there wouldn’t be so many people
who hold that opinion. Try to walk in the shoes of
those who disagree and try to present their side in
a way that would make them say, Yes, that’s a fair
characterization of my position.”
Responding Electronically: The Paperless
Response
If students can’t read your handwriting, or if writer’s
cramp results in brief and cryptic response comments,
the quality of your response will be severely diminished.
Using the following technologies can make your work
easier, more effective, and more engaging for students.
Using a Word Processor’s Commenting Feature
If your students turn in their work electronically (e.g.,
with Microsoft Word™ or RTF files), you can comment
on them electronically. With Word™, you would use the
Review feature, which allows you to insert Comments
(other word processors have similar features). You can
also edit the student’s work using Word’s Track Changes,
but this should be done sparingly because it can lead to
copyediting rather than helpful commenting. You can
then return the commented-on document to students
through e-mail or through a course management system
such as Blackboard™, WebCT™, Moodle™, or Sakai™.
Using an Online Word Processor
Many free online word processors are available. Both
Google Docs™ and Adobe Buzzword™ are free. They are
more unwieldy than a word processor, but they may
work for your situation. (These online tools are useful
when your students are creating collaborative projects.)
Recording Comments in Audio
You can also make an audio recording of your comments.
It’s easiest to make an electronic file, which you can
deliver in one of three ways:
▪▪ as an e-mail attachment,
▪▪ as a file on your course-management
system
▪▪ inserted directly into a word-processor document
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work
With word-processor documents, you can insert many
separate audio files, which means you can use them
for marginal as well as final comments. Some word
processors (like Word™) will create an audio file for you
right on the spot.
Students enjoy this kind of feedback, and you can
provide response that in many ways is richer and more
thorough because students are getting clues from your
voice inflection and tone.
Here’s how to do it. (If your computer doesn’t have a
microphone, you’ll need to get one for $8 to $25.) The
specific procedure varies among word-processing
programs, but the general procedure works like this:
1. Click in the document where you want to embed
the audio-file icon. Students click on the icon to
hear the recording.
2. Insert an “Object,” then choose “Wave Sound” or
“Audio Clip.” That should bring up a recording
window that allows you begin and stop
recording.
Recording Comments in Audiovisual Screen Capture
This may sound really high tech, but it’s not that hard.
You’ll need to get a “screen video capture” program, or
SVC. SVCs allow you to make a movie that records your
voice and whatever happens on your computer screen. In
this way, you can work your way through the document,
highlighting portions of the document and discussing
them.
The most popular commercial software products include
Captivate™ and Camtasia™. There is at least one free
SVC, BB FlashBack™; it’s basic but probably all a writing
teacher could reasonably need.
Other Tips for Handling the Paper Load
Grading can be time consuming and sometimes onerous.
Here are our top ten tips for making the process go faster
and more enjoyably.
Design good assignments. This is the single most
important tip for saving you from the paper load. If you
invest the time upfront, creating a clear assignment with
clear criteria and grading standards, you’ll enjoy the
return on your time investment while grading.
Use and stick to a rubric. Use your rubric to streamline
your overall response and grading. Discipline yourself to
respond only to the criteria on the rubric.
51
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Don’t overdo the final comment. Write final comments
that focus only on the one to three most important
issues. Write concisely and to the point.
Read through the stack of papers quickly before
commenting. Get a bird’s-eye-view of the class’s work
before you start responding and evaluating.
Use peer review to supplement responses. See “Con-
ductive Group Work and Peer Review” in this handbook.
Time yourself and keep to a schedule. Allocate a cer-
tain amount of time for each paper and stick to it.
Don’t copyedit. Instead of flagging down
every error, make students responsible for finding and
correcting their own surface-level errors. See “Dealing
with Grammar and Issues of Correctness” in this chapter.
For severe problems, conference with the student. If
a paper needs a great deal of work (and you don’t know
where to begin) invite the student to your office for a
conference. If you feel the student still needs work, ask
the student to make an appointment with the writing
center if you have one (better yet, have the student make
an appointment from your office).
Use technology. Technology can make your responses
more effective and time-efficient.
Don’t waste time on careless student work. Give
students a checklist with their assignment to encourage
them to follow directions and put in sufficient time.
The checklist can describe anything from mundane
matters to high-order thinking. If a student obviously
hasn’t fulfilled the requirements, hand the assignment
back without a grade, perhaps giving a firm deadline
for putting the work in order. Here are possible items to
include in a checklist:
▪▪ I have stapled the pages of this
assignment.
▪▪ I have included self-evaluation of this
assignment.
▪▪ I read the short story at least twice.
▪▪ I revised the paper at least once.
▪▪ I spent at least five hours on this paper.
▪▪ I started working on this paper at least three days
ago.
▪▪ I have tried hard to do my best work on this paper.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
▪▪ I asked at least one other person to proofread the
paper.
▪▪ I ran the paper through a spelling check.
▪▪ (If asked you to do so,) I went to the writing center
and received help from a writing tutor.
▪▪ I have proofread this paper twice (at least one of
those times reading it aloud and slowly).
▪▪ I have used APA documentation style and double-
checked each citation against the guidelines in
Chapter 28 of Writing Today.
▪▪ I have summarized, cited, and incorporated
arguments from at least three outside sources.
▪▪ This report includes the following sections:
abstract, introduction, methods (or similarly
titled section), Findings (or Results), Discussion,
Recommendations (or Conclusion), and References.
▪▪ I have stated a clear and original “interpretive
question” in the first one or two paragraphs, and
this question drives the analysis of the short story.
As you gain more experience with responding, you
will find that some kinds of comments are heeded by
your students. Others aren’t. In conferences and other
interactions with your students, pay attention to the
kinds of comments that draw responses or questions.
Students reactions to your commentary will give you
a good idea about the kinds of feedback they need,
collectively and individually.
Evaluating (Grading) Student Work
New teachers often find evaluating student work to be
the most challenging aspect of their role as a writing
teacher. Until now, you have probably been able to help
people by responding to their writing, but this may be
the first time you must give writing a rating of some
kind. Many new teachers agonize over whether they
gave a student’s work the appropriate grade.
Don’t let evaluating overshadow all the positive things
you are doing for your students; grading is just one part
of the game at most schools.
Your grades should be based on the objectives and
standards you expressed for the class and in your
assignment sheets. One of the best ways to ensure that
you are using those objectives and standards is to create
52
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
grading rubrics. We define “rubrics” in terms of their
purpose—what they do for students and teachers:
▪▪ A rubric communicates clearly and thoroughly the
criteria and grading standards you will use when
you evaluate or respond to students’ work.
Students should understand how every writing
assignment, low-stakes as well as high-stakes, will
be responded to and evaluated. Rubrics can help you
communicate this information.
Sometimes the most appropriate rubric consists of a
single sentence explaining how the teacher will respond.
Sometimes they are far more lengthy and complex.
Although they are always written down, rubrics can be
designed into a variety of forms (see “Rubric Examples”
at the end of this chapter).
Using Rubrics Effectively
When a student implores us, “Professor, would you
please just tell me what you want,” we may sigh and try
to explain that there’s more to life and to writing than
earning good grades. Writing assignments should be
appropriately complex, and responding effectively to a
writing assignment requires more than just following
instructions. However, when you explain your values,
criteria, and standards, students’ sense of direction and
motivation are enhanced.
Rubrics can help students:
▪▪ Gain a sense of know-how and confidence. Students
work harder and at higher levels when they have
high self-efficacy—the
belief that they can succeed in a particular
situation.
▪▪ Work harder and do better work. Rubrics motivate
students in appropriate directions because they
communicate what
students should aim for. (Teachers
benefit because they get to respond to
better work.)
▪▪ Improve their writing. Rubrics help
students take an active role in their own learning
because rubrics tell them what is important and
what they should focus on and aim for. Students
develop critical thinking and self-awareness
because they have the concepts at hand to
self-assess.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work
▪▪ Transfer their learning to future writing situations.
To use a rubric, students have to apply the rubric’s
principles and
terminology to their writing and the others’
writing. The transfer of any learning,
including writing ability, is enhanced when stu-
dents are provided with appropriate principles and
when they are given
practice applying those principles.
▪▪ Provide appropriate feedback on other students’
drafts (peer review). Rubrics can help students
provide informed responses for their peers. The
student writer, the peer reviewer, and the teacher
are all on the same page.
Rubrics can help you:
▪▪ Grade consistently. Whether you’re the sole teacher
or you’re teaching with a group of teachers, it is
important that all students are held to the same
criteria and standards. Rubrics can prevent
“grading drift,” which occurs when a teacher’s
standards wander from harder to easier or vice
versa.
▪▪ Avoid repeating your criteria and standards. You’ll
want to discuss many things with your students,
but needlessly repeating grading standards and
criteria is not time well spent.
▪▪ Grade efficiently. Rubrics save you time in the
grading process and thereby help you provide
timely feedback. They also save you psychic and
emotional energy.
▪▪ Help you assess students’ progress. Rubrics help
you see at a glance what students are doing well
and not doing well. That information allows you to
decide whether to revisit material or to move on to
new material.
▪▪ Level the playing field and instill an atmosphere
of fairness. Students shouldn’t have to guess what
the teacher values and what sort of assignment will
earn high marks. The guess-what-I-want system
inevitably favors students from more privileged
cultural and academic backgrounds. Rubrics can
help level the playing field by announcing to all
students what will count as excellent, satisfactory,
and unsatisfactory. Rubrics instill a sense of
fairness because students understand that all work
will be graded by the same standards.
53
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Developing the Basic Elements of a Rubric
Although rubrics range from the short and simple to the
long and sophisticated, all rubrics need to contain two
basic elements:
▪▪ Criteria describing the aspects of the assignment
that you will focus on as you respond to and/or
evaluate students’ work. The rubric’s criteria should
communicate your priorities, what you value and
what you want your students to focus on.
▪▪ Standards of performance describing the levels of
mastery for each criterion—what constitutes A
work, B work, etc.
These features are shown in Figure 1.18, which illustrates
a basic rubric.
The best way to understand rubrics, their possibilities,
and their function is to examine several of them. At the
end of this chapter, you will find examples of rubrics for
a course that uses Writing Today.
Following Guidelines for Developing and Using Rubrics
▪▪ Involve students (see the next section).
▪▪ Avoid “surprise” rubrics (grading an assignment
with a rubric the students have never seen before,
handing back a scored assignment with rubric
attached). Always show a rubric to your class before
they begin the assignment.
▪▪ Present the rubric to students so they can tell you
what they understand and what they don’t.
▪▪ If you want to be sure students have examined the
rubric, require students to staple it to the assignment
they turn in (no rubric, no grade). Alternatively, you
can read the rubric in class and call for questions,
leaving time for an exploration of the criteria. Better
still, as an in-class activity, have groups of students
apply the rubric to a draft of a student paper.
Collaborating with Students
Consider including your students in the response and
evaluation process by bringing student work to the
table. When you and your class are examining a student-
writing artifact, the students can help you refine the
quality of the rubric, and you can help them understand
how your rubric translates to the kind of writing they’re
doing. If you treat writing assignments as a process—a
sequence of assignments, multiple drafts and revision,
peer review—you can enlist the help of your students,
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

who will often provide insights into a rubric’s gaps and
ambiguities.
For instance, you might copy an early draft of student
work (or student writing from a previous semester)
and lead your class in investigating how well the draft
meets the criteria of the rubric. Along the way, you can
investigate the rubric itself, determining how clearly it
communicates your criteria and standards, and with the
help of your students you can improve the rubric. This
gives you an opportunity to articulate why you’ve chosen
your criteria. Students will become more invested in the
process, more trusting, and more knowledgeable. And
they’ll perform better.
final product, your students will appreciate comments
that detail a specific one to three items to consider. And
of course words of encouragement and your advice for
next steps are always appreciated by students.
A Gallery of Model Rubrics
This chapter concludes with rubric models that can be
adjusted for a variety of assignments. Each rubric can
communicate a great deal, but in many situations you will
want to supplement a rubric with concluding comments.

When considering a current student’s draft or a polished

work from a previous semester, we have found that A or
ideal papers are not ideal. Work in the B range invites
students to engage in serious critique because they’ll
have suggestions for improvement.

We follow a process like this:

1. Encourage thoughtful and serious criticism

by reminding your students (or asking them
to imagine) that the writer(s) who created the
work at hand is (are) present in the class.

2. Read the paper silently or aloud (aloud is better

if you have the time), or have them read it before
class.

3. Ask first “what works?” “What has this writer

done that is particularly effective, thoughtful,
creative, or insightful?” Ask whether the rubric
spells out clearly what the writer has done well.

4. Then ask for suggestions for improving the

paper. Again, go back and forth between the
work at hand (what advice you’d give the writer)
and the rubric (how it might be amended or
added to).

5. Alter your rubric to reflect your students’ input.

Supplementing Rubric Feedback with a Concluding

Comment
Rubrics can communicate a great deal, but in most cases,
your students will want a verbal response tailored
specifically to them. For a low-stakes assignment, that
can be just a brief sentence or two. For a high-stakes,

54
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Figure 1.18: A Basic Rubric

Scales Excellent Competent Needs Work %

Title
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
Title is interesting and forecasts content of Title may be interesting or Title is missing or wholly
the rhetorical analysis. may forecast, but not both. inadequate.

Introduction
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Sets the direction for the analysis by Sets the direction less clearly, Provides little in the way of
providing effective context (identifying the as it provides context less context, forecasting, or interest. 10
subject of analysis, providing background on effectively; main claim
text, and/or stressing significance of text) and may be somewhat vague
stating an interesting, fresh main claim about or obvious. Grabber is not
the text. Uses strategies from Chapter 20 to present.
“grab” reader.

Description of the Rhetorical Situation

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Carefully and clearly explains the rhetorical The rhetorical situation is The rhetorical situation is not
situation in which the text was created and addressed, but less fully and addressed or addressed on in a 15
delivered, including the historical background carefully. passing fashion.

Criteria of the author’s purpose, the target audience’s

beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge, and the
overall context (medium used, historical
moment, etc.)

Explanation and Use of Relevant Rhetorical Concepts

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 7 5 3 1 0
Defines the rhetorical concepts accurately, Rhetorical concepts are Rhetorical concepts are poorly
completely, and clearly; explains how those presented but may not be defined or not at all. Rhetorical
concepts will be used to analyze the text. defined adequately; it is concepts are not used, or provide 20
Throughout the analysis, these concepts are unclear how the concepts no insights into the text beyond
used appropriately to gain new insights into will relate to the rhetorical the obvious.
how the text works and how effectively it analysis. In the analysis, the
communicates and persuades. concepts usually but not
always are used for gaining
insights into the text.

Description of the Text Itself

15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Summarizes the content of the text—what it Summarizes the content The summary may be inadequate
says. The summary is easy to follow (usually of the text, but somewhat for a basic understanding of the
mirroring the organization of the text itself) inadequately, as the reader text’s content. Does not focus on
and highlights main points and stresses the may be left with significant key aspects of the text. 15
most important features. Although summary questions or some confusion.
is mostly in the writer’s own words, it Highlights some aspects
quotes words, phrases, and sentences to an of the text but not as well.
appropriate degree. Description is objective. The descriptive may veer
into opinion and personal
reaction

Rhetorical Analysis of the Text

25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0
Describes rhetorical effect of text—what Applies rhetorical concepts, There is little attempt to analyze,
it does. Applies the rhetorical concepts to but the insights may not be that is, to explain what the text 25
reveal new, well-reasoned insights into the fresh and insightful or well- does to readers or how it works.
text’s rhetorical situation, readers, author, reasoned. Organization may
effectiveness, or strategies, Organization be hard to follow.
either follows that of the text or is organized
by rhetorical concepts.

Style, Citations, Surface Features, Proofreading

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
The style is clear and fluent, with effectively Some sentences suffer from Many sentences are unclear.
Performance chosen sentence variation. MLA format
is used, with a “Works Cited” page
lack of clarity or fluency.
MLA format is generally
MLA format is not followed. The
number of surface errors is very
10

Standards included. There are relatively few errors in

proofreading, grammar, punctuation, or
followed but there are
some errors. The number of
distracting

usage. surface errors begins to be

distracting to readers.

100

55
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Holistic Rubric for a Paraphrasing and Quoting Exercise

Sometimes you will assign a low-stakes assignment to give students practice with a specific
strategy. In this case, students were asked to paraphrase a passage and incorporate quotations
using MLA style.

Your summary of Bessiere et. al.’s “The Ideal Elf: Identity Exploration in World
of Warcraft” should be addressed to someone who has not read the article but
needs to understand its insights about how people use computer games. For
this assignment, use parenthetical citations for pages.
A 4 exercise is excellent, meeting all criteria. The writer understands the
article and articulates the main point clearly and prominently, with major
points also described in proper proportion. The summary is accurate,
fair, and complete. It describes not only what the authors found but also
4
summarizes their basic methods. Signal phrases are used to signal who
the authors are. Key words and phrases are woven into the summary so
that it is clear, grammatically correct, and flowing. Page numbers are
cited parenthetically and properly.
A 3 exercise is very good but slips up in one area. For instance, the
summary may be accurate and fair, but it may lack completeness or fail
3
to describe the authors’ methods, or it may suffer from a lack of clarity or
fail to cite page numbers.
A 2 exercise shows basic understanding of summary, but it slips up in two
or possibly three areas. The summary is generally accurate, but it may be
2
written unclearly, lack focus, fail to use signal phrases consistently, and
so forth.
A 1 shows a lack of understanding of the article itself or the process of
1 summarizing and quoting. There are weaknesses in most or all aspects of
summary and quotation.

56
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Holistic Rubric for a Slam

The slam can be a fun exercise that allows students to vent their spleen, but the activity of writing
a slam helps them better understand the review genre. As you can see, the rubric makes clear that
the goal is to have fun and take no prisoners.

In a nutshell, your assignment was to do a “repurpose revision” of your review

into a slam. The idea was to have some fun and get this off your chest before we
move next week toward writing the final versions of your reviews. Have fun
venting in this over-the-top negative review.
The writer has completely revised/repurposed the review into an
excellent slam that captures the spirit and the details of the genre. All of
these (from Writing Today) are done competently: describes criteria fairly
6 and objectively; explains expectations for product or experience; uses
stylistically heightened language (similes and analogies); amplifies and
exaggerates. Also, the writing is impassioned but always comprehensible
and clear.
The revising/repurposing is complete, and the slam spirit is captured.
5 However, one of the details is weak, or the writing may lack passion or
clarity.
The slam is still good, but it may demonstrate a failure to understand what
a slam is supposed to be or do for readers, or the revision/repurpose from
4
review may be incomplete. Or it may fail utterly in one area of competence,
or be weak in two areas.
This slam has captured some of the genre’s spirit, but either the
3 repurposing from the review is not complete, several of the details are
missing or done poorly, or it is suffers from a lack of clarity.
The slam shows inadequate revision/repurposing, most of the details
2 are missing or done inadequately, or it may be incomprehensible in some
areas.
This slam fails to meet any criteria, or there is minimal revision/
1
repurposing of the review into a slam.

57
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Holistic Rubric for an Argument

A POSITION A TYPICAL POSITION PAPER IN THIS CATEGORY DOES THE

PAPER IN THIS FOLLOWING . . .
SCORE
CATEGORY IS
...
Outstanding: P Accurately and insightfully describes the issue being debated
shows and the positions of (at least) two sides, developing a main
consistent claims that is articulated clearly, prominently, and with nuance
mastery of P Fairly and accurately summarizes the opposing point of
the genre’s view and its limitations
conventions
and writing in P Effectively and insightfully develops a position by
general, with a explaining the desirability of position (main claim),
6
few errors demonstrating outstanding ability to use argumentative
strategies, including ethos, pathos, and/or logos, use of
examples, and so forth (see Chapter 22)

P Uses a style marked mostly by clarity but adds energy to

writing when appropriate with similies, metaphors, and
analogies; is mostly free of errors (grammar, spelling,
proofreading)
Effective: P Accurately describes the issue being debated and the
shows general positions of two sides, developing a main claim that is
mastery of articulated clearly and prominently
the genre’s
P Fairly and accurately summarizes the opposing view and
conventions
5 its limitations
and writing in
general; with a P Effectively develops a position by explaining the
few errors desirability of position, demonstrating some ability to use
argumentative strategies effectively

P Uses a style that is clear; is mostly free of errors

58
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

A POSITION A TYPICAL POSITION PAPER IN THIS CATEGORY DOES THE

PAPER IN THIS FOLLOWING . . .
SCORE
CATEGORY IS
...
Competent: P Adequately describes the issue being debated and the
shows adequate positions of two sides, developing a main claim that is
mastery of articulated clearly and prominently
genre, with
P Summarizes the opposing view and its limitations, but the
some lapses
summary may be somewhat inaccurate or biased
4
P Effectively develops a position by explaining the
desirability of position, demonstrating some ability to use
argumentative strategies

P Uses a style that is clear; relatively free of errors

Inadequate: P Describes the debate in a way that may leave the reader
shows unsure of the issues or why it matters, with a main claim
inadequate that may be vague or weak
mastery of
P Summarizes the opposing view and its limitations, but may
conventions
do so inaccurately or unfairly
3 but shows
developing P Develops a position, but it may not be clear to readers why
ability that position is desirable, showing a limited ability to use
argumentative strategies

P Uses a style that is often unclear; frequency of errors

interfere with author’s ethos
Significantly P Does not describe debate or set of issues, with weak main
weak: shows claim
little or no
P Summarizes the opposing view inaccurately or unfairly
2 understanding
of some P Position and desirability are stated unclearly, little ability
conventions to use argumentative strategies

P Style is unclear; many errors

59
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

A POSITION A TYPICAL POSITION PAPER IN THIS CATEGORY DOES THE

PAPER IN THIS FOLLOWING . . .
SCORE
CATEGORY IS
...
Unacceptable: P Does not describe a debate or set of issues, with obvious or
assignment not weak main claim
addressed by
P Summarizes the opposing view inaccurately or unfairly, or
the writer
not at all
1
P Unclearly or inadequately states position and desirability
of position, with very weak or not attempt to use
argumentative strategies

P Uses style that is unclear; abundant errors

Unacceptable: P Shows little or no ability to writer within genre of position
assignment not paper
0 addressed by
P Uses style that is very unclear; abundant errors
the writer

60
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Simple Scoring Guide for a Literary Analysis

Some teachers (and students) prefer a simple non-grid design that lays out the scoring in
question form, like this:

1. Title. Does the title describe what issue or point the analysis will focus on? Does it make
clear what work is under analysis? (5 points)

2. Interpretive question. Does the introduction identify the literary work and its
background, and then pose an interesting (not obvious) interpretive question that
provides an “angle” from which to examine the work? (10 points)

3. Main claim/interpretation. Does the introduction respond to the interpretive question

with a main claim that shows sufficiently complex reading and interpretation? Does the
interpretation go beyond a merely personal response? Does it go beyond what is merely
obvious? (15 points)

4. Support for the interpretation—evidence. Is the main claim well supported with
targeted summaries, descriptions of the text, and quotations, all of which are used to
focus on key aspects of the text and move the interpretation forward? (20 points)

5. Support for the interpretation—reasoning. Overall, does the interpretation make

sense? Is it well argued and compelling? Are opposing or alternative interpretations
acknowledged and addressed? (20 points)

6. Depth of insight. Overall, are new and interesting insights into the interpretive question
made? Does the reader understand something new and interesting about the text? (10
points)

7. Organizational clarity. Is the literary analysis well organized and unified? Are
transitions between sentences and paragraphs appropriate and clear? Do the paragraphs
use topic sentences that announce the issue or claim of the paragraphs? Does each
paragraph make a point that moves the interpretation forward? (10 points)

8. Style. Is the “literary present” used for describing the text and the past tense for the
author? Is the language chosen appropriately for a literary analysis? (5 points)

9. Editing. Are sentences clear and skillfully constructed? Is the analysis proofread and
edited for accuracy? (5 points)

61
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Analytic Rubric for a Rhetorical Analysis

This rubric allows the teacher to circle the number of points for each criteria. (Title,
Introduction, Summary, etc.) and arrive at a score.

EXCELLENT COMPETENT NEEDS WORK %

Title
5 4 3 2 1 0
5
Title is interesting and Title may be interesting Title is missing or
forecasts content of the or may forecast, but not wholly inadequate.
rhetorical analysis. both.
Introduction
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Sets the direction for the Sets the direction less Provides little in
analysis by providing effective clearly, as it provides the way of context,
context (identifying the context less effectively; forecasting, or
subject of analysis, providing main claim may be interest. 10
background on text, and/or somewhat vague or
stressing significance of text) obvious. Grabber is not
and stating an interesting, fresh present.
main claim about the text. Uses
strategies from Chapter 20 to
“grab” reader.
Description of the Rhetorical Situation
15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Carefully and clearly explains The rhetorical situation The rhetorical
the rhetorical situation in is addressed, but less situation is not
which the text was created fully and carefully. addressed or
and delivered, including the addressed in a 15
historical background of the passing fashion.
author’s purpose, the target
audience’s beliefs, attitudes,
and knowledge, and the
overall context (medium used,
historical moment, etc.).

62
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Explanation and Use of Relevant Rhetorical Concepts

20 19 18 17 16
Defines the rhetorical concepts
accurately, completely, and
clearly; explains how those
concepts will be used to
analyze the text. Throughout
the analysis, these concepts
are used appropriately to gain
new insights into how the text
works and how effectively it
communicates and persuades.
Description of the Text
15 14 13
Summarizes the content of
the text—what it says. The
summary is easy to follow
(usually mirroring the
organization of the text itself)
and highlights main points and
stresses the most important
features. Although summary
is mostly in the writer’s own
words, it quotes words, phrases,
and sentences to an appropriate
degree. Description is objective.
15 14 13 12 11 10
Rhetorical concepts are
presented but may not
be defined adequately;
it is unclear how the
concepts will relate to
the rhetorical analysis.
In the analysis, the
concepts usually but
not always are used for
gaining insights into the
text.
12 11 10 9 8
Summarizes the
content of the text, but
somewhat inadequately,
as the reader may be
left with significant
questions or some
confusion. Highlights
some aspects of the
text but not as well.
The descriptive may
veer into opinion and
personal reaction
9 7 5 3 1 0
Rhetorical concepts
are poorly defined or
not at all. Rhetorical
concepts are not used,
20
or provide no insights
into the text beyond
the obvious.
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
The summary may
be inadequate for a
basic understanding
of the text’s content.
Does not focus on key 15
aspects of the text.

63
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Rhetorical Analysis of the Text

25 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0
Describes rhetorical effect of Applies rhetorical There is little attempt
text—what it does. Applies the concepts, but the to analyze, that is, to
rhetorical concepts to reveal insights may not be explain what the text
new, well-reasoned insights into fresh and insightful does to readers or 25
the text’s rhetorical situation, or well-reasoned. how it works.
readers, author, effectiveness, Organization may be
or strategies, Organization hard to follow.
either follows that of the text
or is organized by rhetorical
concepts.
Style, Citations, Surface Features, Proofreading
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
The style is clear and fluent, Some sentences suffer Many sentences are
with effectively chosen from lack of clarity or unclear. MLA format
sentence variation. MLA format fluency. MLA format is is not followed. The 10
is used, with a Works Cited page generally followed but number of surface
included. There are relatively there are some errors. errors is very
few errors in proofreading, The number of surface distracting
grammar, punctuation, or errors begins to be
usage. distracting to readers.

100

64
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Responding to and Evaluating Student Work

Scoring Guide for a Proposal: Criteria with only the Highest

Standard of Performance Described
This rubric design explains what constitutes excellence and also makes room for your comments
on each criterion.
CRITERIA COMMENTS POINTS
Introduction Clearly identifies the precise
10% problem to be solved.
Analysis of Analyzes the problem’s two to five
problem main causes.

10% Defines the effects of the problem,

helping reader understand its
significance (why it must be
addressed).
Plan to solve Breaks entire plan into two to
problem five major steps, with minor steps
described.
15%
Costs-benefits Provides fair and clear
analysis explanation of the costs versus the
benefits, showing how the benefits
10%
outweigh the costs.
General critical Identifies and considers other
thinking skills perspectives and positions, as well
as writer’s own assumptions.
15%
Identifies and assesses the quality
of supporting data and other
evidence.
Research Uses print and online sources to
get background on issues.
10%
Uses empirical methods
(interviews, surveys) to support
or challenge the facts.
Design Proposal looks professional and
designed for efficient reading.
10%
Graphics such as charts, tables,
and diagrams are used effectively.

65
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Argumentative Uses argumentative strategies

strategies appropriately and skillfully.

10%

General writing Uses paragraphs and sections to

strategies organize knowledge: paragraphs
have clear topic sentence and
5%
points; sections are given
descriptive titles.

Uses fluent sentence structure and

a concise, graceful style.

Follows APA format with

parenthetical citation of page
numbers and references page.
Editing and Has generally eliminated
proofreading rule-based errors (grammar,
punctuation, spelling, etc.).
5%

66
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
INTERACTING WITH
STUDENTS
N ew instructors are often most concerned about how
they will relate to their students and how they are
going to handle moments of conflict. They are concerned
about how to interact appropriately with students in
ways that are friendly, respectful, and professional.
The first thing to remember is that you, the instructor,
are in a position of power. You generally have the final
say in matters, as long as you are working within
the boundaries of your policies, university rules, and
appropriate professional behavior. You should be
friendly with your students in a professional way, but
you cannot be their friend in this kind of relationship.
Your students will always see you as someone who has
power over them.
When you have conflicts with students, it helps to
remember that you have authority and you have people
to back you up. As long as you follow university rules,
you will have the support of your writing program
administrator (WPA), department head, and the dean of
students. It’s when you stray from those boundaries that
you will have problems.
Maintaining Professionalism
Some instructors, especially young instructors, find
themselves in an awkward position. On the one hand,
they are in charge: They set the agenda. They manage
the classroom. They give out the grades. On the other
hand, a writing instructor may be only a few years older
than his or her students. In some cases, there will be
students older than the instructor. Consequently, young
instructors are often tempted to treat their students as
peers.
Adopting a Professional Attitude
Our advice is to adopt a professional attitude toward
your students. If you’re a younger instructor, it’s going
to be tempting to interact with them as equals. After all,
you may not have had power over people in the past, and
that’s going to feel a bit awkward. Meanwhile, the social
skills you have developed have taught you how to interact
67
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
with people who are equal to you or have greater power.
Having real power over other people means broadening
your identity and figuring out how to interact in new
kinds of relationships.
Wearing Appropriate Clothing
Clothing is one of the most important markers of
professionalism. Male instructors don’t need to show up
in a suit and tie, and female instructors don’t need to wear
a dress. However, you should be the most professionally
dressed person in the room. That means a nice shirt or
blouse and nice pants or a skirt. Most universities allow
instructors to teach in jeans; if you choose jeans, they
shouldn’t be faded and they shouldn’t have holes or be
fraying. We recommend not teaching in jeans, though,
because it generally doesn’t look professional.
It would be a mistake to show up in a T-shirt, shorts,
flip-flops, or similarly informal clothing. If you look like
the instructor of the course, your students will give you
respect and treat you like the instructor of the course. If
you look like another student, your students will treat
you like another student.
Trusting Your Experience
Professionalism also involves the attitude and tone you
adopt toward your students. Speak from a position of
authority. Presumably you know more about writing
than they do, so speak as though you are someone who
has mastered concepts and skills that they want to
learn. If they doubt or challenge what you say, that’s fine.
Ultimately, you can say “In my experience, this is how
people write in the real world.” That doesn’t make you
right, but it does suggest that your life experiences give
you more insight into particular issues.
Managing Conflicts with Students
All instructors experience conflicts with students. A
conflict could be a disagreement about the grade on
a paper. It could be about attendance or late papers. It
could be a difference in values that causes the student
to see the world differently than you do. Conflict is a
natural part of interacting with other human beings, so
you should not be anxious about moments when you and
a student disagree.
You should see conflict as something to be managed. You
can minimize it by creating good policies and procedures.
But if conflict arises, you should understand the nature
of the conflict and your options for resolving it.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
Avoiding Conflicts
The best way to manage conflicts is to avoid them in the
first place. Before the semester or quarter starts, fashion
a set of course policies that addresses typical areas
of conflict. These areas include grading procedures,
assignment values, attendance, tardiness, late papers,
issues involving disabilities, and academic dishonesty.
In the second chapter of this manual we offer suggestions
for how to address these issues in your policies. Our
recommendation is that you have clearly stated policies
on all such matters. Some instructors would like to go
without an attendance policy; or they assume that all
students know when they are plagiarizing something.
They are mistaken. Eventually, one of your students is
going to take advantage of your unclear policies, leaving
you in a difficult spot. This student will miss weeks of
classes, or he will roll into your class 20 minutes late
every day. He or she may honestly not know that handing
in a roommate’s paper is dishonest. You must spell these
things out in your policies.
The people who will be most thankful for your clarity are
your supervisors. Your writing program administrator,
department head, or dean of students often needs
to be the arbitrator when conflicts develop between
instructors and students. If an instructor’s policies are
not clear, the administrators cannot offer much support.
When a student misses 20 classes (almost seven weeks)
in a semester, you may feel that the student does not
deserve to pass the class. But if you do not have an
attendance policy, you’re not giving the administrator
much to support your decision.
Our advice is to put these things in writing in your
policies. In most semesters you probably won’t have
conflicts with your students. However, when you do find
yourself in a conflict, your policies will back you up.
Resolving Conflicts
If you teach long enough, you will inevitably find
yourself having a difference of opinion with a student.
Such conflicts are usually not due to something you did
wrong. Instead, the natural flow of events can create
conflicts between your policies and a student’s life.
When you find yourself in a conflict with a student, first
try to identify the source of the conflict. Conflicts usually
68
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
come about due to four different sources: rights, justice,
fairness, and psychological issues.
Rights—Your students have human rights and
constitutional rights. They include the right to free
speech, a right to choose their faith, a right to not feel
threatened or harassed, a right to their own beliefs,
a right to access, and a right to not be discriminated
against because of gender, race, age, national origin,
religion, gender orientation, or sexual preference.
Your university may even have a Student Bill of
Rights that outlines the rights that students should
expect when they are on campus and taking classes.
There will be times when your students feel their
rights are being curbed or violated in some way.
Perhaps they are not being allowed to express their
views. Perhaps they feel threatened or harassed in
class.
When a student comes to you with an issue that
involves his or her rights, you should always treat it
with respect and take it seriously. The conflict may
involve something you said in class. It may involve
what other students have said or done. Consult with
your writing program administrator or department
head about how the conflict should be resolved.
Then, if you agree that the student’s rights are being
infringed in some way, you can take steps to change
the behavior of the people responsible.
Justice—Conflicts over justice are primarily about
the rules of the course and the university. Students
may challenge your grading procedures, attendance
policies, or late paper policies. They may plagiarize.
Your course policies and the university’s policies
are the laws of the class and the university, and they
should be applied fairly to all.
When a student challenges or breaks the rules of
your course, a solid set of policies will back you
up. In such cases, you should use your policies to
determine what you should do. As long as you are
following your policies and those policies are within
university guidelines, you should be fine. If the
student wants to challenge your policies, you should
consult with your writing program administrator or
the department head to determine whether you are
applying your policies fairly.
Fairness—Occasionally a student will believe that
you are not being fair. Perhaps you allowed a student
 Interacting with Students

to turn in a paper late or a student was allowed to be
late to a class for some reason. Another student may
believe that you are treating him or her differently
than other students, even though you believe you
are treating everyone the same.
These are all issues of fairness, and they usually
involve determining what is best for the majority of
the students in the class. For example, one student
may regularly dominate classroom discussions, not
allowing other students to express their views. In
this case, you might feel it is not fair to allow one
student to dominate the discussion while others
never speak.
There will also be times when you need to bend your
policies to fit extraordinary situations. A student
may be in the hospital or experience the death of
a parent and you may need to bend your policies
to accommodate. If you make adjustments for one
student, fairness dictates that you make them for all
who are in similar circumstances.
Psychological Issues—Psychological issues
involving mental health are becoming more and
more common on college campuses. That’s a sign
of progress in our society because medication and
counseling are allowing students who never could
have gone to college to continue their education. But
students who are on their own for the first time may
now be responsible for their own medications.
Keep in mind that some mental illnesses, such as
schizophrenia, depression, bipolarism, anxiety,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic
stress, often reveal themselves in young people
who are of college age. Moreover, your students
may be challenged by depression, alcohol and drug
use, sleeping difficulties, eating disorders, learning
disabilities, and sexual abuse. In some cases, the
pressure of the university and the new environment
brings these mental health issues forward.
If you believe a student is behaving in a way that
signals a possible psychological problem, you
should first consult with your writing program
administrator or department head for advice. More
than likely your supervisor will recommend that you
contact your university’s student health center or
student psychological services for guidance. These
professionals can offer you strategies for working
with a student.
You cannot treat a student’s mental illness or help
him or her work through it. Almost all of your
students will feel sad or anxious at times. That’s
normal. In most situations, you can express your
concern, offer support, or try to cheer someone
up. But when a student is exhibiting symptoms of
a psychological problem, the issue is beyond your
ability to help. You should talk to the professionals
on your campus about what actions should be taken.
When a student seems to be in imminent danger
of harming himself or herself or harming others,
you need to take action. Call your campus police or
security to help gain control of the situation. Get
others involved as quickly as possible to avoid a
small problem from escalating.
Once you have located the source of a conflict, you can
figure out how to handle it. If the issue involves rights
or justice, you need to consult your university’s policies
for resolving the issue. Issues of fairness often involve a
judgment call on your part. You should consult with your
writing program administrator or department head if
you are unsure what to do.
Developing Your Persona as an Instructor
As you gain experience teaching, you will gradually
develop your persona and figure out how best to work
with your students. Pay attention to other experienced
teachers, including your own professors. What are
their mannerisms? How do they handle conflicts? Ask
questions and talk with your colleagues. Find out what
works for them. Then experiment in your own class to
see what works for you.
In time, you will feel comfortable and confident in the
classroom. You will find that your students want to learn
from you—that’s why they are there in the first place—
and that you have much to teach them.

69
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors
WORKING WITH NON-
NATIVE SPEAKERS OF
ENGLISH
by Lindsey Ives and Tom Pierce
B ecause U.S. colleges are increasingly diverse, few
composition instructors can expect their classes
to be full of monolingual, native speakers of English.
Non-native speakers of English (NNSs) bring strengths
and challenges to the writing classroom that can be
quite different from those that native English-speakers
(NSs) bring. This chapter focuses on practical ideas for
understanding and working with NNSs.
Positive Classroom Culture
Much of the process of building rapport with NNSs is the
same as with NSs, but there are some notable differences.
It is important to foreground language knowledge by
talking about language and communication in class, but
don’t single students out as non-native speakers. Some
people see it as stigmatizing, plus, language is not the
sum total of students’ identity. A brief assignment that
allows all students to write about their backgrounds can
defuse some of the emotions NNSs may feel about being
accepted into the group.
Remember, much of what you’ll cover will be new to na-
tive and non-native speakers of English alike: academic
literacy, genre, vocabulary, and grammar rules. When-
ever possible emphasize this fact, as it can create more
solidarity among students. Many eye learners (defined
below) will have strong academic skills that are transfer-
able to the context of academic writing.
Eye Learners and Ear Learners
One classification of NNSs that can be very helpful is to
consider the context in which students learned English
(Reid, “’Eye’ Learners”; Ferris).
Joy Reid describes ear learners as those who have
learned English more through interaction and not likely
in a formal school setting. This category would likely
include second language learners who attended high
school in the U.S. The important thing about these stu-
70
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
dents is that their strength with spoken language may
conceal a lack of facility with writing.
In contrast to ear learners, Reid also describes eye
learners as those who learned English formally, very
often in an English as a foreign language situation.
These students will tend to struggle with spoken Eng-
lish, but may have more ability to use writing and to
understand and analyze grammar.
Error Treatment
▪▪ Use rubrics that are clearly articulated, and stick
to your rubric when grading (NNSs need clear ex-
pectations and no unexpected or unfairly weighted
elements).
▪▪ Don’t mark everything in a paper that appears to be
wrong—find patterns of error and help students
improve by focusing on the most serious problems
(subject/verb agreement or correct preposition
usage, for example), especially those that affect
reader comprehension, first.
▪▪ Use writing conferences as a way to provide feed-
back before the assignment is due.
▪▪ Provide more time for revision and any in-class
writing assignments.
▪▪ Help students learn self-editing tech-
niques to find and correct their own errors.
Some ideas include reading aloud, error
logs, and reading texts backward line by line
(Ferris).
Grammar Instruction for Multilingual Writers
▪▪ Don’t turn your writing class into a grammar class.
Integrate grammar into other parts of the class, for
example when your students complete editing and
peer reviews.
▪▪ Keep grammar instruction brief and narrowly fo-
cused (Ferris and Hedgcock, 2005).
▪▪ When discussing grammar, situate your discussion
within a larger conversation about responding ap-
propriately to the rhetorical situation. If, for exam-
ple, you are writing for an audience of academics
or business professionals, it is likely that they will
expect a document with few to no grammatical er-
rors.
 Working with Non-Native Speakers of English

Eye Learners and Ear Learners

Back- Probably Common Common Strategies

grounds learned Eng- Strengths Challenges for working
lish by . . . with these
students
Usually Studying A very Difficulty Use visual
international English advanced understanding aids like Pow-
students who grammar understanding spoken erPoints and
are here just and writing of English English; may handouts to
to study and in English grammar be reluctant enhance com-
intend to go as a Foreign rules, to speak up in prehension.
back to their Language familiarity class.
Record
home country. classes. with very
May bring major points
specific
Sometimes Many eye different from class
grammatical
late-arriving learners have cultural conversations
terms and
resident had little expectations on the board.
concepts.
students who exposure for
Speak in a
moved to the to spoken Familiarity organization
deliberate
United States English, and with academic of information,
pace, especially
from another some may genres and level of detail,
Eye Learners

when
country fewer never have register. sentence
introducing
than eight heard spoken length,
important
years ago. English until and other
concepts or
they entered discursive
assignments.
your class. features in
academic Rely on the
writing. Some rhetorical
students may situation
be unfamiliar to explain
and even expectations for
uncomfortable organization,
with the linear, level of detail,
direct nature etc.
of American
academic
prose.

71
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Back- Probably Common Common Strategies

grounds learned Eng- Strengths Challenges for working
lish by . . . with these
students
Usually resi- Listening to Fluency in spo- Less familiar Assign reading
dent students spoken English ken English, with basic from academic
born in the on the radio, on speech with grammatical genres and
U.S. to parents TV, in stores, in little to no for- concepts teach strategic
who speak a school, etc. eign accent reading.
Inaccurate
language other
Speaking Familiar with word choices Differentiate
than English at
English with slang and in writing that between ac-
home, or who
friends, teach- cultural refer- would sound ceptable aca-
immigrated to
ers, retail ences right in speech. demic register
Ear Learners

the U.S. prior

clerks, etc. Ex: “human and casual reg-
to age 10.
been” instead ister early in
of “human be- the semester.
ing”
Relate discus-
Less familiar sions & activi-
with academic ties focusing on
register; like grammar and
many NSs, vocabulary to
these students rhetorical pur-
sometimes pose.
write like they
speak.

72
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Working with Non-Native Speakers of English
▪▪ Some basic error analysis of an early writing assign-
ment can help you assess the needs of students, and
this will allow you to target trouble spots.
Active Learning
The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Lan-
guages and the emerging subfield of Second Language
Writing have much to offer writing teachers working
with second language learners. Some of the most basic
principles, such as building language development into
every aspect of the class and creating contexts for ac-
tive participation and communication among students,
are easily applicable to the college composition class. For
example, holding a class debate is an unobtrusive way to
provide pair work and oral fluency practice for eye learn-
ers, and genre and rhetorical structure for ear learners.
Contrastive Rhetoric
Contrastive rhetoric theorists argue that rhetorical
conventions from a student’s first language can impact
writing in the target language, in much the same way
that phonological features of the first language impact
speech, in what we commonly refer to as accent.
For example, students educated in cultures that value
complex, sophisticated sentence structure or in cultures
that expect the reader to fill in details for him or herself
might see the top-down, straightforward American style
of writing as overly simplistic or even insulting to read-
ers.
Most experts in second-language writing suggest that
textual conventions and other prominent rhetorical fea-
tures should be taught explicitly.
Schema
Because multilingual writers bring such diverse experi-
ences with both academic and informal forms of writing,
some schema development is often necessary. Providing
students with multiple examples of the same genre and
providing instruction in the conventions of the genre
can help multilingual writers build needed background
knowledge, or schema, for the text type.
Web Resource
The Purdue OWL Family of Sites. The Writing Lab and
OWL at Purdue and Purdue U, 2011. Web. 3 Nov. 2011.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
73
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
This Web site has a wealth of resources for non-native
speakers of English and their instructors. The “English
as a Second Language” section includes links to relat-
ed Web sites, scholarship on second-language writing,
worksheets explaining grammatical concepts, exercises
that help students practice those concepts, and more.
Print Resources
Collier, Lorna. “Classroom Choices That Support Eng-
lish Language Learners.” Council Chronicle 17.1
(2007): 4–10. Print.
Ferris, Dana R. Teaching College Writing to Diverse Stu-
dent Populations. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P,
2009. Print.
Ferris, Dana R. and John Hedgcock. Teaching ESL Compo-
sition: Purpose, Process, and Practice. Mahwaw,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers,
2005. Print.
Hinkel, Eli. Teaching Academic ESL Writing: Practical
Techniques in Vocabulary and Grammar. Mah-
wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004.
Print.
Hyland, Ken and Fiona Hyland, eds. Feedback in Second
Language Writing. New York: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 2006. Print.
Matsuda, Paul Kei, Michelle Cox, Jay Jordan, Christina
Ortmeier-Hooper, eds. Second-Language Writing
in the Composition Classroom: A Critical Source-
book. Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s, 2006. Print.
Ortmeier-Hooper, Christina. “English May Be My Second
Language, but I’m Not ‘ESL’.” College Composition
and Communication 59.3 (2008): 389–419. Print.
Reid, Joy. “‘Eye’ Learners and ‘Ear’ Learners: Identifying
the Language Needs of International Students
and U.S. Resident Writers.” 1998. Second-Lan-
guage Writing in the Composition Classroom: A
Critical Sourcebook. Ed. Paul Matsuda et al. Bos-
ton: Bedford/ St. Martin’s, 2006. 76–88. Print.
Reid, Joy, ed. Writing Myths: Applying Second Language
Research to Classroom Teaching. Ann Arbor: Uni-
versity of Michigan, 2008. Print.
 Part I: Advice for New Instructors

Spack, Ruth and Vivian Zamel. “Teaching Multilingual

Learners Across the Curriculum: Beyond the
ESOL Classroom and Back Again.” Journal of Ba-
sic Writing, Volume 25, No. 2, (2006): 126–152.
Print.

74
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 PART II
Course Plans and Syllabi

75
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part II: Course Plans and Syllabi

M O DEL SY LL A BI

Writing Today is designed to give you the maximum amount of flexibility for teaching composition, allowing you to
choose an approach that you and your students will find interesting and engaging.

In “Preparing for a New Semester” in Part I of this Instructor’s Manual, you learned about strategies for designing
a course using Writing Today. In Part II of the manual, we offer model syllabi that you can use to develop your own
course or adapt a previous course.

You will find syllabi for the following kinds of courses:

▪▪ Genre-Based Approach
(16-Week Semester)

▪▪ Genre-Based Approach
(10-Week Quarter)

▪▪ Expository Writing (First Semester in Two-Semester Sequence)

▪▪ Argumentative Writing (Second Semester in Two-Semester Sequence)

▪▪ Academic Writing

▪▪ Multi-Modal Approach

▪▪ Aims-Based Approach

▪▪ Patterns-Based Approach

These model syllabi can be modified to suit your university’s semester calendar. Make sure you account for any
breaks or holidays on the calendar.

76
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Model Syllabi

Genre-Based Approach
A genre-based approach features the teaching of a genre set that students will find helpful in col-
lege and career. The following two syllabi show how a genre-based course could be developed for
a sixteen-week semester and a ten-week quarter.
Sixteen-Week Semester
Topics Assignments and Readings
Week 1 What is Writing and Composition? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2, 5
Theme: “The Place Where Genres and the Writing Process Due: Literacy Narrative (in-
I’m From” Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose class assignment)
Week 2 Writing a Profile Writing Today, Ch. 3, 6, 15
Analyzing Readers and Contexts Due: Profile
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Organizing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 4, 16
Critical Reading and Analytical Thinking
Writing Introductions and Conclusions
Week 4 Writing Plain Sentences Writing Today, Ch. 17, 19
Revising and Editing Due: Memoir
Week 5 Writing a Rave Review Writing Today, Ch. 7, 21
Theme: “At the Movies” Rhetorical Patterns Due: Rave Review (in-class
writing assignment)
Week 6 Designing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 18, 23
Collaborating as a Group
Week 7 Writing a Commentary Writing Today, Ch. 10, 20
Writing Solid Paragraphs Due: Movie Review
Week 8 Working with Social Networking Writing Today, Ch. 29

Week 9 Writing a Rebuttal Writing Today, Ch. 11, 24

Theme: “What’s Bad Is Good Doing Research Due: Commentary
for You”
Week 10 Writing an Argument Writing Today, Ch. 25, 26
Finding Sources Due: Rebuttal
Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing
Week 11 Arguing Strategies Writing Today, Ch. 22

Week 12 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14

Due: Argument
Week 13 Using MLA and APA Citation Styles Writing Today, Ch. 27, 28

Week 14 Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch. 9, 30, 31

Theme: “My Work at Its Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Due: Research Paper
Best” Succeeding on Essay Exams
Week 15 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 32
Portfolio Workshops Due: Rhetorical Analysis
Week 16 Presentations of Portfolios

Final Exams Examination in Classroom Due: Portfolio

77
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part II: Course Plans and Syllabi

Ten-Week Quarter
Topics Assignments and Readings
What is Writing and Composition? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2, 5
Week 1
Genres and the Writing Process Due: Literacy Narrative (in-class
Theme: “The
Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose assignment)
Place Where I’m
From”
Week 2 Writing a Profile Writing Today, Ch. 3, 6, 15
Analyzing Readers and Contexts Due: Profile
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Organizing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 4, 16
Critical Reading and Analytical Thinking
Writing Introductions and Conclusions
Week 4 Writing Plain Sentences Writing Today, Ch. 17, 19
Revising and Editing Due: Memoir
Week 5 Writing a Rebuttal Writing Today, Ch. 11, 24
Theme: “At the Doing Research Due: Commentary
Movies”
Week 6 Designing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 18, 23
Collaborating as a Group Due: Rebuttal

Week 7 Writing an Argument Writing Today, Ch. 25, 26

Finding Sources
Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing
Week 8 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14
Due: Argument

Week 9 Using MLA and APA Citation Styles Writing Today, Ch. 27, 28

Week 10 Succeeding on Essay Exams Writing Today, Ch. 31

Due: Research Report

Final Exams Examination in Classroom

Note: When following a genre-based approach for a ten-week quarter, you will have enough time
to complete two sequences. In the syllabus above, we have kept the research sequence. If you are
not teaching research in your course, you can substitute another sequence for it. Also, we rec-
ommend finishing writing courses by asking each student to complete a portfolio. If you need to
offer an in-class examination, however, you won’t have time to do both a portfolio and an exam.
We have included the examination in this syllabus, but it could be replaced with a portfolio if an
examination is not required.

78
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Model Syllabi

Expository and Argumentative Writing

At most universities, first-year composition is taught in a two-semester sequence. The first semes-
ter tends to focus on expository writing, which involves teaching students how to inform, explain,
and instruct. The second semester tends to focus on argumentation and has a research compo-
nent. One of the advantages of Writing Today is that it can be used in both semesters because the
book addresses both expository and argumentative writing.

Expository Writing (First Semester)

Topics Assignments and Readings

What is Expository Writing? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2, 5
Week 1
Genres and the Writing Process Due: My Favorite Place (in-class
Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose writing)
Week 2 Analyzing Readers and Contexts Writing Today, Ch. 3, 6
Describing People
Week 3 Prewriting and Invention Writing Today, Ch. 15, 16
Organizing a Text Due: Profile
Week 4 Writing a Review Writing Today, Ch. 7, 17
Writing Plain Sentences
Week 5 Revising and Editing Writing Today, Ch. 4, 19
Critical Reading and Analytical Thinking Due: Review
Week 6 Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 9, 21
Rhetorical Patterns
Week 7 Writing a Literary Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 7, 19
Writing Introductions and Conclusions Due: Rhetorical Analysis
Week 8 Writing Essay Exams Writing Today, Ch. 31
Week 9 Reading Literature Critically Essay Exam (in-class)
Week 10 Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing Writing Today, Ch. 26
Week 11 Writing Solid Paragraphs Writing Today, Ch. 20
Due: Literary Analysis
Week 12 Writing a Memoir Writing Today, Ch. 5
Week 13 Designing a Document Writing Today, Ch. 18
Due: Memoir
Week 14 Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch. 30
Week 15 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 32

Week 16 Presentations of Portfolios Due: Portfolio

Final Exams Examination in Classroom

79
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part II: Course Plans and Syllabi

Argumentative Writing with Research (Second Semester)

Topics Assignments and Readings

What is Argumentative Writing? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2, 4
Week 1
Genres and Argument
Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose
Week 2 Writing an Ad Critique Writing Today, Ch. 3, 9, 15
Analyzing Readers and Contexts Due: Ad Critique
Generating Your Argument
Week 3 Organizing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 16
Writing Introductions and Conclusions
Week 4 Writing Plain Sentences Writing Today, Ch. 17, 19
Revising and Editing Due: Rhetorical Analysis
Week 5 Writing a Rebuttal Writing Today,Ch. 11, 21
Rhetorical Patterns Due: Letter to the Editor
Week 6 Designing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 18, 23
Collaborating as a Group Due: Rebuttal
Week 7 Writing a Commentary Writing Today, Ch. 10, 20
Writing Solid Paragraphs Due: Argument
Week 8 Writing with Social Media Writing Today, Ch. 29
Week 9 Writing a Rebuttal Writing Today, Ch. 11, 24
Doing Research Due: Pitch
Week 10 Writing a Proposal Writing Today, Ch. 12, 25, 26
Finding Sources
Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing
Week 11 Strategies for Argument Writing Today, Ch. 22
Due: Proposal
Week 12 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14
Due: Brief
Week 13 Using MLA and APA Citation Styles Writing Today, Ch. 27, 28
Week 14 Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch 30, 31
Succeeding on Essay Exams Due: Research Paper
Week 15 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 32
Portfolio Workshops
Week 16 Presentation of Portfolios Due: Portfolio

Final Exams Examination in Classroom

80
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Model Syllabi

Academic Writing
The academic approach stresses the kinds of writing skills students will need to succeed in ad-
vanced college courses. This approach concentrates on reading and discussing texts critically,
doing solid research, and presenting ideas in clear academic prose.

Topics Assignments and Readings

What is Academic Writing? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2, 4
Week 1
Genres and the Writing Process Due: Literacy Narrative (in-class
Writing about
Critical Readign and Analytical Thinking assignment)
Myself
Week 2 Writing a Memoir Writing Today, Ch. 3, 5, 14
Analyzing Readers and Contexts
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Organizing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 15, 19
Writing Introductions and Conclusions Due: Memoir
Week 4 Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 9, 16
Analyzing Texts Writing Plain Sentences
Week 5 Revising and Editing Writing Today, Ch. 19, 21
Rhetorical Patterns Due: Ad Critique
Week 6 Design and Visual Rhetoric Writing Today, Ch. 18
Due: Rhetorical Analysis
Week 7 Writing a Literary Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 8, 20
Writing Solid Paragraphs
Week 8 Responding to Literature Writing Today, Ch. 29
Interpreting Putting Your Writing on the Internet Due: Reading Response (in-class
Literature writing assignment)
Week 9 Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing Writing Today, Ch. 26, 27
Using MLA Citations Due: Literary Analysis
Week 10 Writing an Argument Writing Today, Ch. 11, 22
Presenting Ideas Argument Strategies
Week 11 Finding Sources Writing Today, Ch. 25, 28
Using APA Citations Due: Argument
Week 12 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14
Researching
Issues
Week 13 Collaborating with Others Writing Today, Ch. 23
Week 14 Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch. 30, 31
Portfolio Writing Written Exams Due: Research Paper
Week 15 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 32
Portfolio Workshops
Week 16 Presentations of Portfolios

Final Exams Examination in Classroom Due: Portfolio

81
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part II: Course Plans and Syllabi

Multi-Modal Approach
The multi-modal approach recognizes that most writing is now being done in electronic forms
using a variety of media. This approach centralizes the computer in the writing process, asking
students to interpret and express themselves in multiple forms of print and electronic media.

Topics Assignments and Readings

Writing in Today’s World Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2
Week 1
Genres and Multi-Modal Texts Due: Movies I Like and Dislike (in-class
Theme: “At the
Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose writing)
Movies”
Week 2 Writing a Movie Review Writing Today, Ch. 3, 7, 15
Analyzing Readers and Contexts Due: Blog Rave
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Writing for Blogs and Wikis Writing Today, Ch. 16, 29
Organizing a Text
Week 4 Reading Critically Writing Today, Ch. 4, 19
Revising and Editing Due: Internet Movie Review
Week 5 Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 9, 17, 21
Theme: “On the Writing Plain Sentences Due: Coolest Web sites (in-class
Web” Rhetorical Patterns writing)
Week 6 Designing Print and Multimedia Texts Writing Today, Ch. 18, 23
Collaborating as a Group
Week 7 Writing Online Commentaries Writing Today, Ch. 10, 29
Due: Rhetorical Analysis of a Web site
Week 8 Writing Solid Paragraphs Writing Today, Ch. 20
Week 9 Writing a Proposal Writing Today, Ch. 12, 24
Theme: “Web Doing Research Due: Commentary on Ethics or
Entrepreneur” Aesthetics
Week 10 Pitching a New Idea Writing Today, Ch. 25
Finding Sources Due: Pitch for New Media
Week 11 Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing Writing Today, Ch. 22, 26
Arguing Strategies Due: Argument
Week 12 Using MLA and APA Citation Styles Writing Today, Ch. 27, 28
Due: Proposal for Web Business
Week 13 Creating a Multimedia Presentation Writing Today, Ch. 29, 32
Week 14 Theme: Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch. 30
“My Work at Its Due: Multimedia Presentation for Web
Best” Business
Week 15 Writing Written Exams Writing Today, Ch. 31
Week 16 Presentations of Portfolios

Final Exams Examination in Classroom Due: Portfolio

82
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Model Syllabi

Aims-Based Approach
An aims-based approach teaches students how to write with specific purposes in mind. This ap-
proach recognizes that students are usually asked to achieve specific aims when they are writing
for college. Students learn how to narrate, describe, evaluate, analyze, argue, and do research.

Topics Assignments and Readings

What is Writing and Composition? Writing Today, Ch. 1, 2
Week 1
Genres and the Writing Process Due: Description of Your Home Town
Aim: Narrating
Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose (in-class writing)
Week 2 Writing a Profile Writing Today, Ch. 3, 6, 15
Aim: Describing Analyzing Readers and Contexts
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Organizing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 16, 20
Developimg Paragraphs and Sections Due: Profile
Week 4 Writing a Review Writing Today, Ch. 7, 16
Aim: Evaluating Writing Plain Sentences
Week 5 Revising and Editing Writing Today, Ch. 4, 19
Critical Reading Due: Review
Week 6 Writing a Literary Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 8, 21
Aim: Analyzing Rhetorical Patterns
Week 7 Working as a Collaborative Group Writing Today, Ch. 20, 23
Writing Solid Paragraphs Due: Literary Analysis
Week 8 Writing an Argument Writing Today, Ch. 11, 29
Aim: Arguing Writing with Social Media
Week 9 Using Argument Patterns Writing Today, Ch. 22
Due: Argument
Week 10 Writing a Brief Report Writing Today, Ch. 13, 24
Aim: Causal Doing Research
Analysis

Week 11 Finding Sources Writing Today, Ch. 18, 25

Designing a Document Due: Brief
Week 12 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14, 26
Aim: Research Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing
Week 13 Using MLA and APA Citation Styles Writing Today, Ch. 27, 28
Week 14 Creating a Portfolio Writing Today, Ch. 30
Aim: Review Writing a Rhetorical Analysis Due: Research Paper
Week 15 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 31, 32
Writing Essay Exams Due: Rhetorical Analysis
Week 16 Presentations of Portfolios

Final Exams Examination in Classroom Due: Portfolio

83
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part II: Course Plans and Syllabi

Patterns-Based Approach
A patterns-based approach is similar to the aims-based approach, but it puts even more emphasis
on mastering specific “commonplaces” of writing. This approach focuses on teaching students a
set of archetypes (also called “modes”) that can be used in a variety of rhetorical situations. These
commonplaces include narration, definition, comparison, classification, description, analysis, and
argument.

Topics Assignments and Readings

Writing in College Writing Today, Ch. 1, 6
Week 1
Genres and the Writing Process
Pattern:
Description Describing People

Week 2 Defining Your Topic, Angle, and Purpose Writing Today, Ch. 2, 3, 15
Analyzing Readers and Contexts Due: Profile
Prewriting and Invention
Week 3 Writing a Review Writing Today, Ch. 7, 16, 21
Organizing a Text
Comparing and Contrasting
Week 4 Writing Plain Sentences Writing Today, Ch. 17, 19
Revising and Editing Due: Review
Week 5 Writing a Commentary Writing Today, Ch. 10, 20
Pattern: Cause Analyzing Causes and Effects
and Effect Developong Paragraphs and Sections
Week 6 Designing a Text Writing Today, Ch. 18, 21, 23
Rhetorical Patterns Due: Commentary
Collaborating as a Group
Week 7 Writing a Literary Analysis Writing Today, Ch. 4, 8
Pattern: Classifying Literature
Classification Reading Texts Critically
Week 8 Writing Written Exams Writing Today, Ch. 31
Writing About Literature Essay Exam (in-class)
Week 9 Writing Solid Paragraphs Due: Literacy Analysis
Week 10 Writing an Argument Writing Today, Ch. 11, 21
Pattern: Developing an Argument
Argument

Week 11 Argument Strategies Writing Today, Ch. 22

Due: Argument
Week 12 Writing a Memoir Writing Today, Ch. 5
Pattern: Narrative The Narrative Pattern
Week 13 Designing a Document Writing Today, Ch. 18
Due: Memoir
Week 14 Writing a Research Paper Writing Today, Ch. 14, 24, 25
Pattern: Research Doing Research
Finding Sources
Week 15 Quoting, Summarizing, Paraphrasing Writing Today, Ch. 31
Using MLA and APA Citation Styles
Week 16 Giving Public Presentations Writing Today, Ch. 32
Due: Research Paper

Final Exams Examination in Classroom

84
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 PART III
Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

85
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
PART 1: GETTING STARTED
CHAPTER 1 students will leave your course as reflective practitio-
Writing and Genres
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
1.1 describe what genres are and how they help writers
and readers communicate.
1.2 use genres to communicate with readers.
1.3 develop a writing process that will help you write
efficiently and effectively.
1.4 use “genre know-how” to become a versatile writer
in college and in the workplace.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
For more information about the genre approach used in
Writing Today and about why a genre-approach to teach-
ing writing can be effective, consult the first chapter of
this guide, “Using Genres to Teach Writing.”
We urge you to assign and discuss this chapter early in
the term because, unlike the first chapters in so many
textbooks, it introduces a vital concept for the Writing
Today approach—genres—and helps students under-
stand immediately why this writing course will be dif-
ferent from other writing courses they may have taken.
This chapter will help them learn to become reflective
and agile writers who can respond to a variety of writing
situations, size them up, and get things done with their
writing. It sends the signal that this writing course will
be engaging, demanding, and relevant—a good signal to
send early in the semester.
Assigning and working with this chapter will introduce
your students to these concepts and principles, but stu-
dents will develop as agile and capable writers only by
combining these principles with abundant application.
Don’t be concerned if your students have not acquired a
sophisticated understanding of the concept of genre by
the end of your work with this chapter; they will become
increasingly sophisticated as they work with a wide va-
riety of genres. In every chapter, Writing Today weaves
together practice and principle. It can assist you in help-
ing students engage in practice that is informed by prin-
86
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
ciple, and students will deepen their understanding of
principles when they are informed by practice. Ideally,
ners; that is, they will leave with their own adaptations
of genre know-how, that will serve them well as they face
new situations and new audiences.
What Are Genres?
Help your students understand these ideas about genres.
▪▪ Genres are best defined in terms of their function, not
their form.
▪▪ Genres should serve as tools or “meeting places” that
afford both writers and readers interaction that helps
certain kinds of work get done.
▪▪ Genres are flexible and should be adjusted to fit each
situation; they are not forms to be filled in (like a sonnet
or a haiku), though they are often typified by consistent
patterns and sets of features.
▪▪ Genres have been shaped by and continue to be shaped
by writers, speakers, and audiences who have faced
needs of real communicative situations; therefore,
genres are constantly changing to accommodate new
and evolving situations.
▪▪ Genres also shape situations and readers. When readers
encounter what looks like a certain genre, they expect
certain kinds of information and features, and they have
a general sense of where they will find them.
▪▪ Genres need to be shaped (and played with) to meet the
needs of a given situation; they are not static forms.
Helping Students Understand Genres and Their Role in
Writing Intuitively
Students need to understand what you and their text-
book mean by genre, but the concept is a sophisticated
and nuanced one. What follows is an approach and an
abundance of specific activities to help your students
gain a sense of genre that is both nuanced and intuitive.
Whenever we learn about something that is completely
new to us, it helps to see it in terms of what we already
know. Therefore, consider helping your students see that
they’ve been using genres all their lives, that in fact ev-
ery person who communicates knows how to use a vari-
ety of genres effectively. They may not be written genres,
and we probably have never reflected on those ordinary,
everyday genres. But if your students can understand
those genres as genres and reflect on their characteris-
 Chapter 1: Writing and Genres
tics, they’ll be well on their way to gaining a rich under-
standing of genres generally.
Other Classroom Activities
To help students gain an intuitive and useful sense of
genre, have them engage in some of these activities or
those in the “Talk About This” and “Try This Out” sec-
tions at the end of the Writing Today chapter. These can
be useful as class, group, or individual activities. They
can be done orally, in writing, or in a combination of the
two. They can be done in class or as low-stakes out-of-
class writing assignments.
Phone Call Greetings
Until about ten years ago, a person usually answered the
phone with hello, his and/or her name, and/or the name
of a company. More recently, with cell phones and Caller
ID, we might greet a friend with “Hey, Matt,” our profes-
sor with “Hello, Professor Smith,” and someone who is
annoying with a dismissive “What?” In the past and to-
day, we adapt the phone call greeting genre according to
the situations we find ourselves in. And phone call greet-
ings will continue to evolve as the technology of phone
communication changes.
Everyday Conversations
Genres are shaped by the situation and by what needs to
be accomplished in that situation: What does each per-
son need in order to achieve his or her goal in a situation?
What does the speaker need and expect, and what does
the listener or collaborator need and expect? When we
walk into a restaurant, we expect the host to welcome us
and find out our seating wishes by asking certain ques-
tions (“How many?” “Where . . . ,” etc.). When we have
been wronged by someone, we expect that person to
apologize. When we are engaged in a conversation at a
party with someone who finds us attractive, we might
expect that person to flirt. When we visit a physician
or other health-care provider with a health issue, we ex-
pect both doctor and patient to work collaboratively on
diagnosis and treatment.
Classrooms
Writing Today likens genres to “meeting places” and
“meaning places.” Genres, like meeting rooms, have typi-
cal features and structures that afford certain kinds of
communicative work to get done. What does the class-
room genre look like? What needs to happen in the
classroom (its function)? How is that function served
(or impeded) by its structure and other features? How
87
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
do professors and students play around with classrooms
so that they more effectively help people get certain
work done? What are the subgenres of the classroom
(e.g., high school versus college, huge lecture hall, semi-
nar room, laboratory classroom, virtual learning space,
parking lots)? How do these subgenre classrooms differ
so that different purposes are achieved?
Other Genres in Which Your Students Are Already
Experts
Your students may be surprised to find out they are al-
ready experts in genres that you (or others) may know
nothing about. Ask your students to tell you about their
typical communicative situations and a genre they use
to accomplish what they need. Ask them how they work
that genre, and how they play around with it to make it
accomplish what they and others need to accomplish.
Then ask them what name they would give to that genre.
End of Chapter Activities
The “Talk About This” and “Try This Out” activities are
designed here (as they are for all chapters) to engage stu-
dents in active learning that helps them grasp key con-
cepts and master key skills and abilities.
The “Write This” activities often have students playing
around with genres, gaining a hands-on sense of how
genres work. Also, by writing in specific genres and mi-
crogenres, students understand how genres can work
for them.
Talk About This
1. This activity not only asks students to draw on their
own implicit knowledge of movie genre conventions
but also to co-create bases of analysis for writing a
review.
2. This activity asks students to make their knowledge
of the television show genre explicit as well as rec-
ognize how users adapt genres and create hybrid
genres.
3. Recognizing restaurant genres helps students think
about how environment and behavior create and cue
genre expectations.
4. This activity draws student’s attention to a few oth-
er key genre considerations: how communities and
context influence genre conventions and expecta-
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

tions. They will also enjoy selecting and analyzing

genres most familiar to them.

5. Using features from two genres to create a novel or

hybrid genre helps students recognize the conven-
tions of both genres but also the creative potential in
mixing and bending genres.

Try This Out

1. This brief writing assignment helps students con-
sider and apply two fundamental concepts they will
learn from Writing Today: recognizing genre conven-
tions and considering audience needs and expecta-
tions.

2. Asking students to analyze how a piece parodies an-

other is an engaging way to get students to actually
do two genre analyses: they must first recognize the
moves the original makes and then analyze how the
second parodies the first.

3. In addition to asking students to consider movie or

television show genre conventions, this activity in-
troduces students to a useful, free-form invention
strategy—freewriting. This activity can be used for
subsequent writing assignments.

Write This
1. This writing prompt will introduce your students to
thinking about the structures and features of genres.
Your students will probably be surprised with just
how difficult it is to describe a particular genre, even
a simple one with which they might be highly famil-
iar. (The point is, for any genre, each of us needs to
engage with creating examples within the genre if
we are to begin to really understand it.) You can as-
sign the document in question or have them choose
from a list of possibilities you give them. Ideas for
documents might include a Grimm’s fairytale, an
Aesop’s fable, a brochure, a heroic story (hero from
myth, superhero, action hero, etc.), a repair or instal-
lation guide, a map, marketing material, and count-
less other possibilities.

2. This writing activity will work especially well if

you’re planning to move on to Chapter 6, “Reviews.”
To do this assignment, your students will need to ap-
ply the concepts from this chapter and at the same
time work within a specific genre. To prepare stu-
dents to write the review, you could have them first
write in the rave microgenre.

88
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 2
CHAPTER
Topic, Angle, Purpose
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
2.1 develop and narrow a topic to respond to any
writing situation.
2.2 develop an angle, the unique perspective to bring to
a topic.
2.3 identify a purpose, or what the student wants to
accomplish.
2.4 use an identified purpose to develop a thesis
sentence (or main point).
2.5 choose the appropriate genre for the purpose.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
The purpose of this chapter is to give students a sense of
how to define and describe the rhetorical situations in
which they will be writing. Students, like many inexpe-
rienced writers, often jump right into the drafting phase
before figuring out key issues such as:
▪▪ What am I writing about?
▪▪ What is my new angle on this topic?
▪▪ What am I trying to accomplish?
▪▪ Who are the readers of this text and what are their
needs?
▪▪ Where and when will this text be read?
Because they don’t take the time to answer these ques-
tions up front, inexperienced writers often write some-
thing that doesn’t really achieve the purpose of the as-
signment. In some cases, they take on issues that are far
too large for a college paper. Ironically, in their haste to
get this done they only make more work for themselves
by skipping this preliminary stage of writing.
Our recommendation is that you teach students how to
identify the Topic, Angle, Purpose, Readers, and Context
of their text. Then, with each new project, have them
spend time defining these elements in the classroom.
That way, they will get into the habit of doing this be-
fore they start drafting. With each new assignment, they
should know that the first thing they need to do is define
these five elements of the rhetorical situation.
Defining a Topic
It’s interesting how difficult it is for students to come up
with a topic. With all the things going on in the world
89
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
and in their lives, it seems like they should have a myriad
of things to write about. And yet, left to their own de-
vices, students will often come up with the usual first-
year composition chestnuts, such as gun control, death
penalty, abortion, free speech rights, and so on. These
topics are far too large to handle in a 5–10 page paper.
Students who take on these unwieldy topics usually pro-
duce something that is hackneyed or vacuous.
We don’t suggest you forbid your students to take on
these kinds of topics. But you do need to help them nar-
row their topics considerably. The discussion of “topic”
in this chapter shows your students how to take on a
larger topic and narrow it down to something they can
handle.
At this point, ask your students to do a prewriting exer-
cise. In Chapter 2, we show how a concept map can be
used to tease out the subtleties of a topic. But other pre-
writing techniques, like brainstorming, freewriting, and
exploratory writing, will have similar results. Ask stu-
dents to fill out an entire screen or sheet of paper with
their ideas.
Then have them pick something from their prewriting
exercise that captures their interest or excites them.
Ask them to do a second concept map, brainstorming
or freewriting about that issue alone. This second pre-
writing exercise will help your students narrow their
topics down to something they can probably handle in a
college-sized paper.
Finding an Angle
Writing Today stresses the idea of coming up with a
unique angle on a topic. In truth, there are few new top-
ics available to college students. Most of the issues that
concern them have been written about, and even pub-
lished, before. However, you should tell them that there
are always new angles on these topics.
To help them develop their own angle, ask your students
to figure out what is new or has changed recently about
their topic. Ask them to think about their topic in a local
context, related to the college campus, the local commu-
nity, or their hometown.
You might have them answer the following questions:
▪▪ What is new about this topic?
▪▪ What has changed recently that makes this topic in-
teresting or original?
▪▪ How does this issue specifically impact our local
community?
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Work with your students to help them find a good angle
on their topic. This effort is well worth it, because stu-
dents who don’t have a good angle are almost guaran-
teed to write something that is boring and unoriginal.
Stating a Purpose
A purpose is an essential part of any written text, espe-
cially an argument. Again, the time spent on hammering
down a good purpose statement is well worth it because
texts that don’t have a clear purpose are difficult to com-
pose and read. For each assignment, have your students
work on writing down a purpose statement for their text.
The starter words shown in Figure 2.5 in Writing Today
can be especially useful because they help students fo-
cus on what they are trying to achieve in their text.
Our advice is to insist that students boil their purpose
statement down to one sentence. This sentence doesn’t
need to be a good sentence, and it might feel a bit bloat-
ed, but it should state exactly what they want to achieve.
This purpose statement will probably become part of the
thesis or main point of their text.
The purpose statement will also help students identify
which genre is appropriate for their paper. If you are as-
signing your students to write specific genres for each
assignment, asking them to figure out which genre works
for their assignment might be a little too advanced. How-
ever, in advanced college courses and the workplace,
writers need to be able to figure out which genre will
work best for the task they have been asked to do.
You should go over this relationship between purpose
and genre with your students. At this point, we don’t ex-
pect first-year college students to see the relationship
clearly. After all, right now they are mostly concerned
about how to get that first paper done. But talking about
it now will plant a seed for the future, when they won’t
have clear instructions about which genre is appropriate
for the task they need to complete.
End of Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. This task shows students who think they have noth-
ing to write about that they talk about interesting
things all the time.
2. Point out to students that many of the topics in the
news are not new. Even “new” topics tend to fall into
typical categories. The names, places, and events
change, but the stories are basically similar. Show
90
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
them, however, that each story has a new angle that
is being explored by the writer.
Try This Out
1. This task allows students to begin generating ideas
for topics they might like to write about in the
course. Have them list the five topics on the left side
of a sheet of paper. Then, on the right side, have them
come up with two or three possible angles for each
topic.
2. Here students start exploring one topic in depth. The
concept map exercise is a good one to tap into their
creativity. Give them 5–10 minutes to fill out a piece
of paper or a screen, drawing all the connections
they can think of. Then have them pick an aspect of
their concept map that especially interests them.
Ask them to do a second concept map about that as-
pect alone. This activity will help them narrow their
topic.
3. This activity is designed to get students moving from
defining a topic and an angle to writing a purpose
statement. Have them choose a word from Figure 2.5
in Writing Today and build their purpose statement
around it.
4. This exercise has students take their purpose state-
ment and figure out which genre is appropriate for
writing their text. After they figure out which genre
would work best for their paper, have them flip to
that chapter to see how that genre is organized and
written.
Write This
1. This activity is designed to give students a good start
on the first major writing assignment for the class.
Here they are being asked to use the ideas in this
chapter to identify their topic, angle, and purpose.
Then they can figure out why a particular genre fits
those elements of the rhetorical situation.
2. Having students e-mail you their topic, angle, and
purpose, makes them translate their ideas into writ-
ing. Then they can use the diagrams at the begin-
ning of the genre chapters (4–13) to help them start
figuring out what is appropriate for the paper they
are writing. You don’t need to comment, grade, or
evaluate what they send you; the act of putting these
things down in writing is what you are after.
 3
CHAPTER
Readers, Contexts,
and Rhetorical
Situations
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
3.1 profile readers to understand their needs, values,
and attitudes.
3.2 figure out how context—the place readers read and
the medium used—shapes readers’ experiences.
3.3 use the rhetorical situation (topic, angle, purpose,
readers, and context) to help respond to any writing
situation.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter continues the discussion of rhetorical situ-
ations that began in Chapter 2, where your students
learned how to identify their topic, angle, and purpose
for each writing task. In this chapter, they learn how to
anticipate their readers and the contexts in which their
readers will experience the text. They can then shape
their text to the needs of the readers and the features of
the context.
As with topic, angle, and purpose, students will resist the
idea that they should spend much time thinking about
their readers and the context in which their text will be
read. This attitude is typical of young people who still
want to believe that what they say is true and, therefore,
adjusting their writing to the needs of the readers or the
context is irrelevant. Of course, exactly the opposite is
true: the needs and characteristics of the readers are
highly significant, and the context greatly shapes how
those readers will receive and react to the message of
the text.
You should get your students in the habit of profiling
their readers and analyzing the context for each assign-
ment, even ones in which the readers and context seem
straightforward and simple. That way, as the writing
91
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
tasks become more complex, your students will already
know that the readers and context always need to be
analyzed for writing to be effective.
Profiling Readers
The idea that writers are profiling readers seems to reso-
nate with students. More than likely, this is due to crime
shows on television. The word “profiling” seems to have
more cache with students and is more meaningful.
In Writing Today, we suggest asking students to start out
creating a Brief Profile, especially for smaller, simpler
assignments. Then, we suggest developing an Extended
Reader Profile for larger, more complex projects.
▪▪ The brief profile basically asks students to define the
who, what, where, when, why, and how of their readers.
It puts an emphasis on identifying the needs and motives
of the readers.
▪▪ The extended reader profile goes a step further by iden-
tifying the readers’ expectations, values, and attitude.
Students are asked to consider social and cultural issues
that will shape how their readers react and interpret the
text.
We would be satisfied if student writers came up with
a brief profile for each assignment. Most first-year com-
position assignments are rather simple, so the brief pro-
file should suffice. However, in advanced courses and
the workplace, writers need to think more deeply about
their readers. So we would like students to be aware that
advanced writers often explore their readers at greater
depth when doing complex writing tasks.
The Reader Analysis Worksheet in Figure 3.2 of Writing
Today can be especially helpful because it asks students
to explore their readers’ expectations, values, and atti-
tudes in writing. Students often assume they understand
their readers, but writing down these features will give
them greater insights and sometimes alter their assump-
tions about their readers.
Analyzing the Context
As writing continues to go global in a variety of media,
its context is having a far greater impact on how a text
is read and interpreted. Discussions of context can take
many forms, but we have settled on three perspectives
from which to consider the context for a document:
place, medium, and political and social issues.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

▪▪ Place generally involves the physical features that
shape how a text will be interpreted. Your students
should recognize that where and when a text is read
will have a significant impact on its meaning for the
readers. They should also recognize that places are
always evolving. Places have a history and a culture
that shape how people view new ideas and argu-
ments.
▪▪ Increasingly, the medium is a critical factor in how
a text will be experienced and understood. Paper is
still the dominant medium for college texts; how-
ever, we encourage you and your students to think
more broadly about what kinds of media might be
appropriate for each text. Electronic media like Web
sites, blogs, and podcasts are appropriate for com-
position papers. Students can also learn how to turn
their work into public presentations. They need to
learn that a change in medium will change their
message and how that message is received.
▪▪ Social and political influences, finally, are
perhaps the most complex issues for stu-
dents to anticipate. We don’t expect
students to see all the social, economic, and political
trends that shape how their readers will interpret
an argument. However, we want them to be aware
that these influences exist and that they should be
accounted for.
As with reader profiles, we don’t expect students to
come up with a sophisticated, in-depth understanding of
the contexts for their documents. We simply want them
to be aware that context is a critically influential part of
how texts are read and interpreted. We would also like
them to explore other media and find new ways to tailor
their work to the contexts in which it might be used.
Genres and the Rhetorical Situation
To this point in Writing Today, we have dampened the
talk about the rhetorical situation, which is an abstract
concept that doesn’t always resonate with students.
However, now that they have been introduced to
the five elements of the rhetorical situation—topic,
angle, purpose, readers, and context—they can better
understand why the rhetorical situation is important
to their writing. This part of the chapter reviews these
five elements and links them to genre. Our hope is that
students begin to see that genre and the rhetorical
situation are inseparable. The genre, in many ways,
shapes the rhetorical situation in which a text will be
92
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
written and read. The rhetorical situation in turn calls
for genres to be flexible in order to adjust to each topic,
angle, purpose, readers, and context.
Because these are abstract concepts, perhaps better
suited to theorists than first-year composition students,
we have kept this discussion of genre and rhetorical situ-
ations brief. Nevertheless, we want students to be aware
of the complexities and the flexibility of genre and its
adaptability to mutating and mutable rhetorical situa-
tions.
End of Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. To complete this activity, students can work in
groups to reverse engineer the purpose, readers,
and context that advertisers were using to craft an
advertisement or advertising campaign.
2. This activity asks students to talk about instances
when they learned more from failed efforts to com-
municate and figure out why communication broke
down. Use the concepts from this chapter and the
previous chapter to show that many communication
failures are due to a misunderstanding of purpose,
readers, and context.
3. This activity invites students to recognize that peo-
ple act through motives. Students know that, but
they often haven’t thought about what motivates
human beings to agree or disagree with ideas or ac-
tions. You might talk about “Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs” as a way of understanding why people be-
have as they do.
Try This Out
1. The purpose of this task is to urge students to think
about readers who are different from them. Young
people often assume that others think much as they
do. Here is an opportunity to show them that elder-
ly people have different concerns and motives that
shape how they make decisions.
2. In this exercise we are trying to take something that
is simple and familiar to students, in this case bill-
boards, and show them how changes in context will
change the message. Urge them to choose products
that might seem appropriate at one time of day but
less appropriate at another time of day.
 Chapter 3: Readers, Contexts, and Rhetorical Situations

3. In this activity, students are asked to do a detailed

analysis of the rhetorical situation for their next
written assignment. If you do this activity, make
sure you have them write everything down in their
notes and give you a memo at the end of the exercise.
The act of writing the memo will help them think
more thoroughly about the rhetorical situation for
their text.

Write This
1. Here we ask students to reveal another writer’s
understanding of the context in which a document
would be read and used. In their evaluations, ask stu-
dents to show how place, medium, and social and po-
litical trends shape the writer’s decisions about the
content, organization, style, and design of the text.
Then, have them decide whether the author antici-
pated the rhetorical situation appropriately.

2. Rewriting or “repurposing” a text for a different

reader can be helpful toward revealing the influence
of readers on a text. Urge your students to find a doc-
ument that was written for a specific kind of reader
and rewrite that text for someone who is the polar
opposite of the original reader. In the e-mail to you,
your students should articulate two to five ways in
which changing the reader of the text shifts how the
genre is used.

93
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
4
CHAPTER
Reading Critically,
Thinking Analytically
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
4.1 “look through” and “look at” texts.
4.2 use seven strategies for reflecting on and respond-
ing to texts at a deeper level.
4.3 use critical reading to strengthen your writing.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
The ability to read critically is a vital skill for any col-
lege student, no matter what his or her eventual major or
career path. We feel strongly that effective reading is a
critical aspect of effective writing. Without the ability to
read critically, students cannot gain the skills and strate-
gies necessary to be effective writers.
We urge you to assign and discuss this chapter early in
the term because critical reading will enable them to
get the most out of this textbook’s many readings and
models. This will in turn help them to make the various
moves necessary in their writing to control genres and
assignments. This chapter will help them learn to be-
come reflective and sophisticated readers who can re-
spond to a variety of readings, analyzing them not only
for what their arguments are but how those arguments
work.
Assigning and working with this chapter will introduce
your students to these concepts and principles, but stu-
dents will develop as agile and capable readers only by
applying this principles themselves, repeatedly. Don’t
feel that students need to acquire all of the necessary
skills for critical reading just from this chapter; they will
become increasingly sophisticated as they work their
way through the multiple readings present in every
chapter. Nothing will benefit your students’ growth as
critical readers more than consistent and steady prac-
tice with their course readings.
94
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Work to instill the importance of being reflective read-
ers with your students. That means that they should not
only consider what they are reading but how they are de-
veloping as informed, critical readers.
What is Critical Reading?
Help your students understand these ideas about read-
ing critically:
▪▪ Critical reading can be performed for any kind of
text.
▪▪ Although different kinds of texts will be read in dif-
ferent ways, the skills used to read critically are por-
table and transfer across genres and mediums.
▪▪ Critical readers never merely ask what writers are
saying but what writers are trying to accomplish
and how they are trying to accomplish it.
▪▪ Reading critically involves looking at texts on a va-
riety of levels, including considerations of culture,
ethics, politics, economics, aesthetics, and identity.
▪▪ “Critically” does not necessarily mean negatively.
Critical readers apply these skills to writers and
texts they respect and enjoy as much as they do to
writers and tests they disagree with.
▪▪ Like any other mental activity, critical reading must
be cultivated. Critical readers must practice, just as
surely as athletes must practice to hone their skills.
Helping Students to Utilize the Strategies
Writing Today presents a series of 7 strategies that stu-
dents can utilize to be more effective, critical readers.
Like any other aspect of pedagogy, these strategies are
best taught through careful instruction and by giving
students the opportunity to try them in a low-stakes en-
vironment.
When students learn skills that are entirely new to them,
it helps them to view those skills in terms of what they
already know. Therefore, consider helping your students
see that they are already critical readers, just critical
readers who lack all of the necessary techniques and vo-
cabulary to do so effectively. Ask them about their ex-
perience reading texts that they felt doubtful or critical
towards. Encourage them to understand that this type of
evaluation happens every time they read a text, and that
they will come to find critical reading a natural, intuitive
skill.
 Chapter 4: Reading Critically, Thinking Analytically
Make sure to give students time to use the specific strat-
egies laid out in this chapter in a low-stakes, laid back
environment. Devote class time to the various strate-
gies, giving students an opportunity to use them in a
setting where they aren’t being rushed and there are no
grades to cause worry. For example, printing out copies
of a text and having your students annotate those copies
is a great way to get them in the habit of taking detailed
reading notes.
You can also make these strategies social by utilizing
them in group work. That way, students will get the op-
portunity to see how their peers utilize these skills and
techniques themselves. The Believing and Doubting
Game is a natural fit for group activity. Divide your class
into units of 4 or 6. Then divide those groups into Believ-
ers and Doubters, giving each side a chance to make their
case. Take care to point out to students that, when they
read a text by themselves, they can play the same game
internally, making sure to give texts they read critically
both skeptical and credulous readings.
Other Places Where Your Students Can Practice Their
Critical Reading Skills
In order to get the most out of their critical reading skills,
students must put them into practice in a variety of aca-
demic and personal domains. If your students read for
pleasure, particularly newspapers and magazines, their
pleasure reading is a natural place for them to apply
these skills. Advise your students that, far from turning
pleasure reading into work, critical reading can actually
make reading for pleasure more enjoyable.
Additionally, students can reap the benefits of bring-
ing critical reading skills to bear in their other classes.
This doesn’t mean that they should be looking to under-
mine their other instructors by resisting the readings.
Instead, it means that they can read for deeper, more
meaningful comprehension in those classes by applying
these strategies.
End-of-Chapter Activities
The “Talk About This” and “Try This Out” activities are
designed here (as they are for all chapters) to engage stu-
dents in active learning that helps them grasp key con-
cepts and master key skills and abilities.
These activities are all designed to teach students to read
critically through a series of iterative, easily-understood
moves. They also help demonstrate to students that they
already possess many of the basic instincts they need.
95
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Talk About This
1. This activity helps reassure students that being in-
timidated or challenged by a reading task is a univer-
sal experience. Stress to students that by examining
past reading challenges, they can be better equipped
to meet them in the future.
2. This activity asks students to make their impres-
sions of a given text’s character explicit, and to begin
to use critical language to explain why they feel the
way they do about that text. Make sure students un-
derstand that noting their initial impressions is an
important element of reading a text critically.
3. This activity can help students see that the skills and
abilities they develop in the writing classroom have
application to a broad array of classes, majors, and
disciplines. How do the critical thinking skills they
apply to other classes come into play when reading
critically?
Try This Out
1. Here again, students are given the opportunity to
see reading critically as a key aspect of their future
majors and careers, whatever they are. This kind of
work can help to earn student buy-in and build ethos.
2. Students might be resistant or discouraged by the
assignment at first. They may protest that they have
never read anything that made them feel those ways.
Ask them to broaden their horizons and think about
many different kinds of texts in many different do-
mains.
3. This activity raises the stakes of the Believing and
Doubting Game, introducing a new level of challenge
to students by asking them to believe a text they tru-
ly disagree with. Encourage them to remember that
this is a game, and that rising to the challenge is nec-
essary to win.
Write This
1. This writing prompt will introduce your students
to the concept of asking how a text works as distinct
from what the text says. Students will likely find the
left side, looking-through aspect easy, as it fits in
comfortably with the kind of reading they’ve done
for classes in the past. In contrast, the right side,
looking-at aspect of this task may seem very foreign
to them. Remind them that this chapter presents
them with a variety of skills and techniques to use to
make that part of the activity easier.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

In their future critical reading, particularly for ma-

jor projects or important academic tasks, students
will be able to take similar notes using this type of
notebook.

2. Students may find this a strange task, given that they

are likely not to see advertisements as texts in the
conventional sense. But as they will see throughout
the semester, texts come in many different mediums
and forms. If they struggle with this task, refer them
to Chapters 8 and 9, which will equp them with a
variety of tools necessary to undertake this kind of
textual analysis.

96
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 2: USING GENRES TO EXPRESS IDEAS
5
CHAPTER
Memoirs
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
5.1 generate content for a memoir.
5.2 use the memoir genre to organize a story.
5.3 develop an engaging voice to tell a story.
5.4 design an add visuals to enhance the narrative.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Chapter 5 begins looking at specific genres to both an-
alyze and compose. You may want to explain that the
genres are not included in an easiest-to-hardest order-
ing. The memoir is an incredibly robust genre that calls
for a great amount of investment from both the author
and the reader.
Memoirs are autobiographical writings that show a nar-
rator reflecting on a particularly important moment (or
series of moments) from his or her life. Beyond the de-
tails of what happened, the memoir will commonly ex-
plore some larger theme or question. We often judge the
quality of a memoir on the extent to which the chosen
details add up to some meaningful new insight about the
theme being explored.
An important feature of the genre is subtlety. The mem-
oir need not provide definitive answers to questions or
beat the reader over the head with a message. Readers
are going on a journey with the author, and they are of-
ten left to draw their own conclusions.
Memoirs are commonly expected to be true (hence
separating them from fiction). In 2006, James Frey
found himself in a scandal surrounding his book A Mil-
lion Little Pieces. After an investigation by the website
The Smoking Gun, Frey was shown to have falsified and
exaggerated many of the details in his book, which he
had called a memoir. Many readers felt betrayed, and
the publishing company even authorized full refunds to
97
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
particularly angry purchasers of the book. The incident
illustrates how powerful the memoir can be and how
powerful emotions can be invested in its consumption.
Why Students Enjoy Writing Memoirs
Memoirs are currently more popular than ever.
Though people may not think of blogs, Facebook, and
Twitter as incorporating elements of the memoir, these
digital compositions owe a huge debt to the genre. This
combination of popularity and familiarity makes the
memoir an excellent starting place for writers. A glance
at any recent nonfiction bestsellers list will reveal that
memoirs consistently hold many of the top spots. Ask
your students if they have read any memoirs lately; you
will likely find more than a few who have.
The memoir is fundamentally a narrative. People tell-
ing stories about themselves can be found in virtually any
art or entertainment. Your students might be fans of hip-
hop music, or maybe they play first-person video games;
either way, they are actively engaging with highly narra-
tive texts. As a class, discuss why the personal narrative
is so prevalent in popular culture. Invite students to of-
fer examples of texts they enjoy that include memoir-like
features.
The memoir shares many of the features and goals of
the personal journal. Not only have many students al-
ready experimented with keeping a journal, some form of
journaling has been popular in composition classrooms
for over forty years. If your class features some form of
journaling (even if it is an online blog), this chapter may
prove useful for introducing such projects. The memoir’s
emphasis on aiming for a grander theme or meaningful
insight may also transform the personal journaling ex-
perience into something more rewarding.
Using the Readings
One Student’s Memoir
Ellen Sanderson, “Diving In”
At the core of this piece is the larger theme of how one
measures success. Sanderson’s memoir reflects on her
struggle to live up to her own expectations and continue
to “dive in,” even though she is the slowest swimmer in
the pool. Sanderson’s experience touches on a larger hu-
man issue: we often avoid “diving in” to various things
in life because of social pressure or fear of failure.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Microgenre: The Literacy Narrative
Fredrick Douglass,
“Learning to Read and Write.”
Like the memoir, a literacy narrative focuses on an im-
portant and formative moment from the author’s life. The
main difference here is the specific focus on how the au-
thor acquired and developed literacy. Students may have
problems conceiving of their own literacy narratives.
They may be unaccustomed to thinking of the ways they
write and speak as skills that have developed over time
and that have been affected by any number of factors.
Using the chapter’s sections on brainstorming and re-
search, along with the example from Frederick Douglas,
students should develop a deeper understanding of how
a literacy narrative functions. A group brainstorm about
previous writing experiences may help uncover the val-
ues they have both absorbed and developed throughout
their educational experiences.
Jean Ellen Whatley, “My Ex Went
to Prison for Sex Crimes”
This piece demonstrates to students the ability of mem-
oir to bring readers into a situation they might never
imagine being in themselves. Whatley’s piece is remark-
able for its clear articulation of emotions produced in an
unthinkable situation.
A Closer Look
1. Metaphors are powerful because they demonstrate
connections between seemingly unrelated things.
This ability to draw unexpected connections fits in
well with Whatley’s attempt to put readers into a sit-
uation they likely can’t imagine experiencing. Make
sure students take time to express how individual
metaphors function, rather than just identifying
what they are comparing.
2. Whatley’s story asks us as readers to contemplate
how she could have once had such a different impres-
sion of her ex-husband than she does now. By casting
her memory back, she builds an impression of who
she once was, in order to better explain to readers
how she could have so misjudged his character
98
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
3. The notion of healing through writing is a
commonplace in the memoir genre. Books like
Elizabeth Gilbert’s Eat, Pray, Love and Cheryl
Strayed’s Wild exemplify this tendency. Ask students
what stories they’ve recently read that might fall
into the genre of “therapeutic memoir.” In what
ways does writing a memoir function similiarly to
attending therapy or counseling?
Ideas for Writing
1. Consider having students use the idea map in Chap-
ter 2 as a freewriting device to explore all the perti-
nent details of their family story. The more details
they generate, the more they’ll have to choose from
when deciding which details will best help accom-
plish their purpose.
2. Literacy narratives are an excellent task for students
because they cover a topic that many of them have
never explored before. In the brainstorming process
they may recall stories that they would not have
thought relevant before; however, looking through
the lens of memoir, they may discover importance
where they thought there was none.
Thaddeus Gunn, “Slapstick”
This piece addresses an issue of great emotional sen-
sitivity and legal consequence with vocabulary that at
first seems silly or inappropriate. Discuss Gunn’s choice
to use terms associated with professional wrestling, or
his use of the title “Slapstick,” in a memoir about the very
serious, dark issue of child abuse. How does Gunn’s ter-
minology for the types of abuse he and his siblings re-
ceived make his memoir more resonant?
A Closer Look
1. This activity should be implemented carefully, as
some students may find frank discussion of child
abuse to be emotionally troubling. Remind students
that while these names may be comic, the actions
they describe clearly are not.
2. Chapter 17 contains a great deal of information on
style that can help students with this activity. Coun-
sel students to look for specific language that is em-
blematic of Gunn’s flat tone. If they struggle, have
them make a list of places in the memoir where Gunn
could have used more expressively emotional lan-
guage.
 Chapter 5: Memoirs
3. All of the memoirs in this chapter end on an ambigu-
ous note. It is safe to say that all the authors learn
lessons from the experiences reported, but each au-
thor differs in how clear he or she wants to be about
exactly what that lesson is. Students may workshop
their own memoirs with the class to discover if their
own pieces achieve a similar level of open-ended-
ness.
Ideas for Writing
1. Here again, there is the potential for students to be-
come emotional, thanks to the highly personal na-
ture of the assignment. Ensure that all students un-
derstand that they have complete control over which
stories they choose to share with the class.
2. This activity allows students to integrate their re-
search writing skills with their grasp of the memoir
genre. Chapters 24-26 will help them to make the
necessary moves as researchers to complete this as-
signment.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. When asked to tell a story aloud, students will likely
have little time to think about how to organize their
tales. Yet a lifetime of listening to narrative will en-
sure that an order emerges. Watch if students follow
each other’s organization, and make a note when
someone varies from the norm.
2. A wealth of detail is crucial if a memoir is to make a
strong impression on a reader. Ask students to find
a detail from their chosen spaces that corresponds to
each of the five senses.
3. This question could lead to highly personal answers.
Encourage these candid results, and connect them
to the memoir genre’s tendency to reveal previously
unknown depths about its writer.
Try This Out
1. This assignment asks students to question the sig-
nificance of the stories they choose to tell. The sub-
question asking “does it mean the same thing for
everyone involved” will be particularly helpful in
thinking about different audiences and multiple in-
terpretations.
2. The transition from a print memoir to an online one
is an interesting change to explore. Ask students to
consider the different styles of reading that audi-
99
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
ences employ with texts in both media. For example,
online reading is often done with more skimming
and in a rushed (or multi-tasking) state of mind. Ask
what kinds of writing strategies this calls for.
3. Asking students to repurpose information for an-
other context, helps them think about tailoring their
writing to suit the rhetorical situation. Modifying
personal information to fit a new genre will help
students recognize how to edit and revise based on
rhetorical purpose. You can also assign the activity
when discussing any of the other genre chapters in
the book.
Explore This
This activity helps students simultaneously learn the
similarities and differences among cousin genres. It en-
courages them to think about how genres adapt to suit
different audiences and purposes. You might also assign
students to write one of them in preparation for writing
the memoir.
Write This
1. This writing assignment asks students to think
about their family histories. Students should enjoy
having a direction and focus for their memoir, espe-
cially one familiar to them. Students may be encour-
aged to interview the family members to see if there
are different recollections of events. The results may
help stress the importance of how different audienc-
es react to different texts and experiences.
2. The map or storyboard that serves as brainstorming
for this assignment may be included as an important
part of the final product. Students may present their
storyboards in class and discuss how they helped
their writing process. Students may learn new tech-
niques or find comfort in seeing that someone else
composes in a similar way.
3. The six-word memoir assignment encourages stu-
dents to write with economy and focus. Many will
complain that six words is not sufficient to tell a
meaningful story. The use of examples will help
them see how much is possible in this microgenre.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Digital Memoirs
As the chapter’s opening suggests, the prevalence of
blogs has brought the memoir into the digital age. It is
possible that this version of memoir will be most familiar
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
to your younger students. Services like Blogger (www.
blogger.com) and Wordpress (www.wordpress.com) of-
fer anyone a platform for blogging. These services are
also free of charge and relatively easy to use. Blogs as a
genre are usually relatively short pieces of writing that
provide students quick (and consistent) practice with
writing personal narratives. Instructors worried about
the public nature of blogs can choose to restrict the ac-
cess solely to class members.
Students can be assigned to keep an individual blog
throughout the semester, or you may want to set up
a course blog where all the students are given posting
privileges. You can provide weekly blog topics or jump-
ing off places (i.e., write about a time you had to speak or
perform in a public place. What happened? How did you
deal with any anxieties or fears?).
Course blogging assignments often require that stu-
dents make comments on classmates’ posts. This instant
feedback element of blogging is an addition to the mem-
oir genre that provides a great opportunity for you to get
your students conversing in prose.
Fictional Memoir
As the James Frey example demonstrates, people gener-
ally expect memoirs to be based on truth. However, you
may have students practice the genre by crafting the fic-
tional memoirs of characters they create. The fictional
nature will allow them to practice the features of the
genre while simultaneously creating more outlandish
or absurd details than perhaps their actual lives allow. If
you use literature in your course, you may want to have
students write a memoir from the perspective of a char-
acter in a novel.
Assignments like these can lead to important class dis-
cussions about the line between memoir and fiction.
Students may find these types of writing entertaining,
but perhaps the writing will lack the emotional punch
of memoirs more heavily based in reality. Subsequent
discussion may help reinforce the unique qualities of the
memoir genre.
Questions to ask:
▪▪ What led you to choose this specific fictional char-
acter? What features of the original text made you
believe this life would be worth writing more about?
100
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
▪▪ What does your memoir add to this character's back-
ground that is not in the original text? How did you
ensure that these new elements were appropriate or
connected to what readers already know?
▪▪ If you created a memoir about a wholly original per-
son, how many (if any) of the details were based on
real-life experience? Is it possible to create a fiction-
al memoir without referencing to some degree a per-
son or an experience you have had?
How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes
Student should adopt appropriate voice, tone, and lev-
el of formality when deciding how personal their mem-
oir should be. Memoir sometimes allows the student to
play with tone and formality more than other genres do.
Students should focus on a purpose when making sure
their memoir has a deeper message for the reader to take
away. Since this purpose is often not explicitly stated,
students must work on skills to develop it subtly.
Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today
Since memoirs are so popular, Chapter 29’s discussion of
publishing your work online will provide ideas on how
to get your students’ work to larger audiences. Chapter
25’s focus on “Finding Empirical Sources” will help stu-
dents explore their past through the other people who
were involved.
Other Resources and Microgenres
This American Life.
http://www.thislife.org/
This is a popular radio (and now television) program
from Chicago Public Radio. Each episode explores a
theme through stories of everyday people. The site fea-
tures a “favorites page” that provides an excellent intro-
duction.
Six-Word Memoirs.
http://www.smithmag.net/sixwords/
A subsection of Smithmag online, this site encourages
users to send in their incredibly concise versions of the
memoir. It’s memoir meets Twitter meets haiku.
 Chapter 5: Memoirs

Holocaust Memoir Digest.

http://www.holocaustmemoirdigest.org/

This online storehouse of detailed accounts from Ho-

locaust survivors is organized by topics and includes a
study guide.

101
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

6
This genre also allows students to explore a topic, issue,
CHAPTER idea, or theme in a profile of a place, club, or event. When
used along with the section on researching information,
the profile provides a great opportunity for a service-
learning assignment or projects that help students be-
come more integrated into their college environment.
Profiles
Why Students Enjoy Writing Profiles
Writing profiles satisfies our natural desire to find
out more about people. Even the shyest of students will
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
often welcome the opportunity to break away from tex-
6.1 invent the content of a profile. tual analysis and to learn more about the people around
them. If done early in the semester, profile assignments
6.2 organize and draft a profile in an attention-grabbing
lend themselves to a round of in-class interviews that
way.
can lead to a greater sense of class cohesiveness and
6.3 choose a style that captures the essence of a topic. friendliness.

6.4 design a profile to fit the place where it will be used. Profiles provide authors with real responsibilities.
With a memoir, the author ultimately has only himself or
herself to represent. When we write a profile, we are as-
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
suming a responsibility to represent a person or a group
This chapter’s focus on profiles provides a great oppor-
fairly and accurately. Depending on the ultimate desti-
tunity to contrast the genre with the previous chapter’s
nation of the profile, inaccurate or unflattering accounts
exploration of the memoir. Like a memoir, the profile fo-
have the potential to cause problems for the subject(s). It
cuses on telling the reader something about an interest-
is likely that the forming of a personal relationship will
ing person. Both genres elaborate on a theme or make
ensure that most profile writers want to do their sub-
a point that is larger than the person being discussed.
jects justice. Nevertheless, it may be useful to remind
Both genres also provide a chance to reveal the life of
students of this responsibility as a lesson in the real
someone who otherwise might not be recognized for his
world effects of writing.
or her efforts.
Profiles are everywhere. After signing up for a social
The primary difference with a profile is the level of de-
networking site like Facebook, the first task is gener-
tail or scope. The profile seeks a snapshot of the person
ally the setting up of a personal profile. When choosing a
under consideration. Rather than focusing on an extend-
fighter in a brawling video game, players may base their
ed incident or key moments in a person’s life, the profile
decision on a fighter’s profile stats. When looking for
offers background information and telling anecdotes.
new music, we may decide a band is worth checking out
This information should be chosen carefully so that the
if we learn something interesting about them in a maga-
reader is left with the impression of a compelling theme.
zine profile. We may decide where to vacation based on
You may want to explain to students that this shift in travel guide’s profile of a particular place. Even dating
focus (compared to the memoir) does not necessarily in this information age often involves choosing a poten-
mean that the profile is less intimate or informative. The tial mate based initial profile information. This will be a
profile can reveal much about a person, and the author familiar genre for your students; your job is to take the
can choose to write with various degrees of closeness to familiar and show the craft within it.
the subject. Such choices are best made through careful
consideration of the subject and the larger intent of the Using the Readings
piece.
One Student’s Work
This chapter also provides a list to start students think-
Katie Koch, “Brother, Life Coach, Friend”
ing about people in their immediate environment who
may be worth profiling. Koch’s profile of Wyatt Posig strikes a strong balance be-
tween professional and conversational writing. Students
102
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Chapter 6: Profiles
will find the profile relatable and readable. Koch blends
background and action to round out the portrayal.
Microgenre: The Bio
“Stephanie Wilson, NASA Astronaut”
This bio illustrates how one includes appropriate and
relevant information in a professional biography. Wil-
son’s biography focuses on aspects of her life that relate
to and highlight her NASA career. It distinguishes her ac-
complishments, her skills, and education and training.
Emphasize to students that their bios should include in-
formation about their future selves that highlights their
unique, memorable, and interesting achievements and
experiences.
Tim Madigan, “The Serial Rap-
ist is Not Who You Think”
As Madigan points out, the phrase “acquiantance rape”
often conjures images of a drunken college student going
too far, or an accidental act of sexual aggression. Madi-
gan’s profile turns that idea on his head. His disturbing
profile of a serial rapist uses understatement to create
discomfort and uneasiness on the part of the reader, up-
ending typical assumptions.
A Closer Look
1. Have students identify seemingly innocent descrip-
tive phrases. Discuss “connotation” with the class.
Chapter 21’s discussion of description and compare/
contrast will show students that they can slant their
profiles by using different connotations.
2. Emphasize to students that conflict is not always
open, violent, or angry. What parts of this profile
demonstrate more subtle forms of conflict?
3. Seeing just the title of this profile might lead one to
expect a picture of a dark, hooded figure. Why would
that be a particularly poor choice for this profile?
What particular quotes from this profile are em-
blematic of how it undermines reader assumptions?
Ideas for Writing
1. Freewriting gives students a chance to try out their
ideas on paper before presenting them to the entire
class. Be prepared for a variety of responses to this
question.
2. Relating a piece of writing to local contexts is an
103
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
essential element of being a strong writer. Discuss
techniques that students can use to make these
themes relevant to their local context.
Eric Wills, “Hot for Creature”
Wills’s profile illustrates how a careful writer can por-
tray a subject with sympathy even when that subject is
unusual or idiosyncratic. He effectively shows Drangi-
nis’s quirks without mocking him, and doesn’t allow his
skepticism to overwhelm his ability to take Dranginis
and his quest for Bigfoot seriously.
A Closer Look
1. With its simple structure, this activity helps stu-
dents to consider how Wills effectively undermines
reader expectations. Encourage students to be cre-
ative in how they use this simple structure.
2. Asking students to reveal how their own thinking
has changed helps them to understand how a writer
can prompt that kind of reconsideration in readers.
What specific moves does Wills make to open the
minds of his readers?
3. This activity is a good opportunity for students to
practice the skills and techniques used in organizing
their writing. Have students review Chapter 20 for
specific tools they can use for this purpose.
Ideas for Writing
1. This writing assignment prompts students to go be-
yond merely telling a personal story, and asks them
to place themselves in the shoes of the people who
were skeptical of their beliefs. Discuss how writers
can effectively put themselves into the mindset of
others, even others who they once disagreed with.
2. Writing a rebuttal for a professionally written article
may seem intimidating to students at first. Encour-
age them to think of themselves as critical readers.
Refer them to Chapter 4 to review those skills. Then
have them explore Chapter 21 to find rhetorical pat-
terns useful for a rebuttal.
End of Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. This activity is a great icebreaker. The fo-
cused questions encourage students to discov-
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
er something special about their classmates.
This underscores the difference between pro-
files and biographies in that profiles seek the
moment that makes someone worth reading about.
2. This iconic photograph helps students connect his-
torical background to a profile about a person or
a group of people. Students should draw on their
knowledge of the Great Depression to think about
the symbolism in the photograph.
3. This activity allows students to bring the issues that
affect and interest them into the discussion of pro-
files. Remind them that people worth profiling aren’t
necessarily world historic or famous figures. They
should be encouraged to consider people who are
less well-known but who have influence over current
events.
3. This activity asks students to make their own con-
nections between national issues and individual
lives. Tell them to be prepared to defend their choic-
es, whether they are well known or not. Since groups
will probably care about similar issues, you’ll be able
to discuss their choices for the face of these issues
productively.
Try This Out
1. Students need to understand that while prescribed
organizational strategies and genre conventions are
useful, almost all writers adapt the conventions to
meet the needs of their subject and style. Recogniz-
ing this means that students can work within pa-
rameters to be creative in their own work.
2. Introductions set the stage for a profile by situating
the subject. As students examine more introduc-
tions, they are able to create appropriate opening
moves in their profiles.
3. Because profiles come in different forms, we some-
times think of them as a special genre. However, the
very young and the very old have profiles. Students
should think about other places they see profiles
without realizing them for what they are.
Write This
1. This straightforward assignment draws on all the
strategies listed in this chapter to help students
get started. Encourage students to find an angle for
their subject by focusing on what they like about the
person, banking on readers liking that quality too.
104
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 19, on introductions and conclusions, will
help the student engage with the subject in writing.
2. This assignment is a bit more complex, but ultimate-
ly clear and accessible for students. Using research
means that you will need to guide your students
through the research process outlined in Chapter 24.
Additionally, because they will be working with oth-
er people’s words, students should be familiar with
Chapter 26 and how to use the essence of the quota-
tion. Consider having students publish their findings
to a class blog, as described in Chapter 29.
3. To help students brainstorm topics for this assign-
ment, you might help students unpack the term “cul-
tural icon” by having them list figures popular exclu-
sively in the United States (or the country they are
from) and explaining why they are “iconic.” They
can then list events and experiences specific to their
lives (in the past twenty years or less) and iconic fig-
ures whose lives include or exemplify these items.
Such an assignment might help instructors learn
more about their students, as they learn what it was
like growing up in their students’ generation.
Explore This
Having students draw on their implicit genre knowledge
of these familiar profile cousin genres might help them
think about useful strategies for writing the profile, as
well as realize how these cousin genres include slightly
different strategies to achieve different rhetorical pur-
poses. You might even illustrate how one of the micro-
genres might be used for a specific rhetorical purpose
within another. For example, a snapshot might serve as a
profile’s opening.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Facebook Advocacy Group
Along with the personal profiles found on social-net-
working sites, Facebook allows users to create groups
that revolve around shared fandom, social causes, or lo-
cal issues. As they would with a personal profile, users
can give the group a unique name and write an extended
description of the group’s purpose or goals. Additionally,
the group is given a Wall and a discussion board for in-
teraction between the members. Space is provided for
pictures and videos.
 Chapter 6: Profiles
Creating such a group allows students to see that profiles
are not static pieces of writing that merely tell who a per-
son is or what she does. Profiles can provide an introduc-
tion to a person or a group that the reader may want to
interact with or support. Students will need to compose
the group’s profile carefully in order to attract members.
This composing may involve choosing the best informa-
tion to highlight and presenting it in a manner appropri-
ate for online reading.
Although any social issue or cultural concern might
work, these groups tend to attract more members when
the issue is local. In groups, students may be encouraged
to perform research on campus issues or on controver-
sies within their cities. Focusing on these kinds of issues
has the potential to attract local members to the group
and to lead to a higher chance for interaction or advocacy
that goes beyond the screen.
Setting Up the Assignment
Students will need to sign up for Facebook accounts if
necessary. This can be done for free at facebook.com.
Create the Facebook group
▪▪ From the Home page click on Profile
▪▪ On the Profile page click on Info
▪▪ Scroll down to the Groups section
▪▪ Choose Create a New Group and follow instructions
Have students research local issues. They may con-
sult
▪▪ Local city newspapers
(both print and online)
▪▪ Campus papers
▪▪ Faculty members (personal interview)
▪▪ Local business people
Specify Requirements for the Assignment
▪▪ An interesting topic people will care about
▪▪ An interesting angle or approach to the issue
▪▪ Background information that explains the relevant
history and goals of the group
▪▪ An appropriate style and tone for the nature of the
issue (for example, the tone for a group considering
105
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
a weighty political issue may be quite different from
that for a group rallying for cheaper textbooks)
Additional Concerns
▪▪ Review the Using Photography section of the chap-
ter. An online environment allows for the easy incor-
poration of multimedia elements. Students may even
be required to take photographs. Links to Youtube
videos may provide additional information to help
flesh out the profile. Students should be encouraged
to actively recruit members for the group. During
evaluation, however, you should probably avoid bas-
ing grading decisions on the number of members
gained.
▪▪ Students may be encouraged to write about the feed-
back or participation they receive when they assess
the successfulness of their profile.
Profiles in Design
When we think of profiles, we tend to think of the words
that have been carefully crafted to describe the subject.
However, profiles are often accompanied by visuals. Ide-
ally, the images that come with profiles should also be
carefully chosen to add layers of meaning and insight.
Most often, profiles will feature a photograph of the sub-
ject. Have students examine such a profile (magazines
like People and Rolling Stone would work well) and have
them answer the following questions:
1. Why do you think this image was chosen above all
others?
2. What are the most striking elements of this image?
What do you notice first?
3. How do the striking elements of the image reinforce
any point or theme discussed in the text of the pro-
file?
4. How does the angle of the camera or other arrange-
ments inside the framing add to your knowledge
about the subject?
Beyond photographs, there are many visual and design
choices that come into play when presenting a profile, es-
pecially in an online environment. These design choices
should not be considered merely practical ways of con-
veying information. In fact, with careful thought and
consideration, even these design choices can add levels
of meaning to the profile.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Sites like MySpace allow a tremendous amount of cus-
tomization without a user’s having to know a lot of HTML
or Web coding skills. For this reason, users often find
and create very different ways to present their profile
information. Most students probably won’t even need to
be told that these design choices are always made to sug-
gest something about the persons themselves. At most,
you may need to provide guidance in the specific design
features to look at and the kinds of questions to probe.
You may have students consider:
▪▪ Font choice
▪▪ Color scheme
▪▪ Column length and layout
▪▪ Graphics, logos, and animations
1. What feelings do the fonts on the page convey? Do
they suggest a serious person or someone frivolous
and light-hearted? How can you tell?
2. Find a page about color symbolism on the Web and
use it to explain how the page’s color choices do (or
do not) reinforce the information the person gives
about himself in the text.
3. Is the person’s page fairly clean (little text, well orga-
nized) or is it chaotic (information jammed in, blink-
ing animations)? Find information in the profile text
that might suggest this layout says something about
the person’s personality.
How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes
Students will learn to critique their own and the
works of others by reading and responding to the pro-
files in the chapter as well as their own profile.
Students will practice composing in electronic envi-
ronments by accessing profiles on the Internet and pub-
lishing their own work to a class blog.
Students will integrate their own ideas with those
of others by interviewing subjects and weaving their
words into the students’ text.
106
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today
Chapter 16 on organizing and drafting is essential for
working with profiles. Students should have a variety of
strategies for starting their profiles. Because they will be
working with research and other people’s words, Chap-
ter 26 is useful. Certainly students will need a reminder
about style and voice and should consult Chapter 17.
Other Resources
People and Profiles.
http://www.peopleandprofiles.com/
A site that allows users to write and upload profiles of
celebrities or famous world figures.
LinkedIn.
http://www.linkedin.com/
A Facebook style social networking site with an empha-
sis on developing a professional identity online.
President Profiles.
http://www.presidentprofiles.com/
Short profiles of all the past U.S. presidents with space
for user comments.
The Place + Memory Project.
http://www.npr.org/blogs/sundaysoapbox/2009/05/
place_memory.html
This NPR-sponsored website draws on community mem-
ber’s memories and stories to recreate important places
that no longer exist. Visitors contribute their memories
through various media (text, photo, video, sound files) in
order for the site sponsors to compile a series of stories
for radio and an online map. It is described as “a digital
scrapbook that other people can add to.”
Catherine Price’s 101 Places Not to See Before You
Die.
http://www.101worstplaces.com/book/
Price’s book presents a humorous take on the travel
guide genre. She details why readers would never want
to go to events like the annual Missoula, Montana Tes-
ticle Festival or visit the Beijing Museum of Tap Water.
Asking students to analyze and reproduce these might
be a fun way to engage them in the profile genre.
 7
CHAPTER
Reviews
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
7.1 invent the content of a review.
7.2 organize a review and write a draft.
7.3 develop an appropriate style for a review.
7.4 create a design that fits the readers and context.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Although the review genre has existed in some form ever
since texts began to be widely disseminated for public
consumption, it could be argued that the need for the
review has never been so great. With more popular cul-
ture, and with so many forms of entertainment compet-
ing for our attention, nobody can possibly experience it
all. This is why the review is important. Reviews offer us
the knowledge and perspectives of others; armed with
their content, we can make decisions about what texts,
products, or events we should spend our time on.
Anybody can state whether or not he or she liked some-
thing. The review goes a step further by making an
explicit argument about the worth of movies, books,
software, music, performances, and many other items.
The review is essentially an informed opinion based on
common expectations that the average consumer tends
to have for the kind of item under review. The reviewer
elaborates on his or her experience by linking his or her
opinions to these expectations and passing a final judg-
ment.
Reviews offer writers the chance to demonstrate a num-
ber of skills, including conveying their understanding of
the subject. The writer also shows the ability to make
connections with an audience by expressing common
concerns and expectations. Finally, the reviewer uses
argumentative and persuasive skills.
As the chapter shows, the review also provides an ex-
cellent opportunity for research. First, the item under
review must be experienced. Looking up other reviews
107
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
of the item allows the author to place his or her opinion
within the spectrum of others. Finally, the reviewer can
survey others to see if there is general consensus about
an item’s merit.
Why Students Enjoy Writing Reviews
Reviews allow us to argue from a passionate place.
Sometimes the modern student has a difficult time get-
ting interested in the classic novels and famous essays
that often circulate in composition classes. The review
genre easily lends itself to applying serious critical
analysis to popular interests. And when we work with
the texts we are most passionate about, we may become
inspired to do some of our best work. Students may even
find themselves enjoying popular entertainment more
once they develop the skills to talk about their interests
in more organized and critical ways.
Despite the subject matter, reviews display features
of classical argumentation. There are many argumen-
tative tactics that prove useful when writing a review. In
fact, the proofs of classic Aristotelian rhetoric come in
quite handy. Every review displays some degree of logos
(reason) when the author offers explanations of how the
item fits the common expectations of an audience. Since
authors are often fans of the item being reviewed, a dis-
play of pathos (emotion) can prove quite infectious to a
reader. Finally, a review needs ethos (credibility): If the
reader trusts that the reviewer knows what he or she is
talking about, the review will more likely prove persua-
sive.
Reviews cover a variety of real world tasks. When
an employer systematically examines your job perfor-
mance, he or she is providing a review (and you should
probably take that review under consideration!). When
we want to purchase an expensive item, we often con-
sult the reviews of others to make sure we invest wisely.
Perhaps we come across an angry review by a customer
in a business environment. Reading about the complaint
may help us figure out how best to address any grievance
we might have in similar circumstances. Thinking of a
complaint as such may help you figure out how best to
address the grievance. In other words, we face reviews
all the time in our everyday lives.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Using the Readings
One Student’s Review
Christina Lieffring, “Review: BBJ
Lawnside Blues & BBQ”
This review provides a clear purpose statement and
angle and uses specific examples from the trip to the
restaurant to support it. Have students look at how the
writer provides both an overview of the restaurant in
whole and of specific dishes and how she, in the subse-
quent paragraphs, mentions both positive and negative
details.
Microgenre: The Rave
Haley Frederick, “The Hunger Games:
Catching Fire Review ”
This rave leaves no gray area in the author’s opinion,
as she provides numerous, specific, vivid examples to
praise this movie. Have students observe how she uses
descriptive adjectives and specific scenes and perfor-
mances throughout the review to “rave” about this film.
Christy Lemire, “The Lego Movie”
This review features a movie that most students have
probably seen. Lemire addresses the humor in the film,
and in particular how it satisfies both adults and chil-
dren. Written for a personal website, this review still ad-
heres to the major genre conventions.
A Closer Look
1. Because this review is so straightforward, it is use-
ful to look at its features. Offering just enough plot
summary without giving away the movie’s resolu-
tion is a tricky challenge for students. Refer them to
Chapter 26 for help with summaries.
2. Reviewers tend to focus on the genre expectations of
the movie they are reviewing. Discuss with students
how the word genre differs with reference to mov-
ies and writing assignments. Chapter 1 discusses
genre in terms of writing, and most students will be
familiar with movie genres (rom-com, sci-fi, horror,
action, etc.).
3. The reviewer doesn’t give away the end of the film in
terms of what happens, but she does give away some
of the emotional impact of the end of the film. This
positive review might convince adults who were
reticent about the film to see it. Students should un-
108
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
derstand their audience’s needs and expectations
(Chapter 3).
Ideas for Writing
1. Because The Lego Movie was such a success, finding
critical perspectives on the movie may seem tough
to students. Remind them that, with the rise of the
Internet, every conceivable critical opinion is likely
available somewhere. In writing their papers, Chap-
ter 11 on position papers may be a useful resource.
2. Students should probably first evaluate their own
opinions to see whether they agree or disagree with
the messages in the film. Then they can consult Chap-
ter 22 on argument to think about arguable claims.
Finally, they should look at Chapter 10’s discussion
of commentaries.
Margaret Lyons,
Sherlock Returns, Brilliant as Ever
In her review, Lyon offers a mixed perspective on the
quality of Sherlock. She takes a meta approach, discuss-
ing not only the show, but its complicated relationship to
its fans.
A Closer Look
1. This activity is a great fit with Writing Today’s ap-
proach to genre and hybridity. Just as students
should be encouraged to see the genres they will
write in this semester as flexible, they should see
traditional fiction genres like mystery stories and
science fiction as overlapping and fuzzy. Encourage
students to ask themselves how they know a mys-
tery story when they read or see one.
2. This exercise can be a fruitful way to expand stu-
dent’s understanding of what constitutes a genre. Af-
ter all, just like with a mystery story, a “buddy” story
has certain conventions and commonplaces that stu-
dents will be familiar with. In what ways does the
buddy story function similarly to other genres ex-
plored this semester? In what ways is it different?
3. Discussions of style can be very useful for young
writers, but it’s easy for such discussion to become
vague and indistinct. Make sure to counsel students
to use specific, concrete language when referring to
particular stylistic elements in Lyons’ piece. Have
students refer to specific passages to back up their
claims.
 Chapter 7: Reviews
Ideas for Writing
1. This activity again reinforces the central ideas of
Writing Today and its approach to style. Make sure
students articulate how the genre-bending of the
shows they choose contributes to what they enjoy
about them.
2. Writing a rebuttal to a review can be tricky, given
that so much of reviewing is dependent on subjective
responses to artistic work. Discuss with students
what kind of claims can be made to effectively re-
spond to a negative review. How can such a response
avoid being simply a matter of conflicting personal
taste? What kind of claims and evidence are appro-
priate for this kind of exercise?
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Having students talk in groups about a structured
topic is a great way to build classroom communities.
This activity allows them to pinpoint genre conven-
tions without realizing that’s what they’re doing.
Then ask them if the movie their group settled on is
from a genre that they generally enjoy.
2. This activity is a good way to establish expectations
for a review that you want your students to submit.
Thinking about other people’s writing gives your
students a new perspective on the writing task. The
review of Juno in this chapter provides a good start-
ing point for the too much or too little information
question.
3. Students should recognize that this review lacks
specifics about why certain dishes were preferred.
They should be able to include criteria in their re-
views that help the reader understand if the item be-
ing reviewed will appeal to the reader’s tastes. Stu-
dents should think about the needs of their audience
(Chapter 3).
Try This Out
1. Reviewing an advertisement is a good spin on the
usual rhetorical analysis of an advertisement. Stu-
dents should feel strongly about the ad they choose
to review and recognize whether or not it works on
them. Refer them to Chapter 9’s discussion of rhetor-
ical analyses for contrasting information and ideas.
2. Help students see how this assignment is an offshoot
of the “believing/doubting game” as they write a
109
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
positive and negative review. Balancing their cover-
age means choosing those aspects from both sides
that matters on a deeper level.
3. Analysis of an artifact in the genre students are
working with helps clarify the features expected in
the genre. This activity gives students a chance to
pick what interests them, yet it asks them to stand
back from the content.
Explore This
Students may not realize that familiar activities such as
completing a customer service survey share genre fea-
tures with reviews. Point out that all of these genres de-
scribe and analyze a product, service, or performance,
explaining strengths and weaknesses in order to make
some sort of recommendation or seek some sort of rem-
edy. A review goes beyond merely complaining about
something.
Write This
1. To do this assignment, students should familiarize
themselves with the campus newspaper. Since the
writers of the reviews in the newspaper are their
peers, they should be up to the challenge of writ-
ing at least as well. Refer students to Chapter 3 for a
discussion of audience and Chapter 16 on style and
voice. These chapters will help them write a read-
able review.
2. This assignment helps students clarify points of dis-
agreement and respond to those points in their writ-
ing. Chapter 22’s discussion of argument will aid
students in identifying where they can disagree, and
Chapter 20 will help with organizing their ideas.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Review the Reviewer
For some people, writing reviews is a full time job. When
a reviewer develops a good reputation, some people are
likely to believe his or her opinion without question. Now
with the Internet it is easy to find a collection of a re-
viewer’s past work and develop a sense of who they are
as a professional critic.
Having students write a review of a reviewer has many
benefits. First, reading reviews provides more models to
help the student grow more confident in his or her own
compositions. Second, the same analytical skills turned
on an item under review can be used when reviewing
other reviews. Finally, if the students have written re-
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
views themselves (and been graded on the task), they
are more likely to see a review as something capable of
evaluation itself and subsequently work harder.
Pick a Reviewer
First, the student should be assigned a professional
reviewer with enough samples of work to draw an in-
formed opinion from. Students may be allowed to choose
a reviewer of their own. Possibilities include:
▪▪ Roger Ebert, film critic for the Chicago Sun-Times
http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/
▪▪ Michiko Kakutani, book reviewer for the New York
Times http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/
timestopics/people/k/michiko_kakutani/index.
html
▪▪ David Fricke, music critic for Rolling Stone
ht t p://w w w. r ol l i n g s t one . c om/c ont r ibu t or/
david-fricke
Questions to Cover in the Review
▪▪ What are the reviewer's professional qualifications
for this job? How do these qualifications show up in
the reviews and do they affect the persuasiveness of
the reviewer?
▪▪ What common expectations for this type of item can
you surmise from looking over the reviewer's work?
Does the reviewer make these expectations explicit
or implicit?
▪▪ Are there reoccurring patterns of organization in
the way this reviewer presents information? Are
both strengths and weaknesses of the item offered?
In what order? Why do you think this?
▪▪ What kind of language choices does this reviewer
make? Who do you think is their target audience?
▪▪ What is this reviewer like in everyday life? How can
you tell? How does your impression of a reviewer af-
fect how persuasive you find a review?
The Comparison Review
Once a student gets the hang of reviewing one item, the
genre easily lends itself to comparing multiple items that
are similar. Choosing two or more items that have an im-
plied similarity is key; if the items are too dissimilar, the
reader may not see a need for the comparison. This type
of review should explain the strengths and weaknesses
110
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
of all items under consideration, but it should also seek
to compare these aspects across the group as a whole.
The goal is usually to help the reader make a choice be-
tween competing items.
Suggestions for comparison include:
▪▪ Two similar soft drink brands
▪▪ Two albums by artists in similar musical genres
▪▪ The performance of two rival athletes
▪▪ The merits of two different routes to a popular place
on campus
▪▪ The experience of going to a popular place on two
different nights
▪▪ Two strategies for passing a difficult section of a
popular video game
▪▪ The economic value of eating at two competing fast-
food establishments
▪▪ The results of searches for the same term on two
search engines
How This Chapter Meets WPA Outcomes
Students will develop knowledge of genre conven-
tions ranging from structure and paragraphing to
tone and mechanics by examining a variety of reviews
and writing their own reviews, paying special attention
to voice and organization.
Students will demonstrate their ability to focus on a
purpose by selecting the media they’d like to review and
providing a balanced review for a specific audience.
Students will use writing and reading for inquiry,
learning, thinking, and communicating through their
discussions and descriptions of the artifact they review.
Other Useful Chapters From Writing Today
Because reviews reach a broad audience, it’s important
for students to carefully consider the angle they take in
their reviews (Chapter 2). Writers of reviews need to be
credible, a feat students can achieve through argument
strategies (Chapter 22) and selecting an appropriate
voice and tone (Chapter 16).
 Chapter 7: Reviews

Other Resources
Rotten Tomatoes.
http://www.rottentomatoes.com/

This site gathers reviews of current and old movies

from both professional and amateur sources.

Consumer Reports.
http://www.consumerreports.org

Online site for the popular long-running magazine, it fea-

tures reviews of a wide range of consumer products.

Epinions.
http://www.epinions.com/

This site allows everyday people to write and post re-

views of products and services.

111
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
8
CHAPTER
Literary Analyses
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
8.1 invent the content of a literary analysis with critical
reading strategies.
8.2 organize a literary analysis to highlight an
interpretation of the text.
8.3 use an appropriate voice and quotations to add
authority to an analysis.
8.4 create an appropriate design by following
formatting requirements and adding visuals.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter on literary analyses provides a clear expla-
nation for students to use when writing in a genre that
is traditional and may be required in other classroom
settings. It’s an especially useful genre along with rhe-
torical analyses because it helps students read and inter-
pret creative response to the world. Writing about other
people’s creative production allows students to examine
ways of approaching ideas without the constraints of the
real world. Yet literary analyses seek to bring something
into the real world from the texts. Working with liter-
ary analyses gives students license to creatively explore
their interpretive abilities.
As in most of the chapters, a basic structure is present,
but students have freedom to decide how they invent
their analyses. The structure seems traditional, yet it
gives students a logic to follow and encourages students
to use quotations and examples from the work to sup-
port their analyses.
The chapter provides entry points for you and your
students to generate ideas for writing about literature.
Entry through plot, theme, and genre can be especially
helpful for students who aren’t sure where to start. The
ability to assign meaning on multiple levels allows stu-
112
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
dents to have control over their projects. Some students
may choose to include personal reactions or to relate
material to other texts they’ve studied.
Writing literary analyses is especially useful in classes
or universities where students may be required to enroll
in more than one humanities class after their initial com-
position experiences. The additional practice students
gain in writing interpretative, creative analysis will bet-
ter prepare them to apply a framework to other pieces of
literature.
Why Students Enjoy Writing Literary Analyses
Literary analyses are familiar territory. Students
who participated in AP programs at their high schools
may have had positive experiences with literary analy-
ses as they learned how to write them for the AP test.
Even students who did not have access to (or the desire
to take) AP classes probably wrote literary analyses,
since writing in high school is so often (only) taught in
conjunction with English classes. Students who feel com-
fortable with a genre may be more likely to experiment
with ideas within that genre.
Literary analyses have no one right interpretation or
answer. Most genres ask students to make some kind of
argument that they must support; literary analyses also
require students to support their conclusions, but stu-
dents have more freedom in determining those conclu-
sions.
Literary analyses encourage students to play with
ideas and theory. The research associated with liter-
ary analyses often involves theoretical implications in
terms of a style of analysis. Students can apply theories
they learned in other classes to texts and use them to en-
hance their interpretations. Teachers may also enjoy this
aspect because they can introduce theory to students as
a way of helping them frame their analyses.
Using the Readings
One Student’s Work
Chalina Pena,
“Making ‘The Story of an Hour’ Make Sense”
Pena’s interpretation of Chopin’s story is clear and well
argued. She uses quotations appropriately and address-
es alternative interpretations. Students should be able to
identify his interpretation and the points that support it.
 Chapter 8: Literary Analyses
Microgenre: The Reading Response
“A Student’s Reading Response
for ‘We Wear the Mask’”
This reading response contrasted with the more formal
literary analysis should help students by clarifying the
difference between the two assignments. Here the stu-
dent analyzes the poem’s historical and political context
in order to understand its controlling metaphor. The
response allows students a low-stakes space to grapple
with the poem’s meaning prior to writing a more coher-
ent and polished analysis.
Kate Chopin, “The Story of an Hour”
A Closer Look
1. This is a good opportunity for students to examine
how the narrative functions on multiple levels; it will
give them ideas for future writing about the text.
You may want to review with students the process of
reading critically, in Chapter 4.
2. This activity helps students to understand how
important sequencing is to creating an emotional
response in readers. Insights into sequence can be
drawn from Chapter 16.
3. This activity reinforces the fact that change and
character development are keys to narrative. Re-
mind students that specificity is the key to writing
about narrative well.
Ideas for Writing
1. Often, inexperienced readers of literature struggle
to define a particular message or theme in a story.
Explore some possibilities in a class discussion be-
fore sending them to write their own, individual
take. Writing the reader response as homework will
be productive for them.
2. By tying literary analysis to memoir (see Chapter 5),
this activity encourages students to think of litera-
ture from both the standpoint of writer and reader.
Make an effort to demonstrate how producing a
memoir prompts writers to ask similar questions as
readers do when analyzing literature.
113
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Daniel P. Deneau, “An Enigma in Cho-
pin’s ‘The Story of an Hour’”
A Closer Look
1. This activity helps students write about literature
through writing about another writer’s analysis.
Compare the interpretive questions the class has
about “The Story of an Hour” with Deneau’s.
2. This assignment might be intimidating, as it asks
students to critique the analysis of a professional
writer. Remind students that their own interpreta-
tions are just as legitimate, provided they use evi-
dence to build them. Encourage them to think of this
activity like a review of Deneau’s piece (see Chapter
7).
3. Connect this discussion to the topic of ethos by refer-
encing Chapter 3.
Ideas for Writing
1. This assignment will challenge students as they at-
tempt to respond effectively to Deneau’s analysis.
Chapter 11 on arguments should arm them with
techniques and language suitable for the purpose.
2. This kind of summary can be a challenge, given how
much information students have to fit into a short
text. They’ll need to pay attention to style (Chapter
17) and to effective organization techniques (16).
End of Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Students are likely to have seen more movies in the
past month than they read books. This assignment
gives them the opportunity to think about narra-
tive and the use of character, plot, theme, and setting
with a medium they are familiar with.
2. Students sometimes have difficulty with poetry. Ex-
plain that there are literal, figurative, and abstract
meanings. Where can they access all three levels of
the poem? Have them visualize the poems as they
read them to each other in their groups. Offer as
many ways into the poem as you can think of.
3. This is a good opportunity for students to explore
how the genre works. By identifying the features,
they see how different critics read and write differ-
ently. Students can take from this that there really
is no predetermined answer you’re looking for when
you ask them to write literary analyses.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Try This Out
1. Students should practice stating their questions,
claims, and supporting ideas concisely. A short as-
signment like this can be shared with classmates
and expanded as each student adds a new idea to
the mix.
2. Because students have trouble balancing their use
of summary and paraphrase effectively, practice
helps them overcome the tendency to be too spe-
cific. A scene from the story should condense to one
to three sentences.
3. Realizing differences in concepts of genre is impor-
tant for student writers. The definitions they create
to reconcile these differences will be the basis for a
good class discussion.
Explore This
In addition to generating a list of microgenre conven-
tions, if you have taught the movie or book review, you
might ask students to compare the associated cousin
genres (literary and book reviews and movie and TV
show analysis) and think about who writes which and
for what purpose. This might help students realize how
communities adapt genres for different needs and ex-
pectations.
Write This
1. Students should understand what comprises a liter-
ary analysis after working through the ideas in this
chapter. Point them toward Chapter 21’s descrip-
tion of narrative for ideas about using the author’s
description. Chapter 14 will help with prewriting
and developing an interpretative question.
2. This assignment takes literary analyses out of the
scholarly vacuum. Students may be frustrated that
their teachers are the only people likely to read
their work. See Chapter 29 for ideas about publish-
ing on the Web.
3. Reviews do employ analysis, but they rarely con-
nect theory or information about the author to the
deeper themes of the piece of literature. Students
will want to consult Chapter 7 as they write. En-
courage them to use library databases to get more
information about their selection.
114
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Imitation Piece
This assignment ensures that students understand the
structure of a poem or short story.
Choose a poem or a short story that you’ve read in class.
It works best if the writer has a distinctive style. Think
about the themes the writer engages. Examine the lan-
guage and sentence and paragraph (or stanza) structure.
When you are sure you understand the writer’s conven-
tions, think about how you might construct a similar
poem or short story. Write an imitation piece in the style
and tone of the author you’ve chosen. Then write a para-
graph giving the rationale for your imitation.
Alternatively, you may write a parody of the text you’ve
selected.
Author Conversation
This assignment allows students to imagine what au-
thors might say to each other, which provides an ex-
tension of the requirement that students place texts in
larger conversations.
Choose two literary texts and read them carefully, not-
ing the themes, language use, and author’s voice. Brain-
storm about the message the piece is sending. Is it di-
dactic? Is it ambiguous? Carefully, maintaining the voice
of each author (or character, if you choose), construct a
conversation about the texts. What do they have to say
to each other? Where do the authors or characters agree
about the state of the human condition? Where do they
disagree? Why do they come to these conclusions? This
can be written as a story with dialogue, as a play, or as
a poem.
Designing Literary Analyses
Most traditional forms of literary analyses follow MLA
guidelines (Chapter 27). However, if you ask your stu-
dents to write in different genres as they perform liter-
ary analysis, you may help them to be more creative in
their document design.
How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes
Students will practice adopting appropriate voice, tone,
and level of formality through observing the difference
between reading responses and literary analyses.
Students should understand a writing assignment as
a series of tasks, including finding, evaluating, ana-
lyzing, and synthesizing appropriate primary and
 Chapter 8: Literary Analyses

secondary sources by using this process to construct

their interpretative questions and write their analyses.

Students will practice appropriate means of docu-

menting their work by observing MLA guidelines.

Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today

Because literary analyses are a formal genre, it’s impor-
tant that students practice summarizing and quoting.
Chapters 26 and 27 will help with these skills. Chapter
21 describes narrative and narrative features that stu-
dents will want to be familiar with as they analyze po-
ems and short stories.

Other Resources
Time’s 10 Best Graphic Novels.

http://www.rollingstone.com/culture/lists/
drawn-out-the-50-best-non-superhero-graphic-
novels-20140505

Rolling Stone offers a list of the best 50 non-superhero

graphic novels of all time.

Literary Parody.

http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/scott.rice/blfc2008.htm

This site gives the results of a literary parody contest.

Students who are familiar with literary genres and con-
ventions will get the most out of this page.

Introduction to Modern Literary Theory.

http://www.kristisiegel.com/theory.htm

Dr. Siegel’s site provides short definitions of literary the-

ory that may be helpful as a starting point for students
interested in using theory in their analyses.

Poetry.

www.poets.org

This site contains thousands of poems, and resources

such as poet biographies, essays, interviews, and poetry
recordings.

115
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
CHAPTER 9 Why Students Enjoy Writing Rhetorical Analyses
Rhetorical Analyses
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
9.1 invent the content of a rhetorical analysis.
9.2 organize and draft a rhetorical analysis.
9.3 create a specific style that is descriptive and easy to
read.
9.4 develop a design with the use of visuals.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
One obstacle you may face with introducing the rhetorical
analysis genre is the name itself. Students have often
never heard the word “rhetorical” or “rhetoric.” If they
have encountered the word, they may rely on its current
political usage—something used to hide the truth or
avoid an issue. A successful approach to this chapter
will surely begin with a discussion about what this term
means.
The chapter offers a definition that should quickly sat-
isfy students’ questions about what they are expected
to do. A rhetorical analysis seeks to determine whether
a text is effective or persuasive. The genre specializes in
close readings of texts that look to understand how au-
thors and speakers accomplish their persuasive goals (or
fail to accomplish them in some cases). Another way of
viewing the rhetorical analysis is this: it’s a process of
moving from what a text is saying to how the text says
it. The analysis, then, reverse-engineers the final text to
figure out how it was built.
Rhetoric has a rich history. Though it may not be nec-
essary for students to read Socrates, Plato, or Aristotle,
these men’s thoughts permeates rhetorical analysis to
this day. Based on this history, the genre comes with
many ready-made tools at the author’s disposal. This
book focuses on Aristotle’s proofs of logos (reason), pa-
thos (emotion), and ethos (credibility). You may want to
review Chapter 3’s discussion of these concepts before
having students focus on them for this chapter’s assign-
ments.
116
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Rhetorical analyses reveal new aspects of real world
texts. Like many of the genres in this book, rhetorical
analyses blend perfectly into texts that are already part
of most students’ lives. Where a review allows the author
to express his or her like or dislike for a pop culture text,
the rhetorical analysis asks for a deeper look at how a
text may affect readers. Students often develop a sense
of empowerment as they begin to look at culture in new
ways. Analysis of advertisements especially helps stu-
dents ponder questions about capitalism and marketing
that they might otherwise ignore.
We are built to persuade. Much of social life is built
around persuading others. Giving reasons for why they
should have a higher allowance is a landmark rhetorical
moment for most teenagers. A job interview is a highly
structured encounter where you make an argument for
getting hired. The developing plot of a serialized televi-
sion show is trying to persuade you to keep watching.
A serious look at pathos and ethos is helpful in remind-
ing students that rational and reasonable examples are
not always the most effective methods of persuasion in
today’s world. While some people may decry this loss of
reasonable discourse in a society, our younger students
are often way ahead of the game in recognizing the pow-
er of emotional and affective influence.
These tools of analysis can lead to better writing. As
we’ve said, rhetorical analysis is a form of reverse engi-
neering. The analyzer starts with a finished text and takes
it apart. But often we are in writing situations where we
have to make arguments ourselves (for example, many
of the assignments in this book!). In these situations, ex-
perience with talking about rhetorically successful texts
can prove very helpful. A consideration of how to use
logos, pathos, and ethos in their own writings is the next
logical step for successful compositions.
Using the Readings
One Student’s Work
Clare Mengebier,
“Rhetorical Analysis of Match.com”
This discussion of the campaign is interesting in that it
analyzes an artifact that most students won’t think of
as having an argumentative nature. You may encourage
your students to think along similar lines with another
website or application that they may not think of as hav-
 Chapter 9: Rhetorical Analyses
ing a rhetorical identity. Aside from content, this analy-
sis places the website in a socioeconomic context, help-
ing students understand its purpose and appeals.
Microgenre: The Ad Critique
Paloma Aleman, “The Axe Effect”
This ad critique does a nice job illustrating that writers
rhetorically analyze a text for a purpose and not to sim-
ply summarize its features. Aleman’s ad critique high-
lights strategies deployed in the commercial to show
how Axe attempts to build ethos with a particular demo-
graphic. Ask students whether Aleman’s take on who this
advertisement is pitched to is accurate. Aleman includes
an implied political criticism at the end of her analysis.
Discuss the relationship between political critiques and
rhetorical analysis with students. What makes rhetori-
cal analysis a useful method for critiquing the implicit
politics of a text?
Edward Hoagland, “The Courage of Turtles”
Hoagland’s consideration of turtles is an interesting
combination of scientific writing, literature, and mem-
oir. Use this reading to help students recognize that the
skills they are developing in class can be applied to hy-
brid genres as well as more conventional types of writ-
ing. Highlight the ways in which rhetorical ideas and vo-
cabulary can effectively be used to separate the various
strands of Hoagland’s text.
A Closer Look
1. This consideration of visual style connects well with
consideration of design (Chapter 18). The discussion
of ethos helps students to see rhetorical ideas (Chap-
ter 3) put into practice in a useful and effective way.
2. The notion of tropes might be alien to your students,
so be sure to warm up with them by discussing some
examples. If they struggle with the concept, refer
them to Chapters 17 (Style) and 18 (Basic Rhetorical
Patterns).
3. As is often the case with this sort of assignment, the
key to an effective analysis is specificity. Make sure
students use concrete terminology to explain their
position. Also, consider discussing this essay from
the standpoint of environmentalism. How does the
ending of Hoagland’s essay connect with the modern
green movement?
117
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ideas for Writing
1. By making appeals to the five senses, students will
ground their work in specific, vivid imagery. Con-
nect the discussion of Hoagland’s ethos as a writer to
this attempt to put readers into the place the writer
describes through their sense imagination.
2. Simplicity and power are useful rhetorical terms
that can serve as a springboard for students who
are confused or discouraged by this assignment. As
always, counsel students that while this task may
seem challenging at first, they can effectively utilize
the rhetorical analysis genre by working carefully
through the ideas and terms used in Writing Today.
Adam Regn Arvidson, “Nature Writing in
America: Criticism Through Imagery”
This essay provides students with an effective model of
rhetorical analysis. In particular, Arvidson effectively
uses his training and knowledge as a landscape archi-
tect, without using ideas or vocabulary that would ap-
pear inaccessible or alienating to the reader. To help stu-
dents understand the nature of a rhetorical analysis, ask
them to keep track of specific arguments that Arvidson
makes, being sure to note specific, textual evidence for
those arguments.
A Closer Look
1. This activity helps to reinforce to students that rhe-
torical analyses don’t merely consider arguments
but are themselves arguments. By focusing on Ar-
vidson’s thesis statements, this task will connect his
essay to a style of argumentative writing many of
them are already familiar with.
2. This task connects meaningfully with literary analy-
sis (Chapter 8). As with a literary analysis, this activ-
ity prompts students to look for deeper, less obvious
meanings hidden beneath the surface of the text.
Have students find and evaluate Arvidson’s specific,
textual evidence in support of his claims.
3. Style and rhetoric are bound tightly together. In par-
ticular, a strong style can contribute to a writer’s
ethos, lending him or her credibility with readers
(Chapter 17). Consider the reflexive nature of this
activity, which asks students to analyze an analysis.
Ask students to consider whether there is anything
fundamentally different in their task and Arvidson’s.
What are some of the consequences of analyzing an
analysis?
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Ideas for Writing and Discussion
1. The key to success in this activity lies in the argu-
ment students choose to analyze. If students don’t
choose carefully, they may end up looking for ap-
peals to pathos that don’t exist. Discuss appeals to
emotion with your students. Ask them what kinds of
texts are most and least likely to include these types
of appeals.
2. The question of what makes a text memorable (or
not) is at the heart of this activity. Start by having
students name what aspects of Hoagland’s story
makes it memorable. Is it the subject matter? The
style? The fusion of different kinds of writing? Then
have them consider whether Arvidson’s essay is it-
self memorable. Help students take these ideas and
apply them to their search for their own memorable
book or movie.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. To start this activity, students can freewrite for a
few minutes about the last time someone convinced
them to do something (go to a movie, wash the dishes,
etc.). Or they could write about an ad that made them
buy the product and why they think the ad worked
on them. The conversation may be a good place for
students to think of an introduction for their analy-
ses.
2. Students will probably recognize that they seek and
take advice more readily from people they know and
trust. The use of emotion and credibility in advertis-
ing campaigns helps make the ad more personal.
3. This is the basis for a mini-report. Students may dis-
like ads that other people like, but they may recog-
nize that the differences reflect the needs of differ-
ent audiences (Chapter 3). Discuss how or why some
people in the class may have different consumer
needs.
Try This Out
1. This is a quick way for students to use the micro-
genre in this chapter. A print ad is good because the
student can analyze elements of design, as well as
the text rhetorical content (Chapter 17).
2. This activity asks for a meta-analysis of the student
population. After discussing how people persuade
him or her, the student is more prepared to discuss
118
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
how those strategies might be put to political use.
Students could also explore this activity with mem-
bers in their student government.
3. Slate.com frequently analyzes ads by placing a video
of the ad alongside the commentary. Suggest to stu-
dents that they may have success finding ad critiques
by looking for dates around the Super Bowl, which is
a famous ad event. Political speeches are often ana-
lyzed on blogs.
Explore This
▪▪ It might also be interesting to have students find
political speech critiques on the same speech from
two different political analysts with opposite politi-
cal leanings. Which rhetorical strategies does each
highlight to assess its overall effectiveness? Stu-
dents might consider how a rhetorical analysis itself
is rhetorical.
Write This
1. Students should be encouraged to look widely for
the text they’d like to analyze. Some ideas from this
chapter include political speeches, magazines, public
service announcements. Students might think about
how a documentary presents a rhetorical argument
even when it claims to be objective. The discussion
of effectiveness will help students see the inherent
argument in a text (Chapter 22).
2. Visual texts are ripe for rhetorical analyses. As peo-
ple create personas that reflect how they want oth-
ers to see them, they present a façade for others to
analyze. How do places or things have a rhetorical
presence? Students should have plenty of time to se-
lect an interesting artifact and spend time prewrit-
ing to glean as much from their subject as possible.
3. Working through an advertising campaign may in-
volve viewing more than one ad for the same prod-
uct. Students should consider whether the audience
is the same for both ads. If so, why create two dif-
ferent ads? If not, how do the different ads appeal to
different audiences? Chapter 3 will refresh the dis-
cussion of audience.
Additional Assignment Ideas
DVD Special Features
Anyone who has bought a movie on DVD lately knows
that you often have many options beyond watching the
movie itself. Most DVD releases offer extra features: di-
 Chapter 9: Rhetorical Analyses

rector’s commentaries, deleted scenes, and even interac- ▪▪ How does the tempo and rhythm of the music rein-
tive games. These extras are ripe for rhetorical analysis. force the emotions produced by the lyrics?

Director and actor commentaries are audio tracks that ▪▪ If these emotions are typical of many songs by this
can be played over the movie itself. Often a director will artist or band, what other aspects of the presenta-
be discussing the choices that were made in reference to tion reinforce the emotions (physical appearance of
the scene that is playing. One option is to have students the band, design of the CD cover, music video imag-
listen to such a commentary and write a short paper on ery, etc.).
how the director is essentially providing rhetorical com-
mentary. Encourage them to make connections to clas- I’m an X and I’m a Y
sical terms. For example, how is a director’s discussion
on camera angle choice a component of logos? They may Most students will be familiar with the Mac computer
also write about the effect the director’s ethos has on commercials featuring two actors personified as a Mac
their enjoyment of the movie. and a PC. The PC character is portrayed as a stuffy
and clueless middle-aged businessman who constantly
Another option asks students to write their own direc-
stumbles over his inefficiency and lack of imagination.
tor’s commentary of a movie scene (where one has not
On the other hand, the Mac is portrayed as a young, hip,
been provided). With the help of audio recording and
edgy guy who is constantly laid back while pursuing all
video editing software, they may even record their anal-
kinds of fun projects. If you need to show the commer-
yses and integrate them into the film.
cials in class, most of them are available on YouTube.
Deleted scenes useful. Hours of footage is shot that of-
Use these commercials to spark a conversation with your
ten ends up on the cutting room floor. These cuts re-
students about ethos. Although we are accustomed to
sult from rhetorical decisions on the director’s part.
thinking of ethos as belonging primarily to people, these
He or she has decided that these scenes are not as ef-
commercials suggest a way in which we can think of in-
fective to the plot or characterization as the scenes
animate objects as possessing an ethos. The portrayal
that remain. Have students watch an entire film and its
of the characters in the commercial suggests something
deleted scenes, then have them do a short write-up on
about how the machines operate (and makes an argu-
why these particular scenes were cut. They may also ar-
ment about which type of machine you should purchase).
gue for whether or not the cuts were a good idea.
Once students understand this concept, you may ask
Pathos Through Music them to make a similar comparison of like objects. A
Popular music rarely attempts to persuade through logic good way to frame this might be: if X were a person, what
or reason. The limitations of the form usually don’t allow kind of person would he or she be?
for the extended consideration and depth needed for ra-
tional debate. But this does not suggest that music lyrics A good example for class discussion might be Google ver-
are not persuasive. More often, the lyrics of a song (and sus Yahoo.
their interplay with the music) are shooting for a greater
Google
emotional response.
▪▪ would be a very plainly dressed person with per-
For this assignment, have students select a number
haps one piece of colorful accent (like a bright scarf)
of their favorite songs (you may assign songs that you
think would be particularly useful). Ask them to write ▪▪ referencing Google’s simple interface
about how the song tries to build a specific emotion in
▪▪ would be a know-it-all who only talks when asked
the listener. Specific questions may include:
▪▪ referencing Google’s reputation for the largest data-
▪▪ What words are chosen to help build this emotion?
base but simplistic front page
Why those words over others that may mean the
same thing? ▪▪ would be a very regular looking person, someone
who wouldn’t stand out in a crowd and would look at
▪▪ How do images in the lyrics help build the emotion
home in any environment
or suggest a specific mood?

119
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

▪▪ referencing Google’s nearly ubiquitous status and The Forest of Rhetoric.

branching out into a wide variety of services
Yahoo
▪▪ would be dressed very loudly, with lots of flashy col-
ors and items that don’t necessarily match
http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/Silva.htm
Provided by Dr. Gideon Burton of Brigham Young Univer-
sity, this resource elaborates on a number of terms and
concepts from classical rhetoric.

▪▪ referencing the busy and overcrowded feel of Ya- Adbusters.

hoo’s front page
▪▪ would act like a slick used car salesman
▪▪ referencing the volume of ads on Yahoo’s front page
▪▪ would be a loud and gossipy pop culture junkie
▪▪ referencing the entertainment news that is often
featured on the front page
http://www.adbusters.org/
Web site of the popular magazine that touts itself as the
“journal of the mental environment.” Features a number
of ad parodies that provide commentary about popular
culture. Articles that critique other elements of cultural
consumerism may prove useful for conversation or rhe-
torical analysis inspiration.

How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes

Students will use a variety of technologies to address
a range of audiences as they think about how a rhe-
torical artifact reaches different audiences. They may in-
clude the advertisement or speech in their work through
links to different Web pages.

Students will demonstrate grasp of rhetorical knowl-

edge by using the terms logos, ethos, and pathos correct-
ly in their analyses.

Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today

Chapter 22 usefully discusses rhetorical strategies and
logical fallacies, which students will want to understand
as they analyze specific artifacts for these effects. Be-
cause rhetorical context depends largely on the audience
targeted, students will need to know how writers think
about audience (Chapter 3). Students should be prepared
to go through multiple drafts as they get feedback from
you and their peers (Chapters 15 and 18).

Other Resources
American Rhetoric.
http://www.americanrhetoric.com/

An online storehouse of famous speeches throughout

American history. Features full text, audio, and video.

120
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 10 Why Students Enjoy Writing Commentaries
Commentaries encourage us to take sides. They
say every argument has two sides; in truth, there are
usually far more sides than that! Commentaries allow us
to find where our own opinions fit in a spectrum. It is
Commentaries almost impossible not to take a side or position when we
hear about something controversial. The commentary
offers a chance to take that initial opinion, become
more informed, and express a final point of view in an
In this chapter, students will learn how to: intelligent and analytical way. As a result of living in a
social world, one could say there is nothing more natural!
10.1 invent the content of a commentary by listening
carefully. New media offer many variations on the genre.
Because making commentary comes so naturally, it is
10.2 organize a commentary to help the readers find
not surprising that developments in digital media have
important information.
generated a wealth of commentary possibilities. Blogs
10.3 use emotion and character to add style and energy offer a serialized form of commentaries that sometimes
to an argument. show the development of an author’s thoughts on a
subject over time. Podcasts add the rhetorical effect of
10.4 design a commentary to enhance its message. the author’s voice and delivery to an argument.

Much academic writing is a contribution to an

Looking at the Chapter in Brief
ongoing discussion. A commentary takes a place in the
In a world of around-the-clock news where complex
line of conversations that have come before. A huge part
issues take shape on a global stage, the genre of
of this genre’s appeal is the complex tapestry of ideas
commentary is more than just popular; it could play a
created when multiple texts on an issue are consumed
crucial role in helping us make sense of the potential
together. Likewise, much academic writing follows this
chaos. Commentaries not only demand that we become
expectation. When we ask students to do research and
more informed about current issues (both when reading
cite their sources, we are asking them to locate their
and writing about them), they also offer us quick and
arguments in a history of ideas. Understanding this
satisfying explanations or alternatives for problems that
process helps students realize that nobody writes in a
we encounter.
vacuum.
A commentary is a contribution to an in-progress public
discussion. The author’s goal is to add something new Using the Readings
or interesting to the discussion; sometimes this process One Student’s Work
inspires somebody else to synthesize the view and keep
David Meany, “Why My
the discourse moving with further commentary. Most
Generation Doesn’t Care About Per-
often, the commentary writer will employ analytical
formance Enhancement”
reason and attempt to persuade the reader of his or her
point of view. This is a well-written commentary with many features
your students will want to emulate and the piece
The commentary offers several writing challenges. The
approaches its topic in a way that may help spark useful
issues it tackles are often very complex, yet the nuances
discussions in the classroom. Ask students what other
need to be summarized quickly. Good commentaries are
issues they feel their generation might have different
often written with a persona and a style that are highly
takes on than more traditional perspectives. Perhaps
dependent on the intended audience. Finally, we may
guide the conversation with provocative suggestions,
sometimes struggle to make an original contribution
about illegal downloads, body modification, or genetic
to a public discussion. The chapter offers strategies to
cloning. Take students’ answers and show them how
address all these challenges. The “Believing and Doubting
they could be turned into an outline for a commentary.
Game” may prove especially useful for brainstorming
and finding an idea worth writing about.
121
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Microgenre: The Letter to the Editor
Caroline Klinker, “Modern-Day Religious Cli-
mate on Campus is Detrimental”
This letter to the editor inverts a typical expectation.
Often, the religious are treated as intolerant, but here
a college student asks her peers for more tolerance for
religion. Ask students to reflect on their own experiences
of faith on campus.
Greg Hampikian, “When May I Shoot a Student?”
This letter to the editor poses a silly question as a way
to explore very serious issues. Hampikian’s letter to
the editor is a great example of satire, and he uses a
sardonic tone to explore the absurdities that he sees
in the legislation he is critiquing. Use the letter as
an opportunity to explore the concept of satire with
students. What makes satire an effective form for
commentary?
1. Irony can be a confusing concept, particularly given
how often the word is misused. Having students find
specific examples enables them to grasp irony in a
deeper, more intuitive way.
2. Here, again, by asking students to identify when
irony becomes too obvious to ignore, they gain a
deeper understanding of the concept. Have them
articulate, in concrete terms, when irony becomes
too exaggerated to be read straight.
3. This question concerns argumentative effectiveness,
and is thus a rich opportunity to consider other
sections of this text book, such as rhetorical
situations (Chapter 3), arguments (Chapter 11),
and argumentative strategies (Chapter 22). Give
students who believe permitting guns on campus is
a good idea the opportunity to make a case.
Ideas for Writing
1. This activity introduces choice into the discussion of
commentaries and allows students to connect with
issues that are meaningful to them in their own lives.
It also demonstrates the power and limitations of
exaggeration. Ask students when forceful language
crosses the line into the ridiculous.
2. This assignment references another genre while
illustrating the connections between commentaries
and rhetoric. Ask students to refer to Chapter 9 in 2. This activity is a great way to get students to see the
order to discuss moves rhetorical analyses typically
make. 122
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sally Kohn, “Don’t Click on
Celebrity Nude Photos, ISIS Videos”
In contrast to Hampikian’s ironic delivery, Kohn’s text
is delivered with complete sincerity. Her commentary
pleads with readers not to click on offensive or
objectionable content on the internet and, in so doing,
perpetuate the cycle that makes that causes that content
to be shared. In this direct, moral appeal, Kohn’s piece
epitomizes a kind of rhetorical text that students can
analyze.
A Closer Look
1. Students may be surprised during this activity
to find that their lists of Kohn’s reasons are not
identical. Is this lack of consistency in identifiable
reasons an indication of failure on Kohn’s part? What
does it say about commentaries and persuasion that
different readers may differ in their interpretation
of someone else’s argument?
2. “Terrorism” is a famously disputed word, with
people from different political persuasions defining
and using it differently. How does the issue of posting
ISIS videos and similar propaganda complicate our
usual methods of defining terrorism? Encourage
students to consider current events in formulating
their answers.
3. An unstated issue within this question is the idea of
discretion. How is discretion the same and different
from the related issue of privacy? Ask students to
think of other examples of videos that might not be
suitable for public consumption. Have them list the
reasons they would choose to keep certain subjects
out of video for public consumption.
Ideas for Writing
1. This exercise is a classic example of one in which
there are no right or wrong answers. Some students
will insist that the First Amendment means that the
government has no role whatsoever in regulating
the broadcast of terrorism videos. Others will take
a position that is far more active in regulating the
media’s behavior. Stress to students that the value
of their proposals stems not from the position they
take, but how well they satisfy the requirements of
the Proposal genre. Refer them to Chapter 12 if they
need help.
connections between seemingly disparate genres,
 Chapter 10: Commentaries
a kind of understanding which is at the core of
Writing Today. By porting the Memoir genre into a
discussion of Commentaries, students will put these
two genres into contact with each other, seeing how
they are similar and different. Remind students that
a story told in a memoir need not detail a major event
but can instead focus on a smaller event that had
deep personal importance to the person writing it.
Chapter 5 can help students better understand this
genre.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Students should learn from this discussion that a
respect for others’ opinions and ideas is important
in speaking and writing.
2. The chance to talk things out before writing is a
valuable prewriting activity. Setting aside class time
to work on angle will help students as they anticipate
challenges to their own ideas. Chapter 2 will clarify
what angle means.
3. As students think about this, it’s natural for them
to think about their other classes. Try to get them
to think more broadly. The lists they generate
can provide a basis for your classroom discussion
expectations.
Try This Out
1. This activity will show students how ego affects
argument. As they start to understand how
respectful discussion and debate occur, students
can recognize how bullying develops, even among
professionals. Use the Internet to find clips of shows
that can be played for the entire class.
2. This assignment could spark a good conversation
about document design, as well as a discussion of
topic, angle, and purpose. Ask students to think
about how design can support or undermine a
writer’s position. See Chapter 18 for more ideas.
3. This short assignment helps students identify the
major features of a commentary. Dissecting the style,
content, and design to see if they are appropriate to
the situation will augment discussion of the readings
in this chapter.
Explore This
After students have located some of these microgenres,
work with the class to complete the grid or table on the
123
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
board that compares features among these genres. This
activity might be a good way to foreground rhetorical
purpose. Point out to students that a writer’s rhetorical
purpose influences which of these genres he or she might
use. For example, the point of ranting is oftentimes to
vent (oftentimes to anyone who will listen) about an
issue but not necessarily change anything; a call to
action, on the other hand, calls on a specific group to
take action and attempts to alter the situation somehow.
Write This
1. Creating a running commentary means following
the writing process. This assignment has elements of
the writing process built into the prompt. Encourage
students to spend at least a day actively prewriting.
Then they should work with the ideas in Chapter 15
for drafting their document.
2. Writing commentary on articles gives students a
tangible way to join the conversation ongoing in real
and virtual environments. Reading and reflecting on
what others have said means that students will have
to be original in their ideas. Have them use Chapter
21 to get ideas for making their commentary stand
out.
3. Composing in electronic environments is exciting
because students have the chance to do it again. And
again. And again. Blog posts can be edited, deleted,
and amended after being written. Students should
read several blogs before committing to their own
topic and style. Chapter 29 offers some ideas for
blogs.
Additional Assignment Ideas
The Believing and Doubting Game
Pick an issue that you feel students will be passionate
about. Split the class into two groups—the true believers
and the skeptical doubters. Act as moderator as you have
the two groups make and respond to each group’s points.
As the debate moves forward you may select students
from each group to transition into a third Synthesis
group. You may also construct a potential paper outline
on the board as the discussion progresses.
Arguing the Opposite
Most of the time we form quick opinions on an issue. We
don’t even need all the facts or to do research; we have
a lifetime of experience that we draw on to form snap
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

judgments. Sometimes we can be so committed to these
initial reactions that no amount of new information or
perspective is likely to change our minds.
As useful as this tendency may prove in everyday life,
students can usefully practice working against it.
One method is to have them write a commentary that
represents the opposite of how they feel about an issue.
For example, a pro-lifer may examine the issue from a
pro-choice perspective; a meat eater may comment from
a vegetarian point of view.
Remind students that the intention of this exercise is not
to change their minds on an issue. As a writing exercise,
this activity provides a good opportunity to try on a
character and try out a different writing voice.
Stand-up Commentary
Peter Ustinov once said, “Comedy is simply a funny way
of being serious.” The work of many stand-up comedians
proves this to be true. Often what makes a joke funny
is the extent to which it highlights a serious truth about
people, situations, or relationships. Stand-up comedy,
then, can be looked at as commentary in a very concise
and abbreviated form. The comedian usually has to leave
out the complex and extended history of an issue, but the
more the audience already knows, the funnier the jokes
will be.
Have your students watch some stand-up comedy
routines and write on the following questions:
▪▪ In what way can this routine be viewed as a
commentary (as defined by this chapter)?
▪▪ Does the comedian use a character as part of his or
her stand-up persona? In what ways does this person
help reinforce the commentary?
▪▪ Do research about the issue involved in the joke.
Does your research make the joke funnier or add
layers of insight to what the comedian is doing?
▪▪ Is stand-up comedy an effective method of
persuading or informing people about an issue? Why
or why not?
How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes
Students posting comments to the Web should
control such surface features as syntax, grammar,
punctuation, and spelling so that they increase their
credibility as posters.
Students will learn to critique their own and other’s
work through playing the believing/doubting game and
writing letters to the editor.
Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today
Students working on this chapter can benefit
from consulting Chapters 24–28 on research and
documentation. Commentaries should be readable, and
students should pay special attention to style (Chapter
17) and design (Chapter 18).
Other Resources
Slate.
http://www.slate.com/
A Web magazine founded in 1996 that focuses on
politics, news, and culture. Features a roster of regular
columnists.
Z Magazine.
http://www.zcomm.org
A Web magazine “dedicated to resisting injustice,
defending against repression, and creating liberty.”

Certain comedians work in a more observational or

commentary-like mode than others, so you may want
to guide students with suggestions. Possibilities may
include: George Carlin, Bill Hicks, Bill Maher, Chris Rock,
and many more. Video sites like YouTube house many
videos of these artists’ past performances.

124
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 11
CHAPTER
Arguments
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
11.1 invent the content of an argument, shwoing the
major sides fairly.
11.2 organize and draft an argument as a debate.
11.3 use a style that will set the student’s side apart
from the others.
11.4 design an argument to create a favorable
impression.
Arguments are essential for students as they attempt to
master college writing. In other disciplines, it is often
the one paper that students will be asked to write in the
course of a semester. These essays appear under the guise
of cause/effect and comparison essays, which students
will encounter in social science, humanities, and science
classes. Working with position papers equips students
with skills they will need to be successful in their other
college classes.
The most common structure for arguments—
introduction, opposing view, problems with opposition,
supported view, support, conclusion—organizes the
essay so that students can experiment with different
methods of persuasion. This structure helps students
use rhetorical devices of ethos, pathos, and logos within
their essays.
The chapter offers good starting places for students to
generate ideas for their own position papers. Personal,
local, national, and global levels all provide ample
opportunity for students to think about what they wish
to write. Students can be experts on their own positions
as they select issues that matter to them—even from
within content areas.
Why Students Enjoy Writing Arguments
Arguments engage students with issues they care
about. Writing an argument enables students to share
their ideas about issues they care about. However, if
125
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
you’re like most instructors, you’ve read too many
papers on abortion and legalizing marijuana. So helping
students think about other issues they feel strongly about
is part of the fun of assigning arguments. Brainstorming
local, state, national, or international issues can open up
avenues for students to explore other interests.
Arguments are ideal for students who have strong
opinions. Because they require students to acknowledge
and evaluate opposing positions, argument essays
expand students’ ability to empathize with others and to
respect the basis for other opinions. Students may find
that understanding the opposition’s point of view only
makes their resolve stronger, and this may build the case
they establish in the position paper.
Arguments feel like “real” writing. Too often students
complain that writing in different genres isn’t real
writing. They feel that five-paragraph essays don’t count
as real writing. Arguments allow students to break down
that mental block against writing in college in different
genres and for different purposes by challenging them
to research and develop an argument. Sometimes when
students have done this bit of “real” writing, they are
more comfortable exploring genres.
Arguments must be straightforward yet creative.
Because they demand clarity of position, especially with
regard to laying out opposing positions, argument essays
have the intellectual benefit of being straightforward.
However, students can and should have the opportunity
to make their arguments creative in their presentation
and intellectual exploration. Use of analogies and similes
expands the creative punch and persuasive modes of the
essay.
Using the Readings
One Student’s Work
Katlyn Firkus, “Death Penalty Eliminates
the Risk of Future Violent Crimes”
This essay is sure to spark discussion in your classroom.
Firkus makes several arguments very transparently.
Students should be able to pick out her argument’s main
points and discuss the organization of the paper.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Microgenre: The Rebuttal
Dr. John Abraham,
“Global Warming Most Definitely Not
a Hoax—A Scientist’s Rebuttal”
This essay is a rebuttal of an article denying climate
change. Direct students to how the writer addresses
issues within the original story in his response. He uses
a style that is more formal that the slam or the rave, yet
still expresses a strong opinion.
Ted Miller, “Should College Football Be Banned?”
Miller’s argument in defense of college football starts
by describing a debate about the same theme, with
prominent writers occupying both the pro and con side.
This framework allows him to summarize the various
positions efficiently, as well as demonstrating the high
stakes of the argument by connecting it to writers of that
stature.
A Closer Look
1. Students may initially believe that making
concessions is a bad idea when prosecuting an
argument; this practice may appear to be making
the other side’s case for them. Using Miller’s essay,
demonstrate to students how concessions can
actually strengthen an argument.
2. This activity helps to frame the debate about a
harmful activity in a broader context. It’s easy to
say that harmful things should be banned, but by
considering other harmful behaviors, the fairness of
singling out college football is put on the table.
3. A claim of ignorance could be read as an ad hominem
or inappropriate insult. Discuss with students when
and how claims of ignorance can be made responsibly
in argument.
Ideas for Writing and Discussion
1. This assignment gives students a chance to reflect
on which kinds of harmful behaviors are considered
permissible in our society and which aren’t. Ask
them if they can develop a consistent set of rules for
which are and aren’t banned.
2. This email assignment provides an interesting twist
on typical rhetorical assignments, as it asks students
not only to use rhetoric effectively themselves, but to
give advice to another on how to make a successful
126
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
rhetorical appeal. Discuss with the class what this
framework means for rhetorical effectiveness.
Kate Dailey, “Friends with Benefits: Do
Facebook Friends Provide the Same Sup-
port as Those in Real Life?”
Dailey’s argument is nuanced because it argues that
while the support people get from Facebook is positive,
there is still a need for face-to-face contact with friends.
Students may have much to say about their experiences
with social networking. Ask how Facebook has changed
since they joined. Do they think the changes help them
connect more easily with others?
A Closer Look
1. Defining what “friend” means is important to this
essay because the premise depends on a loose
definition. A good definition can help make an
argument more clear or narrow its scope to fit the
author’s main point. Chapter 21 discusses how
extended definitions can help make an argument.
2. Spreading happiness through online interaction is a
good contagious behavior among friends. Students
might recognize how Dailey has implicitly set up
criteria for positive interaction. Chapter 7 discusses
criteria in more depth.
3. Establishing why Dailey waits to present the
opposing position helps students see how she
nuances her argument to show where she agrees
with the opposition. Chapter 22 offers argument
strategies. Have students discuss this strategy and
determine how the essay would be different if she
had brought it up earlier.
Ideas for Writing
1. Students shouldn’t need to do a lot of research to
write this commentary. They can draw on their own
experiences with social networking. Direct them to
Chapter 10 for more discussion of how commentaries
differ from position papers.
2. This assignment helps students to think about the
ways that people create and control the amount of
information about themselves online. As they write,
students can realize how their own pages project
a certain image. Remind them that employers and
professors can sometimes view their pages. Chapter
5 offers tips for getting started with profiles.
 Chapter 11: Arguments
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. This is a good activity to transfer to the board
because many groups may identify the same issues.
Discussing the strengths and weaknesses will help
students with organization of the main points.
2. Students can draw on arguments with friends,
parents, or pets for examples. Who usually wins
these arguments? Does winning mean that their
argument strategies are better? How do they feel
after the effective and ineffective arguments?
3. As an extension of question 2, students may find that
objective arguments are harder to come by in real
life unless they read newspapers and magazines. Ask
about formal debates with designated commentary
and rebuttal times. Would this format help personal
arguments?
Try This Out
1. Students should be familiar with issues facing their
communities. This assignment gives students a
chance to explore an issue and provide a logical
summary and their own opinion. Have them consult
Chapter 26 for a review of summarizing.
2. Looking online is a good way to start research and
find topics that people have written position papers
on. Students should see Chapter 25 for assistance in
starting a constructive Web search.
3. This assignment can come out of Question 1 from
“Talk About This.” Students should already be on
the way to brainstorming their ideas after doing
the earlier activity. For more help with prewriting,
students can refer to Chapter 15.
Explore This
Doing these microgenre analyses will help students not
only realize how writers use similar but different genre
moves in other contexts, but also possibly recognize holes
or weaknesses in their own arguments. For example,
asking students to play devil’s advocate on their topic or
engage in a class debate prior to submitting their final
arguments might help them make necessary revisions.
Write This
1. This is a clear example of an argument assignment.
By choosing a local issue, students are more likely
to have creative research opportunities and to avoid
plagiarism. Leading your students through Chapter
127
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
25 on starting research will give them ideas.
2. This assignment puts arguments in action by
making their usefulness more flexible. Students
will find Chapter 32 helpful as they work toward a
presentation. If you require all students to complete
multimedia presentations, make sure you provide
some form of tutorial (in-class demonstration or a
detailed handout) explaining how to use required
software. Also, ensure you have reliable audiovisual
equipment the day of the presentations.
3. Students may welcome a chance to justify one of
their own vices. However, make sure you are ready
to read essays that may border on the offensive.
Working with this assignment will help students see
how conventional ideas take hold in the collective
imagination. What will they need to do to dislodge
conventional ideas in their audience? See Chapter
21 for ways they can use rhetorical patterns to
persuade.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Exploratory Discussion
This assignment helps students sort out multiple
opinions on a subject when there may not be easily
identified opposing views.
Students choose a topic that has multiple positions.
Food choice is a good example because people have such
different ideas about what kinds of food they should eat
and what kinds food they do eat. Students can then work
on issues such as, if there’s a choice between local and
organic, which should they choose? On what basis do they
make that choice? How does economic class affect food
choices? Who should have access to food and how? What
are the ramifications of GM foods? What alternatives to
grocery stores exist in their communities? As students
generate questions about their topic, they learn to see
how the position they choose is circumscribed by the
kinds of questions they choose to ask and to answer.
The exploratory discussion may be written as an essay,
a series of questions and answers, or a dialogue within
the self.
The Debate Spread
This assignment engages students by having them work
out all the arguments they can find on an issue.
In debate rounds, sometimes teams win by coming up
with a sheer volume of arguments against the other
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

team’s plan. Students must learn to anticipate these need for their papers. Because these papers tend to be
arguments and answer them. They must also learn to formal and well developed, students will need to prepare
recognize when something is off topic to their argument. multiple drafts. Look at Chapter 19 for ideas on helping
students with revision and editing.
To do this assignment, students brainstorm all the
possible arguments against their position. To avoid
“spread” or exhaustion with addressing arguments, Other Resources
students create answers to the argument that they can US Soccer Position Papers.
cross-apply to multiple positions by their opponents. As
http://www.ussoccer.com/stories/2014/03/17/11/34/
students practice coming up with arguments against
position-papers
their position, they learn to recognize some logical
fallacies, and they should be encouraged to identify red This site has all the rules governing U.S. soccer and the
herrings, straw men, and slippery slopes. By grouping reasons behind them. It shows how extensive position
arguments together, students learn to cut the fat out paper/briefings are in the real world of sports.
of an essay and use logical reasoning to address their
Gifted Education White Papers.
position.
http://www.nagc.org/about-nagc/who-we-are/nagc-
The Positioned Self position-statements-white-papers
Students often have ideas shaped by their parents, peer
http://kagegifted.org/resources/white-paper/
groups, or other influences. This assignment asks them
to think about how they come to their own ideas. These white papers are an attempt to secure more
funding for gifted education as they lay out the positions
Students choose a topic and explain how they developed
of the organizations. Organizations use white papers for
their position on the topic. It is best to ask students to
their funding and research.
write about a topic on which they don’t agree with their
parents or peer group. In the essay the student will Urban Debate League.
introduce the topic, explain the other position and why http://www.urbandebate.org/
his or her parents or friends feel the way they feel. Then
The Urban Debate League Web site explains the goals of
the student will explain his or her own position and how
the organization and has samples of students debating.
the conclusion was reached. In some ways, students
You Tube also has clips so students can get an idea about
might be making an argument for an issue, but they
the program.
should focus more on arguing for their way of thinking.

How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes

Students will focus on a purpose as they try to convince
their readers that their position is valid and strong.

Students will develop awareness that it usually takes

multiple drafts to create and complete a successful
text as they brainstorm ideas, research, organize, and
revise their positions to account for new information
they obtain.

Students should practice appropriate means of

documenting their work as they incorporate research
into their texts.

Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today

Chapter 25 on research will be helpful for students
as they gather and organize the information they will

128
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 12
CHAPTER
Proposals
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
12.1 use invention to understand problems and develop
solutions.
12.2 organize a proposal by drafting the major sections
separately.
12.3 choose a style that will be persuasive to readers.
12.4 create a design that will make a proposal
attractive and accessible.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter on proposals allows students to write in
a genre that is increasingly used in the real world. It’s
an especially useful genre to follow position papers and
commentaries because as students begin to identify
problems and opinions in the world, they often wonder
what they could do to solve those problems. Working
with proposals gives students the tools they need to be-
gin solving big problems.
The primary structure of proposals—introduction,
problem/cause/effects, plan, cost-benefit analysis, con-
clusion—gives students a specific logic to follow and
makes grading easier. However, this structure doesn’t
mean you’re going to get cookie-cutter ideas! Using the
structure provided in the chapter helps with organizing
creative ideas.
The chapter provides several entry points for you and
your students to generate ideas for proposals and to
critique proposals written by others. Personal, local, na-
tional, and global levels of change are all contained in the
chapter. Students can be experts on their own lives, but
many students are concerned with climate change and
what their responsibilities are to the global community.
Developing proposals is especially useful in classes
where students may be engaged in service learning,
linked courses, or specific topics in composition cours-
es. The additional content expertise students have with
129
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
regard to their topic often helps them develop more de-
tailed, creative proposals.
Why Students Enjoy Writing Proposals
Proposals empower students to think about solu-
tions for problems they encounter. Students are often
frustrated after talking about society’s problems; occa-
sionally they fault writers for not offering any workable
solutions. The proposal is a concrete step to thinking
about and offering solutions that might work. This as-
signment can go a long way to countering students’ re-
sistance to thinking about hard problems.
Proposals have real world value. Because they must
be feasible, proposals are used every day to determine
the value of a solution. Most buildings, shopping centers,
community outreach programs, scholarship funds and
started out as a proposal. We might think of conceiving
good ideas through proposals. The sections that don’t
work must wither. Students learn to cut out the sections
that aren’t working.
Proposals get down to business—or Show Me the
Money! The key to a successful proposal is whether or
not it can be funded. In the business world and in aca-
demia, proposals that are innovative and feasible bring
in big bucks to solve the problems they outline. Setting
up an amount of money to fund students’ proposals and
then allocating it based on their presentations can be a
powerful motivator to assess how likely it is that a pro-
posal will work.
A person can make a living writing proposals. Grants
are very much like proposals, and even when most busi-
nesses and nonprofits aren’t hiring, they often still look
for a grant writer—someone to bring in the money so
everyone gets paid. Freelance proposal and grant writ-
ers find themselves in high demand. People who write
proposals well can write themselves a ticket for work.
Using the Readings
One Student Group’s Work
Associated Students of the University of Washington,
“SCC Cafe Proposal”
This is an attractively designed example of a student
proposal. The figures and graphs add to the information
in the report; plus, design elements provide clear access
points, and guide the reader through the document. It’s
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
also a good example of what students working in groups
can accomplish.
Microgenre: The Pitch
Hans Fex, “Elevator Pitch: Mini Museum”
This pitch takes an idea that students know well, the mu-
seum, and turns it on its head with its unusual items and
format. Fex effectively relates his proposal to the basic
concept of a museum, which his readers already know,
while still demonstrating how his proposed museum is
truly novel.
Samuel Goldman, “How to Fix
Grade Inflation at Harvard”
Goldman’s take on grade inflation at Harvard provides a
useful primer on the problem and presents a novel idea
for how to solve it. Note how Goldman navigates various
opinions about a complex topic, and point out to students
that he arrives at an intriguing solution that does not in-
volve a great deal of moralizing and personal judgement.
Invite students to discuss how his ethos changes thanks
to this lack of judgemental language.
A Closer Look
1. Asking students to identify the causes of grade infla-
tion helps them consider strategies for articulating
and solving the proposal’s problem.
2. By putting them in the shoes of administrators rath-
er than students, you are inviting students to take
on a role where their imagined needs migh conflict
with their real-world needs in their own lives. Dis-
cuss with students the tensions involved in this kind
of role play. Do they find it hard to take the activity
seriously, given their own desire for a high GPA?
Ideas for Writing and Discussion
1. Talking about this issue first will help generate ideas.
Encourage students to get creative and consider tru-
ly radical changes to conventional grading practices.
2. This activity helps to impress on students the fact
that universal praise and effortless success may not
be as beneficial as they seem. Make sure students
understand the conventions of the memoir by refer-
ring them to Chapter 5.
130
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Jim Rough,
“A Rebirth of ‘We the People’”
This proposal offers a unique take on the perennial
questions of democracy. Rough’s challenge may seem
abstract to students, who might not identify the kinds
of problems with participatory democracy that Rough
does. Ask students to discuss their current perception
of American democracy as a process. Try to get them to
look beyond their partisan preferences to the state of de-
mocracy as a system.
A Closer Look
1. This type of discussion inevitably involves discus-
sion of partisan politics and the presumptions of ma-
jor American political parties and ideologies. Don’t
discourage students from pursuing these ideas, but
try not to let the conversations become too rigidly
political in the partisan sense.
2. This activity helps students to think about the prob-
lems currently facing the country. Allow them to
look to the internet for ideas and inspiration.
3. This activity is a good opportunity to discuss the
difference between persuasive ideas and ideas that
can truly create change. Have students explore this
question from a variety of angles: which barriers are
political? Social? Economic?
Ideas for Writing
1. Profiles of major political leaders are a great way
to explore political content without devolving into
typical squabbles. Make sure that students know the
genre conventions of the profile before they begin.
Have them review Chapter 6 if needed.
2. Utopias and dystopias are useful ways in which to
explore what we are talking about when we talk
about social change and our best possible society.
Students will likely have read books like 1984 in high
school. Chapter 8 can help guide their analysis.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. If students need ideas, suggest they look at the uni-
versity newspaper. Have them determine whether
the problem is unique to your university or whether
it stems from the state or national climate. What
doesn’t seem to be helping the problem so far?
 Chapter 12: Proposals
2. Brainstorming in groups will help students if they
are to work on these projects together. Cross-pol-
lination of ideas can benefit the entire class. This
chapter’s discussion of costs and benefits will be
useful.
3. This activity may give students more ideas for
designing their own proposals. A proposal on a topic
the class is working with could be especially helpful
as students consider alternative approaches to the
problem
Try This Out
1. For more help searching, students can look at Chapter
25 on finding sources online. Students can draw on
class activities to develop a discussion of strengths
and weaknesses in the feasibility of the proposal.
2. Prewriting for proposals is important so that stu-
dents can learn to anticipate questions from those
responsible for approving the proposal (their audi-
ence). A good way to limit this assignment is to have
students think about ways that they could imple-
ment the change they suggest. Chapter 15 gives ex-
amples of brainstorming strategies.
3. Good design can make a proposal much easier to
read and more likely to be implemented. Working
with elements of design will appeal to students who
are responsible for designing their group’s proposal.
Important features of design are reviewed in Chap-
ter 18.
Explore This
As in the other chapters, this activity helps students rec-
ognize how writers modify genre features to achieve dif-
ferent purposes in various contexts. You might even ask
them to think of scenarios that would require them to
create a hybrid genre—one that borrows features from
various genres to create a novel one.
Write This
1. Working through the proposal writing process helps
students who are new to the genre. Students will
need to work on organization and design especial-
ly. Chapters 20 and 18 should help them with these
tasks.
2. Working in electronic environments can help stu-
dents address the needs of various audiences. If stu-
dents do this project in groups, they will have the
131
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
opportunity to combine their best ideas and make a
strong presentation. Chapter 23 will help you clarify
your expectations for group work, and Chapter 29
will help students work online and with computer
programs.
3. This assignment gives creative students a chance to
explore a variety of ideas. Give students a chance to
enhance their projects through the use of rhetori-
cal patterns such as classification and description
(Chapter 21).
Additional Assignment Ideas
Invention Proposal
This assignment asks students to be creative and to
work in groups.
What is the one thing you need for college that you don’t
have? In groups, students will brainstorm items that
would have been useful for them to have in the first
month of college that they didn’t have. These could be
concrete objects that students design and could become
real, or they could be more abstract, less feasible items,
like the Time Turner Hermione uses in Harry Potter. Cre-
ate a proposal asking for exploratory funding for your
idea. You may need to include prototype drawings in
your proposal to give some idea of how the project comes
together.
Activist Proposal
This assignment approaches proposals from a slightly
different angle by asking students to think about solven-
cy before thinking about the problem.
Students should brainstorm their talents and skills.
Then they should imagine how their specific skills could
help other people or organizations. Students then write
an activist proposal that pinpoints a specific problem
that their individual skills could alleviate. The proposal
should not be something they have to do, but it needs to
be something they could do. This may mean researching
activist groups in their college community or hometown.
It may mean dreaming up their own service or artistic
project. This assignment calls on students to think about
their skills and how they can use them for social change.
For instance, a student may identify her skills as a writer
and graphic designer. She may think about an organiza-
tion as being worthwhile but unable to spread its mes-
sage because of a lack of publicity. She may write a pro-
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
posal to the organization that she design a newsletter
for the organization and offer a way to secure funding
to print and distribute the newsletter. This assignment
specifically empowers students to think about how they
can positively impact their communities.
Re-writing a (Marriage) Proposal
This assignment draws on pop culture icons and com-
bines a common usage of the word proposal with the pro-
posals students write.
Choose a television show, movie, or play where someone
makes a proposal. Write the proposal line-by-line and
place it at the top of your analysis. Think about the char-
acters involved in this relationship. Then rewrite the
proposal as a business arrangement, using the introduc-
tion, problem/cause/effect, plan, cost-benefit analysis,
conclusion structure. This assignment allows students
to think about a natural connection between the way
that we use proposal in everyday speech to a formalized
arrangement between two parties. Ask students to do
a meta-analysis of the assignment to discover why the
original wording is better in this scenario and to discuss
the decision-making process people go through when
confronted with a proposal—of any sort.
Question and Answer
Set up a “board of directors” question and answer ses-
sion. To increase students’ stake in the process, suggest
they imagine themselves as decision makers who will
spend their own money and political capital on a propos-
al. If they are taking a risk, they want to make sure the
person with the proposal has addressed all angles and
potential setbacks. Students may present their propos-
als to the whole class or to a small group. The instruc-
tor will have to supervise small groups to ensure that
tough questions are being asked. Each student must ask
two questions during the class period (small groups may
need more) that challenge the presenter to think about
places the proposal skirts an issue such as feasibility,
funding, or oversight. A popular question is “How will
you be able to tell that the proposed solution is work-
ing?”
Designing Proposals
Students may assume that proposals, as long as they look
professional, need not be overly concerned with format-
ting. Some proposals may benefit from drawings of pro-
totypes or graphs and charts that show the cost-benefit
analysis of the proposal. These drawings or charts ben-
efit tremendously from peer reviewing that challenges
132
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
the creator to make the visual elements easily accessible
to the rest of the students.
How This Chapter Meets the WPA Outcomes
Students should understand and exploit the differenc-
es in the rhetorical strategies and in the affordances
available for both print and electronic composing
processes and texts as they work to design some aspect
of their proposal using graphs, images, or other media.
Students will learn to balance the advantages of rely-
ing on others with the responsibility of doing their
part through the collaborative research and writing of
a proposal.
Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today
Because students may be new to working collaboratively
on a project, Chapter 23 is helpful. Students should also
be familiar with design tropes (Chapter 17). Finally, stu-
dents will need to understand the research process as
they work through solutions (Chapters 24–28).
Other Resources
Policy Proposal.
http://www.forgivestudentloandebt.com
A site the New York Times Freakonomics Blog says should
win the most self-centered policy proposal award. This
organization also has a Facebook group page.
The Conscious Shopper.
http://consciousshopper.blogspot.com/2009/06/
weekend-ramblings-waste-disposal.html
A blog post that solicits proposals for what to do about
waste disposal as well as offering some of the author’s
suggestions.
Donors Choose.
www.donorschoose.org
A site where teachers post project proposals for their
classrooms and people wishing to donate find and fund
projects. Good short proposals.
CHAPTER 13
Analytical Reports
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
13.1 invent the content of an analytical report with solid
research.
13.2 use the report genre’s pattern to organize a
document.
13.3 develop a writing style that is neutral and sounds
objective.
13.4 create a design that makes an analytical report
easy to use.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Analytical reports are an incredibly diverse genre that
students will need to be able to navigate. Examining the
conventions of analytical reports is a productive way
to recognize the similarities among reports that at first
seem very different. The chapter focuses on research
reports as a more productive way to help students ap-
proach research than the traditional research paper.
Writing research reports equips students with skills
they will need in courses that base large percentages of
the grade on term research papers.
The structure of analytical reports, even across genres,
doesn’t vary much. The chapter provides ways for stu-
dents to organize research reports, but these methods
could be cross-applied to observation, field, or lab re-
ports. The “raidablity” of the report becomes apparent
in its organization.
Using research reports to encourage students to come up
with good, complex questions is inherent in the chapter.
Students can look at issues related to course content on
personal, local, national, and global levels. The ability to
write reports will assist students as they work on devel-
oping more complex research questions over their col-
lege careers.
133
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Why Students Enjoy Writing
Analytical Reports
Analytical Reports based on observation can be funr
Going out to collect data can be more fun than doing re-
search in the library. Even when students don’t know
exactly what they are looking for, the kinetic experience
of being out of the library, away from the computer, can
spur productive thoughts.
Research reports make students bona fide experts
on their topics. The ability to choose a topic and gen-
erate research to answer a question creates a sense of
ownership of the project. Students can report their find-
ings to the class with confidence.
Using the Readings
One Student’s Work
Kaisa Lee and Jamie Koss, “College
Students’ Attitudes on the Causes of Infidelity”
This report encompasses field research as well as library
and electronic database research. The report uses head-
ings and makes an argument based on Lee and Koss’s
research and observations. Students may disagree with
the report, but Lee and Koss make a strong case for
themselves.
Microgenre: The Explainer
World Freerunning Parkour
Federation, “What is Parkour?”
This piece explains a recent popular trend in athletics
and exercie: parkour, or freerunning, a kind of acro-
batic running through urban spaces. Though the piece
is ostensibly meant to define and explain the terms, the
author admits that there is in fact no clear, unified defini-
tion of parkour or freerunning, emphasizing . This exam-
ple illustrates how students might explain a recent pop-
ular trend among one of their in-groups that isn’t widely
known. It also demonstrates that an explainer need not
resolve every question to be effective.
Andrew Gelman and George A. Romeroy, “How Many
Zombies Do You Know? Using
Indirect Survey Methods to Measure Alien
Attacks and Outbreaks of the Undead”
Clearly Gelman and Romeroy’s report parodies the sci-
entific report. However, in order to write a good paro-
dy, one must be intimately familiar with the parodied
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
genre’s style and moves in order to write a recognizable
one. This pseudo-scientific report on zombies helps stu-
dents learn the moves that reports make in a fun and in-
teresting way.
A Closer Look
1. This activity asks students to think about how this
report parodies a credible scientific report. Doing
this is a fun way to learn what serious reports should
and should not do. If they are currently writing a re-
port, you might ask students to apply the report’s ru-
bric. How would they “grade” this report in terms of
the rubric’s dimensions?
2. Asking students to determine credible and bogus re-
sources cited in the report could be nicely coupled
with information in Chapter 24 concerning address-
ing a source’s reliability.
3. Thinking about the report’s opening moves not only
helps student focus on what this section should do
but also the types of questions reports should ask.
Ideas for Writing
1. To get them started on their parodies, ask students
to write informal proposals to you that suggest silly
topics, explain how they might write the report’s
sections, and reflect on how their approaches paro-
dy the targeted genre. This assignment might work
well as a group activity.
2. Writing a bio of the author also introduces students
to the profile genre. Encourage students to consult
Chapter 5 for help with profiles.
Pew Research Center,
“The Rising Cost of Not Going to College”
This report executive summary uses headings and sec-
tion breaks very effectively. The genre conventions
should be obvious to students. The way that the analyti-
cal report aggregates information from numerous stud-
ies is particularly strong.
A Closer Look
1. Discussing different types of evidence with students
is an effective way to pose rhetorical questions.
Consider asking them to locate these five pieces of
evidence within Aristotle’s ethos, pathos, and logos
schema. Chapter 22 can help.
2. This question asks students to apply certain kinds
of logical or statistical thinking to evaluate evidence.
134
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Consider discussing the notion of anecdotal evidence
with them. When is anecdotal evidence appropriate?
When is it persuasive?
3. This activity is a great way to pull local contexts
and student attitudes into discussion. Students will
be surprised at the diversity of reasons their class-
mates went to college.
Ideas for Writing
1. There are many questions embedded within this ac-
tivity. One of the biggest is what we mean by “suc-
cess.” Ask students to think beyond wealth and ce-
lebrity as they choose their successful person. Refer
them to Chapter 6 for help with profiles.
2. Students can brainstorm the strengths and weak-
nesses of college together before they write their
profiles. This could be a good opportunity for them
to vent about their own frustrations. Chapter 12 has
lots of information about how to write profiles.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Students should be able to identify several of the
genre conventions on their own through this assign-
ment. Encourage them to think broadly about re-
ports. To emphasize how and why writers adapt the
report genre, ask them to whom and why the reports
were written.
2. Working in a computer classroom can help students
accomplish this task more efficiently. Students can
pay attention to the group submitting the report and
research the group to see what kinds of biases might
inherently exist.
3. Lee and Koss’s piece stands up to close scrutiny
through its research and observation. As students
think about how they did or did not adhere to genre
conventions, they might ask why he followed certain
conventions and ignored others. Students may look
at Chapter 28 to understand his citation style.
Try This Out
1. Deciding on a topic can be one of the most challeng-
ing aspects of research. Working in groups to do the
research may help students cover more ground. Stu-
dents may need a reminder about angle (Chapter 2).
2. Asking students to create an outline can help move
them into the first stages of drafting. Remind stu-
 Chapter 13: Analytical Reports
dents that they aren’t locked in to their outlines;
rather, outlines are a tool to help them avoid writer’s
block and disorganization.
3. This activity can be an extension of Question 2. Ana-
lyzing a report that they find ineffective exposes its
weaknesses and gives students a chance to fill in the
gaps with their own work.
Explore This
Asking students to explain how to write one of these
microgenres introduces them to another genre: the in-
struction manual. You might ask them to create one as
a low-stakes assignment in preparation for writing the
type of report the manual addresses, or you could create
an entire writing sequence around writing and design-
ing an effective instruction manual.
Write This
1. Designing a report that is easy to read and under-
stand is a challenging task. Students working from
online sources may need to construct graphs, clarify
findings, and draw further implications from the re-
port. Refer students to Chapter 18 for tips on appro-
priate design.
2. Students could do this assignment as an extension
of a proposal. Or one pair of students in a group can
work on a proposal and one pair can work on a re-
port. As they put their findings and recommenda-
tions together, the group will build a strong collab-
orative project (Chapters 13 and 23).
3. Students should have fun devising an observable re-
port for themselves. As they follow the report pro-
cess, they will gain benefits from having to create
their own question and method. The results may or
may not be surprising. Chapter 24 can help students
create a research question.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Gender Socialization Observation Report
This assignment generates reports similar to the one in-
cluded in the text.
Students read a few works about gender socialization
and think about their own upbringing. Then students
travel to a children’s clothing or toy story armed with
notepads and at least thirty minutes to spend making
observations. Some questions to consider include: What
135
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
toys/clothes are meant for girls? Boys? How can you tell?
How is the store organized? Is there a difference in toys/
clothes for infants? Toddlers? School-age children? How
can you tell? How do the toys/clothes compare to those
you remember from your own childhood? Students will
write their findings in about 800 words and attach the
notes from the observation to their reports.
Food Diary Report
This assignment takes empirical evidence and can be used
in conjunction with the exploratory discussion included
in the Instructor’s Manual chapter on Position Papers.
Students keep a food diary for 1–2 weeks, writing down
everything they eat or drink in the chosen time period. Af-
ter three or four days, ask students to look back over their
diaries and make initial observations. For instance, stu-
dents who live with their parents may eat different things
at every meal whereas students who live on campus may
notice that they’ve fallen into a dining hall rut. Or they
may notice that they consume more energy drinks on days
when they have many classes in a row. Encourage them
to think about how their lives and schedules impact their
food consumption. Students should compare their diaries
with other students in small groups or with partners. Fi-
nally, they can write short reports that pose a question
about common eating habits of college students. The re-
port should include data from their food diaries that help
explain their analysis. Make it clear to students that the
food diary isn’t about judging people for what they eat or
don’t eat, but it’s useful for identifying trends they may
sense in themselves or with their peers.
Ad Report
This assignment merges well with the discussion of Rhe-
torical Analysis provided in the Instructor’s Manual.
Students collect advertisements from one or more maga-
zines. Then they look for themes in the ads. For instance,
they may look at only one company’s ads, at ads from one
magazine, or at ads that feature families. As they look for
patterns and draw conclusions from the patterns, they
will use the information they glean to write a report about
the advertisements they’ve chosen. The audience could be
a community advocacy group or an advertising depart-
ment for a company. The advertisements are considered
texts in this assignment and must be attached to final es-
says.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

The Explainer Students will understand the collaborative and social

This assignment is a microgenre of the research report
and is based on Slate.com’s Explainer column.
Have students look at several examples of Slate.com’s Ex-
plainer column to show them that the genre is a brief ex-
position of a news event. Work on generating questions
about problems in the news— local, state, national, or
international—that students could find the answers to
through their research. After generating good questions,
students research the answers and write less than 500
words to explain the phenomenon for a lay audience.
Data Comparison
After writing observation or field reports, students
gather in groups of three or four. They share their results
and try to come up with a larger, more universal conclu-
sion to the research they’ve conducted. This helps norm
students’ reports and shows how the same data can be
interpreted differently by different researchers. This ac-
tivity also works well as part of a peer review process.
Graphs and Charts
On the class blog or Web site, have students post graphs
or charts they’ve made from their research. For instance,
if students have collected data on their food consump-
tion, they may be able to graph the number of energy
drinks they have daily, which may help them find a pat-
tern in consumption. Encourage students to experiment
with different charts and graphs—pie, line, bar, etc.
Finally, have students post comments on each other’s
graphs to create an on-line community conversation.
Designing Reports
As the chapter suggests, reports are rarely read all
the way through in the real world. Therefore, students
should consider their reports as utilitarian pieces of in-
formation that can aid their audiences in understanding.
Adding chart, graphs, and pictures can up the visual ante
of a report and the above classroom activity helps stu-
dents with this process. However, if you require students
to incorporate design features and graphics in their re-
ports, be sure you provide a tutorial or handout illustrat-
ing how to do this with widely-available software.
aspects of writing processes as they brainstorm with
peers and share drafts of their work. They may also work
in groups to construct research reports.
Students will learn common formats for different
kinds of texts as they identify features of various re-
ports.
Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today
Because reports and proposals rely on some of the same
processes, students should understand the differences
and similarities (Chapter 11). Furthermore, reports
should give students a chance to work on drafting (Chap-
ter 15) and design (Chapter 17). Research questions can
be a challenge to create, and students may need your
help (Chapter 24).
Other Resources
Consumer Reports—Testing
http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/
aboutus/test/index.htm
We’ve recommended this site elsewhere, but here stu-
dents will discover the methodology, complete with vid-
eo and pictures, of how the process works to generate a
report.
Market Research Reports.
http://www.marketresearch.com/
This site has collected a wide variety of reports of mar-
ket research on products from telecommunications, to
prescription drugs, to travel services.
World Health Organization.
http://www.who.int/whr/en/index.html
WHO publishes the World Health Report, and its
comparisons across time are very interesting.

How This Chapter Meets WPA Outcomes

Students will develop understanding of the relation-
ships among language, knowledge, and power as they
explore and create research questions that increase
their knowledge and ask them to consider power rela-
tions as they write.
136
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 14
▪▪ refine their topics,
CHAPTER ▪▪ conduct primary and secondary research,

▪▪ use methods of development

Research Papers ▪▪ integrate research,

▪▪ document sources,

▪▪ integrate visuals and design elements,

In this chpater, students will learn how to: ▪▪ select a style, and

14.1 invent the content of a research paper with a wide ▪▪ revise and edit.
range of sources.
Additionally, this chapter introduces two specific re-
14.2 develop an organization that fits the content of a search paper subgenres: the expository paper and the
research paper. argumentative research paper. Distinguishing these
types helps students think about which they are being
14.3 determine whether a plain or persuasive style is
asked to write when they have been assigned to write a
best to achieve the selected purpose.
research paper.
14.4 add design elements and visuals to enhance an
Finally, the example papers in this chapter cover topics
argument.
from different disciplines and incorporate strategies
students might use when writing for other classes or in
Looking at the Chapter in Brief other professional contexts.
Research papers are primarily assigned in academic con-
texts in a variety of disciplines to see how well students Why Students Enjoy Writing Research Papers
have made sense of the material covered in a course.
Research papers help students better “own” the in-
However, other workplace and professional contexts use
formation. The acts of researching, summarizing, and
and adapt genres that make similar moves as research
analyzing course-related material encourages students
papers: white papers, reports, magazine articles. The
to better grasp and apply fundamental concepts and the-
ability to write research papers will assist students
ories used in their chosen disciplines. Additionally, dis-
when they take courses that base large percentages of
covering how scholars or experts talk about their chosen
the semester grade on term papers, as well as when they
topic helps them see it in new ways and possibly illumi-
compose sustained arguments supported by research in
nates material that might have been unclear.
other professional contexts.
Research papers encourage students to further ex-
Oftentimes, professors give somewhat generalized
plore subtopics that interest them. Students can fur-
prompts (“Write a ten-page research paper on the
ther investigate some aspect of the course that intrigued
American colonial economy,” for example) and assume
them but was only briefly mentioned in the textbook or
students already know how to focus a research ques-
course lectures.
tion; research credible, relevant resources; and compose
an organized, coherent paper. However, because the
research paper is a somewhat vague genre, when faced Using the Readings
with writing one, many students are unsure where to One Student’s Work
begin and how to proceed.
Katelyn Turnbow, “Lives Not Worth the Money”
This chapter provides students a number of useful strat-
egies for writing a successful research paper. It helps Turnbow’s paper exemplifies how effective research pa-
them learn to do the following: pers take an angle on a broader topic. She uses the ef-
lornithine case study to illustrate how drug companies
▪▪ identify a purpose, like Aventis are concerned more with their bottom lines

137
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
than saving lives. The paper also illustrates how to ef-
fectively use figures and illustrations and integrate sec-
ondary sources in a rhetorically useful way. Additionally,
you can use her paper to show students how an effective
research paper includes a variety of paragraph types for
specific rhetorical purposes: narrative, illustrative, eval-
uative, cause and effect.
Microgenre: the Annotated Bibliography
Sarah Rodriguez, “Annotated
Bibliography: The Fog of Revolution”
Rodriguez’s bibliography consists of credible sources di-
rectly related to her paper’s topic. Students will observe
how summarizing, analyzing, and citing their sources
assists their writing process in a number of ways. First,
summarizing their sources forces them to put the ideas
in their own words and thereby better understand and
remember what they have researched. Second, analyz-
ing sources’ validity and relevance helps students con-
sider how they might use certain pieces of information
for specific rhetorical purposes. Finally, writing an an-
notated bibliography requires students to practice using
a specific documentation style.
Rosenzweig et al.,
“Drones in U.S. Airspace: Principles for Governance”
The Heritage Foundation’s research paper on drones
helps to consider not only the current state of technol-
ogy and law but how we as a society might adapt to the
increasing prevalance of this technology in the years
ahead.
A Closer Look
1. This task requires students not only to read the
text carefully for certain types of arguments, but to
weigh the plausibility of those arguments both now
and in the future. Discuss the notion of changing so-
cial expectations towards technology with students.
How do attitudes towards technology change over
time? What technologies have become more preva-
lent in their own lifetimes?
2. This activity poses the Heritage Foundation’s re-
search paper as a type of proposal. Invite students
to discuss the connections between proposals and
research papers generally. Direct them towards
Chapter 12 for more information on that genre and
its typical conventions.
138
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
3. This exercise helps bring the issue of drones, which
might seem remote or disconnected from students’
lives, into their own local context. Make sure that the
students consider the various problems and issues
that the authors of this research paper identify. How
are these issues specifically important to members
of a college campus?
Ideas for Writing
1. This is another activity that will likely prompt the
students to explore their own partisan political and
ideological assumptions. Make sure they have easy
access to the US Constitution, which is widely avail-
able online. Ask them about the different genre ex-
pectations of a research paper and a commentary.
Refer them to Chapter 10 for more information on
that genre.
2. This exercise helps students learn ways to adapt
learning from one area or topic and apply it to a dif-
ferent area or topic. Here, the transfer is from a con-
sideration of drones in U.S. airspace to international
airspace. How does this change the conversation?
Discuss the notion of international laws and norms
with the students. Ask them to list the ways in which
consideration of drones in U.S. airspace is similar
and different from the airspace of other countries.
James Knoll, MD, “Serial Murder:
A Forensic Psychiatric Murder”
Knoll’s paper dispels common assumptions about serial
murderers. To develop his argument, he uses evidence
in a variety of rhetorically effective ways (to provide
background information, exhibit his points, bring other
theorists into the conversation) and integrates a mixture
of rhetorical patterns (definition, compare/contrast, nar-
rative). Additionally, he provides access points through
the use of headings and highlights findings by way of
visually-appealing tables. This paper offers an excellent
model for illustrating how writers use these rhetorical
strategies to persuade their readers.
A Closer Look
1. Until recently, a key point of contention among psy-
chiatrists was how they defined and understood
serial killers. You might point out how Knoll uses
definition as a rhetorical pattern here. Ask the stu-
dents to read Chapter 21 on Using Basic Rhetorical
Patterns and notice how Knoll uses some of the other
patterns mentioned. This exercise encourages them
 Chapter 14: Research Papers
to see how a variety of these patterns might be used
effectively in the same paper.
2. Asking students to rhetorically analyze Knoll’s paper
helps them think about its content but, more impor-
tantly, about how he uses strategies to appeal to his
intended readers. How does his organizational style
and use of evidence invoke the intended reader?
Point out how students might use similar strategies
in their own writing when and where appropriate.
Introduce them to terms in Chapter 8 to help them
complete the rhetorical analysis. Figure 3.1 in chap-
ter 3 might also give them some categories to profile
readers.
3. Writing a summative sentence, as this exercise asks
them to do, helps students practice formulating the-
sis statements. Discuss how they might use this same
strategy to determine their research papers’ theses.
After conducting research, how might they sum up
their key ideas in a sentence?
4. In addition to asking them how their views on se-
rial killers have changed, you might ask them how
or why they came to these conclusions. Which of
Knoll’s strategies or pieces of evidence changed their
minds? How might they use similar strategies in
their own writing?
Ideas for Writing
1. Writing an abstract helps readers and writers bet-
ter own a paper’s key ideas and realize its structure.
Prior to discussing this piece in class, have students
write the abstract as a homework assignment. This
will encourage them to read it, and it will facilitate
class discussion on the paper’s content and struc-
ture.
2. This assignment focuses on how information is
adapted to suit different rhetorical situations. To
highlight this, you might also ask students to profile
the expectations of the Web sites’ readerships. How
would their expectations be different from Knoll’s
readers’?
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. You will find that students enjoy critiquing sample
pieces written by other college students. These sam-
ples are more feasible and accessible. It’s intimidat-
ing when they only read professional writing. They
139
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
see the student samples and think, “I can do that” or
“I can do better than that.”
2. Prior to brainstorming these scenarios, ask students
to review the sample papers they have read; most of
them are clearly tailored to non-academic audiences.
They might construct the rhetorical situations that
prompted some of the samples and reflect on how
they made these assumptions. What about these
pieces invokes certain readerships and not others?
3. Analyzing how a paper adheres to and yet deviates
from genre expectations helps students realize that
effective writers adapt genres to suit their own pur-
poses. Writing Today’s genre chapters suggest orga-
nizational strategies and moves, but students need
to see the examples as possibilities and not con-
straints.
Try This Out
1. Deciding on a topic can be one of the most challeng-
ing aspects of research. Working in groups to do the
research may help students cover more ground. Stu-
dents may need a reminder about angle (Chapter 2).
2. Locating annotated bibliographies not only helps
students learn their genre moves but also shows
that they are used in contexts other than the writing
classroom. Entities such as regulatory agencies use
them in real-world contexts. This exercise also points
out that annotated bibliographies are more than just
a cataloguing of sources. Writers have a specific
angle when selecting their resources. Ask students
to consider how their angle on the topic influenced
how they selected other sources to include.
3. Prior to assigning this exercise, ask them to read
Charles McGrath’s New York Times column, “At $9.95
a Page, You Expected Poetry?”. Find it at http://
www.nytimes.com/2006/09/10/weekinreview/
10mcgrath.html. His column offers a humorous and
informative take on this topic.
Explore This
This exercise helps studdents think about genre moves.
Ask them to also consider the contexts in which each is
written. Why do these similar microgenres make differ-
ent moves? How do they fulfill the needs of certain read-
ers and writers?
Write This
▪▪ 1-2. The Low-Stakes Assignments section that follows
provides ways of integrating the annotated bibliography
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
into the research paper writing sequence and helping
students manage the research paper writing process.
▪▪ 3. Students will need to consider design elements and
various kinds of electronic media in order to successful-
ly write this proposal. Assign Chapter 18 on Design and
Chapter 29 on Writing with Social Media to get them
thinking about these things.
Additional Assignment Ideas
Low-Stakes Assignments
Students often have a difficult time focusing their top-
ics and finding and evaluating information as they plan
and compose their research papers. To aid them in these
processes, consider assigning low-stakes writing assign-
ments that ask them to explain their ideas and writing
process and to present their research findings. Consider
making these assignments a portion of their overall re-
search paper grade; 10 percent, for example.
Low-Stakes Assignment 1:
Their first low-stakes assignment could require them
to report to you their topic idea and research plan. Ask
them to write you a memorandum detailing their topic,
angle, research method, and timeline for completing the
paper. This assignment requires them to narrow their
topics and plan their research and writing processes. It
also gives you the opportunity to give them needed feed-
back on their topic choices and research plans.
Low-Stakes Assignment 2:
As they complete research, ask them to write an anno-
tated bibliography of relevant sources (see Chapter 14).
This assignment makes them read relevant sources and
reflect on how they might use them in their papers. Many
students put off going to the library and reading their
sources until the last minute, which results in a poorly
written paper. So, assigning an annotated bibliography
forces them to conduct research sooner and take time to
reflect on what they have read.
Exploratory Paper
Assigning an exploratory paper on the same topic stu-
dents plan to write about in their research papers pro-
vides them an informal, more conversational space to
discuss and grapple with ideas. Exploratory papers
pose research questions and include information that
responds to these questions. Purdue’s Online Writing
140
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Lab’s Web page (http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/
resource/728/1/) states students might follow this
structure in their essays:
Introduction
The introduction should outline the problem you
explored and why it’s important. In addition, you
should briefly discuss 1) some of the problem’s
possible causes; 2) the institutions and people
involved with the problem; 3) some of the possible
solutions to the problem. A brief overview of the
types of sources you researched during your
inquiry should be included.
Body Paragraphs
Body paragraphs should discuss the inquiry
process you followed to research your problem.
These paragraphs should include the following:
1. Introduction of source (title, author, type of media,
publisher, publication date, etc.) and why you chose
to use it in your exploration
2. Important information you found in the source re-
garding your problem
3. Why the information is important and dependable in
relation to the problem
4. Some personal introspection on how the source
helped you, allowed you to think differently about
the problem, or even fell short of your expectations
and led you in a new direction in your research,
which forms a transition into your next source.
Conclusion
The conclusion should restate the problem you explored,
outline some of its possible causes, review the institu-
tions and people involved, and highlight some possible
solutions. If you still have any questions about the prob-
lem (and it’s ok to have some), you will discuss them
here. Talk about why you think you still have questions
regarding the problem you explored, where you might
look to answer these questions, and what other forms of
research you would have to do.
Research Poster
This assignment asks students to share their research
in poster format, using a combination of prose and vi-
sual texts. Scientific professionals frequently use this
genre to share their research in concise and accessible
 Chapter 14: Research Papers

ways. Penn State’s Web site http://writing.engr.psu.edu/ Research and Documentation Online.
posters.html provides students and instructors tips for
http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/resdoc5e/
planning and designing them. This assignment teaches
students to integrate graphics and figures in rhetorical- Diana Hacker and Barbara Fister’s Web site provides
ly compelling ways. Assign students to read Chapter 18 in-text and bibliographic citation information, as well
and apply the design concepts discussed. as manuscript conventions, for MLA, APA, CSE, and Chi-
cago styles. For each style, they include citation informa-
How This Chapter Meets WPA Outcomes tion for a number of source types.
Students will develop understanding of the relation-
ships among language, knowledge, and power as they
explore and create research questions that increase
their knowledge and ask them to consider power rela-
tions as they write.

Students will understand the collaborative and social

aspects of writing processes as they brainstorm with
peers and share drafts of their work. They may also work
in groups to construct research papers.

Students will learn common formats for different

kinds of texts as they identify features of various re-
search papers.

Other Useful Chapters from Writing Today

Research questions can be a challenge to create, and stu-
dents may need your help (Chapter 24). They will also
need guidance in finding and collecting appropriate
information (Chapter 25), integrating sources (Chap-
ter 26), and using an appropriate documentation style
(Chapters 27 and 28). Furthermore, research papers
should give students a chance to practice using a mix-
ture of relevant rhetorical patterns (Chapter 21) and
argumentative strategies (Chapter 22) to develop their
papers .

Other Resources
Paul Heilker’s The Essay: Theory and Pedagogy for an Ac-
tive Form

Heilker’s text provides a history of the exploratory es-

say, justification for assigning them, and accessible essay
examples.

Purdue Online Writing Lab.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/728/1/

We’ve recommended this site elsewhere, but here stu-

dents will get find tips for writing exploratory papers,
annotated bibliographies, and research papers.

141
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 3: DEVELOPING A WRITING PROCESS
15
CHAPTER
Inventing Ideas and
Prewriting
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
15.1 use prewriting techniques to get their ideas
flowing.
15.2 develop their ideas with heuristics.
15.3 reflect on their ideas with exploratory writing and
extend them in new directions.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter helps students figure out how to generate
ideas for their writing through a variety of prewriting
activities. It is often difficult to come up with a fresh and
interesting idea or angle on that idea. To help your stu-
dents, ask them to do activities that allow them to get
their ideas down on paper or screen so that they can ex-
amine them more deeply, develop them, or refine them.
This chapter describes techniques you can use to gener-
ate fresh ideas and angles and these techniques will help
your students jump-start their thinking.
When you conduct an inquiry, you begin by recalling
what you know. Then you choose an inquiry strategy to
take you beyond what you know to something you did
not know—a new idea—or a new synthesis of several
ideas you never thought of putting together. The goal
of all these processes is to gather what you know or can
think of on screen or paper, where you can take a good
look at them and see them in unfamiliar ways and make
new connections. They get you out of the rut of your nor-
mal thinking routine and allow your ideas to become
unstuck. They can get you past dry, thin, stale, or trivial
ideas to ideas and angles that are new, fresh, and inter-
esting—ideas that are worth writing and reading about.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Varied Formats Help Students Select a Strategy
The strategies outlined in this chapter go beyond free-
writing and cluster mapping to include electronic op-
142
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
tions for students as they begin their writing. As the
book points out, there are different genres for different
purposes. We would expect there to be different options
in prewriting as well, depending on the final product
desired. Therefore, the book offers traditional methods,
heuristic methods, and innovative electronic methods to
help your students get started. Consider having students
use different strategies for the different assignments
you give them.
A Variety of Prewriting Activities Encourages Creativity
There are no sure-fire formulas for quick and easy writ-
ing that yields strong ideas. A formulaic writing process
often leads to formulaic and boring writing. The tech-
niques in this chapter require students to open their
thoughts to the inherent messiness of coming up with
good ideas by allowing them to get lots of ideas down on
paper, where they can examine them. Later they will re-
turn to their writing and polish it, but in the early stages
of writing they need techniques that open up thinking.
The techniques offered in this chapter are flexible and
numerous. They are not like recipes or algorithms that
you follow rigidly. They are more like rules of thumb
that allow you to make and see new connections. Some
of these techniques take very little time, and others re-
quire a sustained effort; some run you through a series
of questions and others ask you to generate a lot of ideas
quickly without worrying about the strength of those
ideas; some are highly visual, and others ask for just
words.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Students writing in any of the genres should realize that
they will need to take time to prewrite and invent ideas
for their writing. Therefore, it will be important for you
to help students select the most appropriate strategy for
generating ideas for the genre you’ve selected.
Memoirs
Students may want to use the “Five Senses” activity to
help evoke the setting for their narrative. Encourage cre-
ative use of the “Five Senses” as students try to describe
the smell of a texture, for instance. Using rich details will
help the audience relate to the memoir.
Reviews
Students writing reviews may find it useful to use lists
as they create pros and cons of the product. Patterns
may develop from their lists that allow them to pinpoint
important categories for criteria selection. The activity
 Chapter 15: Inventing Ideas and Prewriting

will also help students figure out if they should be writ-
ing a Slam or a Rave.
Other Classroom Activities
Blind Drafting
Blind drafting is like quick drafting but with your com-
puter screen switched off. That keeps you from go-
ing back and fretting about what you may or may not
have written. Again, the idea is to get your thoughts
down quickly so you can go back later and see what’s
interesting.
Questioning What You Know
Read your writing assignment carefully and ask yourself
these questions:
▪▪ What do you know about your topic? Focus on some-
thing that engages with your expertise or past ex-
perience.
▪▪ What don’t you know that you would like to learn?
Focus on an area that has aroused your curiosity and
that you would like to learn more about.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Write This
1. Using presentation software will not only help stu-
dents draft and create ideas but also will help them
learn basic strategies for good presentations. As
their presentation begins to mirror their writing,
they’ll have a built-in way to present their ideas to
the class. This would work especially well with pro-
posals (Chapter 12) or reports (Chapter 13). Stu-
dents working in groups will have a clear, visual way
to add to each other’s project (Chapter 23).
2. This activity helps prevent procrastination, espe-
cially if students are using a blog. It also encourages
students to carry their project around in their heads
for an extended period of time. As they develop new
ideas, they are able to sort and cull the strong and
weak points they generate. If they need ideas for the
journal or blog, they could try different techniques
from this chapter every day.

▪▪ What do you care about? Focus on an issue that has

been making you angry or piquing your interest.

▪▪ What have you been learning about? Focus on an is-

sue you’ve been examining in another course or in
your job.

▪▪ What have you read? Focus on an issue you read

about on the Web (in a blog, a news report, etc.) or in
a magazine or newspaper.

▪▪ What have you seen? Focus on an issue that engag-

es a movie you watched recently, a television show,
Web cast, or video.

The key is finding a relevant topic that excites you.

Two Strategies
Take something you’ve written in or out of class, even
something you’ve done for another class or at a different
school. Write down the central idea, question, or prob-
lem described in that piece and use at least two of the
inquiry strategies described in this chapter to develop
new ideas and angles. Do the two strategies yield differ-
ent insights? Which strategy seemed most effective to
you and why?

143
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
CHAPTER 16
Organizing and
Drafting
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
16.1 sketch out how a paper will be organized.
16.2 draft an introduction that catches readers’
attention.
16.3 support a thesis in the body of the paper.
16.4 develop a conclusion that ends the paper on a
strong note.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter illustrates how to take the material
garnered from the invention process and give it form.
Students are shown how the chosen genre of their
composition will act as a guide in this organization. Each
genre offers a flexible pattern of organization that helps
the author make composing decisions that will meet the
expectations of the audience.
The five-paragraph essay is seen as a pattern too
formulaic for the rhetorical situations found in most
college courses and future careers. To aid writers in
moving beyond such limitations, the chapter presents
tactics for writing more complex outlines and tips for
breaking out of writer’s block.
Connecting with Writing Today’s
Overall Goals
Genres Do Some of the Organizational Work for You
Writing is a difficult and messy process at times. The
thought that we are writing from scratch can be daunting
for many students. Genres take a lot of this anxiety out of
the equation. Choosing a genre gives you a jump-start for
a lot of the potentially agonizing choices that come with
giving information and ideas a cohesive form. Easing
this anxiety helps authors focus on the more important
goal of writing: getting things done.
144
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organization Creates Guideposts
A genre works because it satisfies an audience’s general
expectations learned from previous encounters with
the genre. When readers notice that a piece of writing is
organized in a way that is familiar to them, they are more
apt to go along for the ride. With their organizational
expectations satisfied, readers are open to the persuasive
or motivational goals of a text. Conversely, if the writing
is poorly organized (or violates the genre expectations
too aggressively) readers may spend their time fighting
this condition.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Reviews
The basic organizational pattern of a review offers a
good opportunity to point out how big a role common
sense plays in audience expectations. When a review
is considering a specific text, the author is obligated to
announce what text is being reviewed. The identification
of a text is most often followed by a short summary of it.
The summary reminds people who have experienced the
text of the basic plot or features or lets those unfamiliar
with the text get on the same page.
How much or how little summary to give is a choice the
author must make. Give too much summary and you run
the risk of losing your audience or spoiling the actual
experience. Give too little summary and you have not laid
the groundwork to address the common expectations
of the text’s genre that become the basis of a successful
review. This is where organizational patterns meet
an author’s decisions, and the meeting demonstrates
that although genres set the possibilities they are still
malleable.
Likewise, the At A Glance diagrams in the text of Chapter
7 demonstrates two popular patterns for reviews.
One addresses the strengths and weaknesses of one
textual feature before moving to another feature. The
other addresses all the strengths and then by all the
weaknesses. Neither pattern is inherently better than
the other. Which pattern will be more effective for my
particular topic?
Other Classroom Activities
Side-by-Side Comparison
Ask the class for a potential topic and genre that might
make for an interesting paper. Using an example like the
one in Figure 6.1 in the text, work with the class to sketch
 Chapter 16: Organizing and Drafting

out two organizational patterns for the topic. Then ask

the students to compare and contrast the results. Does
one organizational pattern seem more effective than
the other. Why? Is there an organizational pattern not
suggested by the chapter that might work even better?

End of Chapter Activities

Talk About This
1. Students can talk about traditional patterns for
writing and discuss whether they learned to adhere
to those patterns or not.

2. It is helpful to talk to first-year students about how

they can avoid procrastination and unpleasant
time crunches. Suggest brainstorming as a way of
breaking the procrastination cycle.

3. Show students how taking the writing process a

step at a time is a way of getting past writer’s block.
If they can’t write the whole paper, can they write an
outline? Start with a rough introduction?

Try This Out

1. This activity will help students realize how much
(or how little) time they actually spend working.
Remind them that if they take breaks (for Facebook,
texting, or Internet surfing) those periods should be
deducted from the log.

2. Interviewing a professional through e-mail has

the built-in advantage of allowing you to discuss
e-mail etiquette with your students. Most authors
have Web sites with this information. Others have
interviews available from NPR or other venues.

Write This
1. If students have kept a log of their writing habits
(“Try This Out” Question 1), this assignment should
come to them fairly easily. Have them see Chapter
13 for a discussion of the report or, more likely, the
Explainer. Thinking about their process will help
them meet WPA outcomes.

2. This activity will help students realize that writing

in professional settings is rarely like the academic
essay. They may understand how this class gives
them many more tools than the traditional essay
writing experience. Students should see Chapter 1
for more information on genre, and Chapter 6 for
profile guidelines.

145
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
CHAPTER 17
Choosing a Style
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
17.1 use plain style to write clearly and confidently.
17.2 establish a voice or tone in their papers.
17.3 use persuasive style to add energy and impact in
their writing.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter is careful to make a distinction between
what style is and is not. Style is not flowery language
or adding adjectives to make dull sentences more
exciting. Style is how you express your ideas and the
sense of authority a writer projects to the reader. More
important, style is not a quality you simply possess;
style should emerge from conscious choices based on the
writing situation.
The chapter also contains guidelines for writing in plain
style as practice for more advanced stylistic techniques.
Emphasis is placed on developing a persona, maintaining
a tone, and writing visually.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Style Makes Connections with Different Audiences
Part of this book’s focus involves profiling the audience
to make specific writing choices. A well-chosen style
may help an audience become more interested or more
invested in a topic. An enthusiastic and approachable
style may help readers become intrigued by a topic they
wouldn’t normally approach.
The appropriate style choice may help move an audience
toward a specific action. For example, the assembly
instructions for a complicated machine is no place to
experiment with ornate and complex prose. Such a style
would likely frustrate an audience that needs a plain
style to simply get the job done.
146
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Style Makes Us Acutely Aware of Context
Have you ever been in a room where someone told a joke
that fell flat and made everyone uncomfortable? Maybe
it was a good joke but just not the right place to tell it.
Have you ever thought nothing of students cursing in the
hallways but been surprised when you heard the same
language in the classroom? The appropriateness of word
choice and tone is often tied to the context in which the
choices are made and the social conventions that have
developed in those places. When we respond well to
an author’s style we are often also acknowledging the
suitability of that style in connection to the place being
descibed.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Commentaries
The commentary provides an excellent means for
introducing the idea of using style to create an
interesting and lively persona. Commentaries often
address issues that we are passionate about. Not only
can this passion translate into some lively prose, but
the deeply felt emotions allow experimentation with an
array of styles. From the righteous anger of the critical
rant to the sarcastic playfulness of parody, commentaries
invite writers to try on stylistic personas and see how
audiences will react.
Proposals
Most often, a proposal is designed to get specific action
or work done. Proposals often need to be tailored to the
specific audience in position to accept or reject them.
Style becomes an important decision in this process.
For example, when proposing work for a business or
organization, many people may be proposing similar
courses of action. In this case, the decision may be based
less on what is being said and more on how it’s being said.
An emphasis on stylistic choices can make a proposal
stand out in a sea of potential similarities!
Other Classroom Activities
Lost in Translation
It is a classic writing exercise to have students copy
the style of a popular author. Here is a variation on
that theme: Choose an essayist or fiction writer with a
particularly ornate style (an author who people say uses
“big” words or who is “difficult” to read). Have students
read and then lead a discussion on what the passage
 Chapter 17: Choosing a Style

means. Then, have them rewrite the piece in their own Having a creative metaphor to return to can lend
words. If the passage is poetry, they may even rewrite a piece of writing cohesiveness. Seeing where
the message into prose. the metaphor breaks down relates to argument
strategies and logical fallacies (Chapter 22).
Explain to students that the point of the exercise is not
to produce something better or worse than the original. Write This
Use the student compositions and the originals to lead a 1. Cultural metaphors you can give your students are:
discussion about what is lost or gained in the translation. time is money; the mind is a computer; the body is
a machine; thought is light; truth is beauty. As they
Though the student versions might be more accessible
work through the metaphors, they’ll develop the
and might get the point across quicker, shades of
ability to use this strategy on logical fallacies and in
meaning and complexity will be lost in the process. Have
creating their own metaphors.
students discuss in what contexts this trade-off might be
appropriate and link all responses to the idea of style. 2. Distinguish the difference between style and design.
This assignment should help students focus on how
End of Chapter Activities style works with language and tone. Also suggest
they see Chapter 21 for information on rhetorical
Talk About This
patterns that may be a part of style.
1. This activity will help students understand that
style often depends on audience. Group members
will most likely disagree about who is “stylish,” but
writers can’t hope to please everyone; therefore, the
author must carefully consider audience (Chapter 3).

2. As students think about how their words impact

others, they need to consider humor as a tool to
appeal to an audience.

3. It’s helpful if students can find texts that deal with

similar topics. Ask them which writer they’d like to
have coffee with. Which one would they seek advice
from? How do they come to these decisions?

Try This Out

1. Trying to imitate someone’s style is a deceptively
challenging assignment. Students may want to start
with just writing a paragraph, or they may spend
time trying to come up with phrases similar to the
author in question.

2. Exploring the uses of a cultural metaphor will help

students better understand this rhetorical device.
They can see how its meaning shifts depending
on who is speaking and what he or she is speaking
about.

3. Having students stretch their imaginations in

this assignment may give them ideas for writing
introductions for their memoirs, reviews, or reports.

147
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
18
CHAPTER
Designing
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
18.1 use principles of design to lay out a document.
18.2 use photography and images to illustrate ideas.
18.3 enhance and reinforce written text with graphs
and charts.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Composers often spend a great deal of time ensuring that
every word is “right” and in its proper place. Sometimes
this dedication to getting the wording right comes at the
expense of ignoring other important factors in a written
piece. This chapter addresses the issue of document
design in the name of helping the content and look of a
composition work together to create a stronger overall
experience for the audience.
The key with document design is realizing that these
are not merely aesthetic matters. Sure, you want your
document to look good, but merely looking good is not
the primary motivator. A well-designed document
will help shape the information and contribute to the
rhetorical purpose. The question to ask when making
design decisions is not what will this look like; rather,
what will this look accomplish?
The chapter discusses five basic principles of design:
balance, alignment, grouping, consistency, and contrast.
Instruction is also given on working with photographs
and designing charts and graphs.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Design Anticipates Audience Need
We put spaces after periods and group our sentences
into paragraphs to help the reader to read. A giant block
of text with no spaces is very difficult to read. Breaking
up the text by adding titles and headings not only makes
it more approachable, but the added white space creates
a hierarchy of information that tells an audience what is
important.
148
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Consider a Web site intended to provide members of an
organization with information they need. Strong design
ensures that the members don’t have to endlessly click
through the site (growing increasingly frustrated) to
find what they want.
Design anticipates an audience’s needs and fulfills a
promise to help them move through a document with
focus and ease. When someone has to fight with a
document just to engage with it, you will likely lose
that reader on the levels of informing, persuading, and
entertaining.
Ideas for Connections to Specific Genres
Reports
As explained in Chapter 13, people rarely read reports
in a linear fashion from front to back. A “raidable” design
places information in lists and tables that allow for
skimming. Headings and photographs also work to give
the reader useful access points.
One way to test how this raiding works is to give
students a highly visual and detailed report to scan.
Limit their time with the document to 2 or 3 minutes.
Once the time is up, have them write a short narrative
that explains the process they used to scan the report.
Ask for details about what information stood out, why
it stood out, what sections they paid more attention to,
and what information they feel was missed because of
the time restraint.
Profiles
Most profiles appear in highly visual media: magazines,
newspapers, Web sites. If the goal of a profile is to
capture some essence of a person, organization, or place,
you should see design choices as your opportunity to
highlight what cannot be captured in words.
The simplest (and a highly effective) addition to a profile
is a photograph of the person or place being profiled. The
particular photograph should be a carefully considered
choice. Ask yourself what the spirit or tone of the piece
is. Are you trying to portray this person as focused
and serious or jubilant and playful? Answering these
questions could lead to decisions about the photo’s pose,
background, and framing. Even the angle of the camera
might be considered; a photo taken from a low angle
(looking up at the subject) can have the effect of making
the subject look more powerful and important.
Pull quotes as headings also act to give a reader
 Chapter 18: Designing
information about the subject. A pull quote usually
appears in a larger, bolder font that is clearly offset from
the text. An interesting or intriguing pull quote about
your subject might be the deciding factor that leads
someone to stop and read the whole piece.
Other Classroom Activities
Design of Space
To get students to consider the design of documents, you
may find it useful to have them consider the design of
other things as well. Physical space can be viewed as a
rhetorical composition; that is, design choices for rooms
of all kinds were made with certain audiences, purposes,
and uses in mind.
The classroom works very well as a subject of analysis.
Have students freewrite for five minutes on why they
think their classroom was built and arranged in this way.
Guide them by asking: What effects does the design of the
classroom have on you as a student? Does the design of
the space encourage certain values and devalue others?
Follow up by leading a discussion on their responses.
Elements to consider:
▪▪ Size, positioning, proximity of desks
▪▪ Size, placement, functionality of windows
▪▪ Presence (or absence) of decoration on walls
▪▪ Present technologies
▪▪ Cleanliness, basic upkeep and maintenance
▪▪ Size, acoustics, spaciousness of room
End of Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Advertising budgets ensure that the best graphic
designers work with an ad, yet sometimes an ad
still flops. As students examine the ad, they should
realize that there are no accidents in advertising.
If they think a part of the design has meaning, it
probably does. Describing an ad is like summarizing
a text (Chapter 26).
2. This activity works well in a computer classroom,
students can share their observations with the class.
Each student can point out a couple of good features,
149
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
and then the groups can report their findings to the
class.
3. As students learn about successful design, they
realize that one of their potential values in the
professional world will be their ability to create
attractively, intuitively designed documents.
Try This Out
1. This assignment helps students see how much they’ve
learned from considering design as an important
feature of their work. You can have a discussion about
the ways that poor design undermines a message.
2. Have students look over the brief microgenre in
Chapter 13: the Explainer. They can present their
findings in this way so that there is attention to
design principles. Students can also look at Chapter
7 to see how design principles could be considered
criteria.
3. Using software to insert and manipulate graphics
helps students improve document design. Be sure to
illustrate how to do this because most students to
not know how.
Write This
1. Using evaluation to work with design makes sense.
The design principles already function as criteria.
Students should also review Chapters 2 and 3 to see
how topic, angle, and purpose function in the design
and to establish whether the design is appropriate
for the intended audience.
2. This assignment gives students further opportunities
to practice using the programs on their computers.
Changing things haphazardly may not be the best
option though, and writing the rationale will help
students make thoughtful decisions. Have them
consider using the computer labs on campus, which
may have more software or scanners available.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
19
CHAPTER
Revising and Editing
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
19.1 revise globally to shape a document’s overall ap-
proach.
19.2 edit the content, organization, and design of your
paper.
19.3 proofread your work carefully and quickly.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter deals with the writing process after stu-
dents have invented their ideas (Chapter 15) and writ-
ten a first draft of their project (Chapters 16, 17, 18). The
main idea is to focus on one area of concern at a time,
from big issues to smaller ones, from revising the proj-
ect’s overall structure and approach to copyediting and
proofreading the project for its final audience.
There are two reasons for taking this one-step-at-a-
time approach. First, focusing on just one issue at a time
makes it easier to see the issue you’re looking for. The hu-
man brain is superb at finding what it is looking for, but
if you tell yourself you’re going to be on the lookout for
too many issues at once, some of them will become invis-
ible. Second, it makes sense to take care of the big issues
before you take on the smaller ones. If you spent time
copyediting (getting the words, sentences, and para-
graphs just right) before you made large-scale changes
to the content, you would have to once again spend time
copyediting. Just as you wouldn’t wash and polish the
floor before you were about do a major remodeling of
your home, neither would you polish your style before
you made major changes to your document.
Many students are surprised to find that their college
writing professors are as interested in how well student
writers express themselves as they are in their ideas.
Therefore, as students revise and edit their work, or help
their colleagues revise and edit theirs, they will need
150
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
to reconsider everything: the strength of the project’s
ideas, as well as how well those ideas are structured and
expressed. This process might span several drafts.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Students Will See Writing as a Process
The levels of revision help students see that a complet-
ed draft isn’t the final step; they’re just getting started.
However, they might wonder, What do I do now? This
can be overwhelming because there are so many issues
to work on—refining their ideas, conducting research,
choosing an appropriate style, using correct grammar,
and so forth. Trying to work on everything at once might
paralyze students’ progress.
Students Gain Critical Distance and Focus
If you are going to improve your work, you need to be
able to read it critically. But when you have just finished
a draft, you are so close to it that it’s hard to see it ac-
curately or critically, to see both its strengths and weak-
nesses.
Three basic strategies will help students gain critical
distance and focus on progress. First, they can follow the
four levels of edit and use them to guide revision, which
will help them focus on one issue at a time. Second, they
can set a draft aside for a good period of time so that they
are like a different person when returning to it. Third,
they can give their draft to someone and ask them to re-
view it.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Commentaries
Rethinking their ideas based on new information they
gather is especially important for students writing com-
mentaries. For instance, students could do their own
version of the Slate.com “Factchecker” as they review the
points they make. What particular piece of evidence al-
lows them to make the point, and have they documented
it correctly? Multiple levels of revision are possible when
writing commentaries.
Rhetorical Analyses
Students writing rhetorical analyses for the Web will
find that the levels of revision help create a complete
and professional presentation. A blog post about an ar-
tifact may generate comments from others in the class
or the general public. Have students consider these com-
 Chapter 19: Revising and Editing

ments as they revise their original ideas. For examples,

see blogs where the original writer responds to the com-
ments through new posts or revisions to the original
post.

Other Classroom Activities

Analogy Game
Create a metaphor or analogy that sums up how you see
the differences among the levels of edit, from major revi-
sion to proofreading. “Moving from level 1, to level 2, to
level 3, to level 4 is like . . .” “When you’re doing a level 1
edit, it’s like. . . , but when you’re doing a level 4 edit, it’s
like. . . .”

Believing and Doubting Game

As a class, play the believing and doubting game with the
proofreading step. Why is it important to use good gram-
mar or not? Encourage students to think of examples to
back up their assertions.

End of Chapter Activities

Write This
1. Being able to identify specific issues in their own
writing will help students respond to their peers
and avoid the tendency to say, “It’s good.” Use the
genre conventions to help students get to specifics.
For instance, in reviews (Chapter 6), students may
ask what criteria would be more important to their
selected audience.

2. This activity can be very useful for both you as well

as your students. If revision is a important part of
the process, the Track Changes feature allows you to
see how much global and local revision students are
doing. They might be less reluctant to cut sections
because you can see that they wrote the ideas, even
if they’re not working for the paper.

151
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 4: STRATEGIES FOR SHAPING IDEAS
CHAPTER 20
Developing
Paragraphs and
Sections
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
20.1 write a paragraph with an effective topic sentence
and support.
20.2 get paragraphs to flow from one sentence to the
next.
20.3 make sections out of related groups of paragraphs.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter helps students understand what para-
graphs and sections do. Paragraphs and sections provide
visual cues that help readers see and understand how
the writer has structured ideas. When you can easily see
how a student has structured something, you can give
your full attention to the writing. Explain to students
that when readers see a new paragraph, they think “all
the ideas here go together and serve a single function;
they make a single point.”
Each paragraph or section serves a specific function, and
the variety of those functions is almost endless. Para-
graphs and sections can further develop an already an-
nounced issue, or they can make a transition to a new is-
sue. They can describe a series of events (a narration), a
person, a process, a problem, or an idea. They can provide
background information or delve deeply into an impor-
tant detail. In argument, they can drive home your claim,
or they can concede or refute a claim made by someone
else. They can introduce a concept, or they can conclude.
They can classify, or they can compare or contrast. They
can provide a bit of humor, and they can provide pathos.
This chapter offers a variety of ways to structure para-
graphs and sections by recognizing that within the
genre-based approach, one size does not fit all. Students
will have to make conscious choices about the way they
structure their documents.
152
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Different Genres Have Different Structural Needs
Their great variety makes it impossible to describe para-
graphs and sections in terms of hard-and-fast rules, but
it is possible to provide rules of thumb. In college writing
and in the real world, strict rules don’t reflect good writ-
ing. For instance, students may have been told in high
school that paragraphs should have a certain number of
sentences, or they may have been warned away from us-
ing sections and subsections. However, this chapter does
explain what paragraphs and sections do, and it provides
rules of thumb that will help students use them to meet
the needs of their audience and achieve their purpose.
Practical Application to Different Genres
Different genres tend to use paragraphs whose length
is tailored to their particular readers’ expectations and
how those readers read. For instance, someone who is
reading a memoir usually reads in a leisurely fashion,
so paragraphs might be longer; these longer paragraphs
make readers read more slowly, drawing them in to lis-
ten to the writer’s voice. But readers tend to read news-
papers fairly quickly, sometimes skipping and skimming,
looking for the information that matters most to them.
(When they read online, they tend to read even faster.)
When readers are skimming for information, they appre-
ciate it when topic sentences and points are announced
up front and succinctly, so they can move ahead—and
move around—quickly.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Proposals and Reports
These genres naturally require sections, which students
should be able to think logically about after using this
chapter. You may especially encourage them to think
about clever and appropriate headings for the sections
they include. Look at the selected readings that include
headings to assess the effectiveness of each heading (for
example, “Serial Murder” in Chapter 13). Students may
think about headings as very brief introductions to a sec-
tion (Chapter 19).
Other Classroom Activities
Scrambled Paragraphs
Students should bring in one paragraph from a docu-
ment they are working on. Each sentence should be on
its own strip of paper. Have the students trade slips of
paper with a partner and arrange the paragraph so that
it follows a logical order. Do the students arrange the
 Chapter 20: Developing Paragraphs and Sections

paragraph in the same way as the author? There may be

good reasons for variation, but students should consider
alternative suggestions.

1 to 100
With your group, have one member jot down and keep
private ten random numbers between 1 and 100. Now
the student should read them aloud as the other mem-
bers of the group try to remember them. Which numbers
were most likely to be remembered? What does this sug-
gest about where you should choose to locate the most
important information in a paragraph or section?

Are Topic Sentences Really Needed?

Find a paragraph that does not use a clear topic sentence
but still seems effective. What are the paragraph’s un-
derstated subject and claim? Is there more than one pos-
sibility for the subject and claim? Is the author’s decision
not to use a topic sentence in this paragraph appropriate
in this case? Why? How would the reader’s experience be
different if the author had used a clear topic sentence? In
a one-page analysis, explain why the paragraph was ef-
fective, despite its lack of a topic sentence. Then discuss
whether you would add a topic sentence and why or why
not.

End of Chapter Activities

Write This
1. This is a good activity for students to do prior to
their first peer reviews or in conjunction with peer
reviews (Chapter 18). Everyone has at least one
paragraph that could use improvement, and this ac-
tivity gives students permission to conduct strong
analysis of their peers’ work. Discuss how revising
paragraphs fits into the spectrum of revision and
editing.

2. An opportunity to see how much bad writing exists

on the Internet will help students feel better about
their own writing snafus, and it will encourage them
to be more careful with their organization because
anyone could see what they’re publishing.

153
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
21
CHAPTER
Using Basic
Rhetorical Patterns
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
21.1 use rhetorical patterns to organize ideas.
21.2 organize paragraphs and sections into familiar
patterns.
21.3 combine rhetorical patterns to make sophisticated
arguments.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter offers ways for students to enhance their
writing through using rhetorical strategies. Not only
does the chapter describe the patterns but it also sug-
gests ways for students to begin weaving some of the
patterns into their writing.
Narrative and description make student writing more
interesting to read and grade. By encouraging students
to pinpoint places in their writing where they can add
narrative or description, you’ll find that their writing be-
comes more vivid.
Definition, classification, and comparison and contrast
will make argument papers more clear and well orga-
nized. Students can begin to see how other writers use
these patterns to illustrate their points and contribute
to logos and pathos.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Rhetorical Patterns Assist in Creating Ethos, Logos, and
Pathos
Using rhetorical patterns in writing can help build a con-
nection to different audiences by appealing to emotion,
reason, and the author’s credibility. As the writer uses
description of a place, he or she builds credibility as an
expert on the place and may evoke feelings in the audi-
ence. For instance, “Hot for Creature” in Chapter 6 uses
rich detail about the profile’s subject to reveal his char-
154
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
acter. Narratives improve the credibility of a memoir or
profile, while definition helps reasonable people agree
on the basis for a commentary.
Rhetorical Patterns Show a Writer’s Personality
As student writers practice developing their voices, rhe-
torical patterns allow them to make comparisons that
suit their personalities and areas of experience or inter-
est. As genres allow students to learn flexibility in writ-
ing situations, rhetorical patterns help students learn
flexibility in their tone, style, and approach to writing
tasks. Some analogies may be more appropriate to an au-
dience that is familiar with the topic and who will find
the relationship amusing; other analogies may be neces-
sary to help an audience that has no experience with it
relate to the subject under discussion.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Memoirs and Profiles
Because narrative and description are important for
memoirs and profiles, students should work to recreate
scenes of themselves within their memoirs or of their
subjects in profiles. Narrative technique is what makes
memoir come alive for the reader and helps develop the
theme.
Literary Analyses
Several rhetorical patterns may be appropriate in liter-
ary analyses. Students should be able to use definitions
of literary terms to advance their arguments. Knowing
how a writer is using description or narrative patterns
to move the plot along will help students as they analyze
a selection. Comparison and contrast may be necessary
if students are looking at two selections from the same
author, on the same theme, or from the same time period.
Arguments
Students will often need to define their terms as they
begin to set forward an argument. They may also find
it beneficial to set up a classification system that their
readers will understand and relate to. Using description
will help build rhetorical strategies in the argument.
These patterns also set students’ ideas apart from those
of the rest of the class and allow them to use their own
voices. No one else may use their analogy as they define
it. A student who says gun control is like a tiger will be
the only student making that particular argument.
 Chapter 21: Using Basic Rhetorical Patterns

Other Classroom Activities

Analogy Game
Have students work in groups, as partners, or individu-
ally. For the topic at hand, encourage them to brainstorm
analogies, similes, or personifications that are not cli-
chéd but are creative understandings of their topic.
For instance, students studying fast-food consumption
might be encouraged to finish the sentence “Fast food is
like _____; it ______.” Can they come up with an animal?
A weather phenomenon? A geographic location? Put the
results on the board and discuss which ones are particu-
larly persuasive.

End of Chapter Activities

Write This
1. Practicing using rhetorical patterns helps students
become more comfortable trying them out in their
writing. Encourage them to consider audience (Chap-
ter 3) as they write their patterns.

2. Ask students to find patterns that have a very spe-

cific purpose and analyze whether the pattern is
meeting that purpose. Does the narrative evoke a
particular emotion in the reader? See Chapter 2 for
more discussion of purpose and Chapter 22 for dis-
cussion of emotional appeals.

155
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
22
CHAPTER
Using Argumentative
Strategies
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
22.1 determine the source and nature of an arguable
claim.
22.2 use reasoning, authority, and emotion to support
your argument.
22.3 identify and avoid logical fallacies.
22.4 rebut and refute the arguments of others.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter gives students strategies they can use as
they write in almost any genre. First, the chapter clari-
fies arguable claims—something you will probably want
to do with your students as they set out to brainstorm
their ideas (Chapter 15). The chapter provides four
sources of arguable claims: definition, causation, evalua-
tion, and recommendation. Understanding the differenc-
es between them will help students select the one most
appropriate to their writing situation.
The chapter also outlines ways that ethos,
logos, and pathos are used in arguments. Finally, the
chapter gives a chart of logical fallacies you can use with
your students. Try challenging them to find examples of
logical fallacies in op-ed pieces or advertisements.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Different Genres Use Argument in Different Ways
When writing in almost any genre, students will prob-
ably find themselves using argument as a strategy.
In a movie review (Chapter 7), the writer’s purpose
might help the audience understand what a movie is
about and decide whether they should see it; on the
way to achieving that purpose a student might use
argumentative strategies.
Some documents basically are arguments. They begin
with a claim, and throughout the document they support
156
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
that claim and explore its implications. Certain genres
are typically extended arguments: commentaries (Chap-
ter 10), arguments (Chapter 11), and proposals (Chapter
12). However, any genre could be an extended argument.
Even a memoir or a profile could argue a specific claim
and use narrative and description as strategies to sup-
port that claim.
Arguments Have Real-World Value
In college and in the professional world, the word argu-
ment has a particular meaning. An argument is not just
a dispute where someone takes one side and contends
with adversaries who disagree. While argument can be
a contest about winning and losing, in college and in the
professional world argument is about agreeing as much
as disagreeing, about cooperation as much as competi-
tion. Argument is about working out ideas, working with
others, and working in uncertainties. Argument is about
getting things done by gaining the understanding and
assent of others.
We argue when we face uncertainties. Sometimes those
uncertainties take the form of an outright disagreement
between two parties who compete with one another. We
see this most prominently in the political arena, but we
also might see such competition between two factions in
an organization.
Yet, most often we are not competing with the people
we argue with but cooperating in order to understand
an issue better. In this case, argument is as much about
agreement as it is about disagreement. The goal here is
not to have a disagreeable dispute but to reason together
to come up with the best solution.
This model of argument can also be applied to other
kinds of writing. Scientists and other researchers usu-
ally think of themselves as cooperating with other re-
searchers to better understand something—nature, hu-
man behavior, economics, engineering. They are work-
ing together to understand the important questions in
their disciplines, and they use argument to promote a
healthy conversation and pursue this understanding.
Argument Strategies Change According to Situation
Like any strategy, for an argument to be effective, it has
to be tailored to the genre and rhetorical situation. That
doesn’t mean you change positions, arguing for one side
in one situation and its opposite in another—that’s un-
ethical. However, it is ethical to adjust your strategy ac-
cording the situation; a reason that convinces one audi-
ence may not convince another. You might cite an expert
 Chapter 22: Using Argumentative Strategies

who for one audience is considered trustworthy and for but management hasn’t yet settled between two fi-
another is unreliable. nalists, the more expensive Product A and the less
expensive Product B. Management is leaning to-
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres ward Product B even though it lacks some features,
but your group believes Product A’s superior fea-
Arguments and Commentaries
tures are essential and will lead to greater profits
These genres naturally require students to put forth
and market share that will far outweigh the initial
arguable claims. Help students decide which of the four
cost. Let’s say you are in charge of writing a pro-
sources for arguable claims they should use to begin
posal that argues for the more expensive Product
their analyses. Suggest that students use Chapter 21 to
A.
help them understand how definitions can become rhe-
torical patterns that make their cases stronger. You would strive to create a document that is both
civil and productive. You want to treat opposing
Proposals viewpoints civilly by considering them fully and
Proposals are essentially arguments based on recom-
fairly. After all, these are the opinions of the de-
mendation. Students should think about how logos, ethos,
cision makers, and you are trying to change their
and pathos can bolster their proposals by disarming nay-
minds. You also want to produce an argument that
sayers with multiple strategies. Students may want to
not only wins but produces greater understanding
see Chapter 20 on paragraphs and sections to help them
of the issues.
devote certain sections to addressing elements of argu-
ment. So What?
People make arguments when the rhetorical situation
Other Classroom Activities calls for an argument, specifically when what people be-
lieve makes a difference that is significant enough that it
Skits
calls for an argument.
Give one or more groups of students the following sce-
nario and have them create a brief skit based on the pa- Give students the following inane example: Your friend
rameters. Have them perform for the class and discuss Robert, who has two cats, might strongly believe Fluffy is
the results. the sweet one and Mittens the cute one. It would even be
possible for Robert to construct a valid argument for his
You and five friends have decided to see a movie
position. However, for most situations, the consequences
tonight, but the group hasn’t settled on which of
of others not believing this are inconsequential—who
two movies to see, Movie A or Movie B. Let’s say
cares? True, you can imagine a situation and audience
that the group is evenly split and that it’s important
where it would be important (or at least entertaining)
that you see Movie A because this is the last night
to convince others, but we would hope that your friend
it’s showing. Also, the movie is relevant to a project
doesn’t bother a lot of people with this particular belief.
you are doing for your film class, so you want to
mount a strong argument to persuade your friends. Ask each student to come up with (1) an argumentative
claim that isn’t important, (2) an argumentative claim
You strive to argue civilly because the goal is deciding
that would be very important to a limited audience, and
which choice works best for the group, not criticizing
(3) an argumentative claim that is important to a broad
one another and hurting feelings. You want to acknowl-
audience. When they write them on the board or discuss
edge and treat fairly the opinions and reasoning of ev-
with others, do other students agree about their classifi-
eryone. You also strive for an argument that produces
cation? It’s especially useful if students can write claims
enhanced understanding among the group so that each
on similar issues.
person could accurately and fairly size up the situation
and come to the best decision for the group.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Give another group or two the following scenario to cre-
Write This
ate a document to share with the class.
1. This activity helps students solidify their positions
Imagine that the company you work for needs a and what they want to write about by making them
new software product to help it track inventory,
157
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

acknowledge that the other side may have valid is-

sues and concerns. Furthermore, they can check the
claims they come up with for logical fallacies. Finally,
this activity gives them counterclaims and they can
decide which ones to concede or refute.

2. This assignment would work well with Chapter 9 on

Rhetorical Analyses. Students writing ad critiques
will find that as they look at more ads, they will find
logical fallacies and assumptions that at first they
may not have noticed. Direct students to think about
audience and the implicit assumptions an ad makes
about a product.

158
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 23
CHAPTER
Collaborating and
Peer Response
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
23.1 work successfully with peers and workplace col-
leagues in groups.
23.2 work successfully in teams by doing good planning
and managing conflict.
23.3 use peer response to offer and receive helpful feed-
back.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter discusses an increasing reality of both col-
lege and career work: collaboration with other writers.
Though writing with others brings some people great
anxiety, today’s world places extra value on the process.
New technologies make collaboration easier, faster, and
cheaper than ever before.
The chapter makes a crucial distinction between work-
ing with groups and working with teams. In a group,
people work on separate but related projects. Though
work is done together, students usually turn in their own
finished product. In a team, work is split between team
members. In the end, the work is knitted together, and
one project is submitted.
Finally, the chapter outlines a number of roles that mem-
bers of groups and teams can assign to make work flow
more smoothly and efficiently.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Collaboration Acknowledges the Complexity of Writing
Review Chapter 2 of this book. In just this one chapter,
you can see that setting out to write involves a laundry
list of complicated decisions. What is the purpose? What
have other people said about this topic? What’s the best
genre to approach this topic? What will the readers ex-
pect? Where will the readers experience this document?
159
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Because an author has to make these decisions, being
part of a group or team creates a wonderful opportunity
to take a break from all that pressure. Ideally, splitting
up the work will lead to a greater appreciation of how
much goes into the writing process. However, encourage
students to divide work by responsibilities, not by sec-
tions of the paper. Their project will run more smoothly
if each person knows what to do, and what to expect oth-
ers to do. While there are always overlaps and tradeoffs,
the following responsibilities provide a good division of
labor.
Researcher(s): These group members are responsible for
finding the information you will need to create your pro-
posal. This includes statistics, interviews, similar pro-
posals, data (may include charts or tables)—anything
that can serve as evidence to back up points or as models
to follow while writing. Researchers should take notes
that other team members can use, and keep track of
which information came from which sources. It is their
responsibility to create the bibliography.
Writer(s): Writers take information from the research-
ers and turn it into the sentences and paragraphs that
the audience will eventually read (this includes low-
stakes and final assignment). They are responsible for
the logical flow, or the unity, of the document, for its pro-
fessional style and persuasive power, and for correctly
and conscientiously using in-text citations. Each group
member should assume this role in some way.
Designer: The designer must lay out the document in a
manner that is professional, logical and consistent. He
or she will format the cover letter and title page, create
and insert tables, charts and other visuals, and create
and place headings. This group member may also work
closely with researcher(s) in creating visually appeal-
ing charts and tables using data/evidence collected by
researchers.
Editor: It is this group member’s responsibility to per-
form the final edit, making sure each part of the pro-
posal works and contributes to the whole document,
and to proofread it prior to submission (this includes
low-stakes and final assignment). It is their responsibil-
ity to verify all sources and make sure graphics in pro-
posal are accurately documented in text and at the end
of document.
Coordinator: While this person is not “in charge” per se,
he or she should make sure everyone has the opportuni-
ty to be heard, facilitate meetings and records minutes,
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

remind members of and maintain deadlines, ensures that End-of-Chapter Activities

the proposal’s parts are coming together, and integrate
that work into a single document; this team member fur-
ther assigns editing tasks and submits meeting minutes,
low-stakes assignments, and the final assignment.
Wiki Coordinator/Designer: This group member sets up
the Wiki, answers questions about using it, and orga-
nizes/creates files and sections. All group members can
edit/contribute, but designate one person to set it up and
perform maintenance.
Built-in Readers
Chapter 3 is almost entirely about the importance of the
reader in anything we compose. Readers come with ex-
pectations, values, and predispositions that should be
considered as part of the composing process. This can
often involve composing for an imaginary audience and
making educated guesses about what they will be like.
Write This
1. Encourage students to think about the design of the
classroom in addition to workplace dynamics. How
might the physical space affect the mental work that
goes on in the room? See Chapter 12 for more infor-
mation on proposals.
2. If you use online activities for your class, this assign-
ment may give you new ideas and help you pinpoint
particularly useful activities. See Chapter 12 for the
pitch as a microgenre. Also have students look at
Chapter 29 if they need more ideas for using social
media in class.

Collaborating with others allows group members to pose

questions that can be addressed in the drafting phase
long before the document reaches a wider audience.
People often fear that feedback in these kinds of settings
will lead to sugarcoated responses and this can happen.
However, when you consider that teams have an invested
interest in supporting each other’s work, there is a high
chance for honest and useful feedback.

Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres

Proposals
Students can effectively work in groups writing propos-
als because they can divide the research into several
chunks, making each person an expert in one or more
areas of the proposal-writing process. Be sure that each
person in the group can take responsibility for his or her
tasks. Students may also present their proposals to the
class in groups.

Reports
For field or observation reports, having students collect
data individually and then aggregate and make sense of
the data in groups will yield a more universal conclusion
for the group’s final analysis. At this point all members of
the group will have experience with the subject, and they
will have to resolve their own conclusions with the con-
clusions of the entire group. Students can be responsible
for design and publication of the report.

160
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 5: DOING RESEARCH
24
CHAPTER
Starting Research
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
24.1 develop a dependable “research process” that will
help them inquire into topics that interest them.
24.2 assess whether sources are reliable and
trustworthy.
24.3 devise a “research plan” for a project that stays on
schedule and keeps track of sources and evidence.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Our main message in this chapter is that research is a
process. To this point in their academic careers, your stu-
dents have probably viewed research as a matter of col-
lecting sources. This approach is problematic for a few
reasons: First, true research is a process of open-ended
inquiry, not a matter of collecting sources that support
or “prove” what the researcher already believes. Second,
students need to learn how to ask good research ques-
tions and formulate hypotheses to answer those ques-
tions. That’s not possible if their thesis was formed be-
fore they did their research. Third, students get the false
impression that research mostly involves collecting elec-
tronic and print sources, not doing empirical research.
Our aim in this chapter is to show students that research
is a step-by-step process that allows them to engage in
open-ended inquiry.
Teaching a Research Process
The chapter provides a common and effective process.
After students settle on a topic, have them do the follow-
ing:
1. Define a research question and sharpen it.
If you want students to do meaningful research, you
need to insist that they sharpen their research question.
If they come up with a question that is too broad or com-
plex, they are not going to get good results from their
research. To help them sharpen their research question,
keep asking them “What is new about your topic that
brought this question about?” and “What has changed
recently about this topic?”
161
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
2. Develop a working thesis or hypothesis.
A hypothesis is a best guess about how the research
question will be answered. If your student seems to be
formulating a hypothesis that you consider unworkable,
just let it go for the moment. One of the things we want to
show students is that hypotheses sometimes need to be
changed. Let the facts help the student see that his or her
hypothesis isn’t quite on the mark.
3. Develop a research plan.
Some teachers like to see a detailed research plan in
written form. Others are content with a brief descrip-
tion or outline of each student’s approach to research-
ing the topic. We recommend you gather something from
your students that describes step-by-step how they are
going to do their research. That way, if they are relying
too much on one kind of source (e.g., Internet or books)
you can steer them to other kinds of sources. Or, if they
are planning an empirical project that is not feasible, you
can get them to revise it or scale it back. Writing out the
research plan is important because they need to exter-
nalize the research process to see that research is not
simply a matter of collecting sources.
Figure 24.1 in Writing Today shows a diagram of the
research process based on the scientific method. Go
through this diagram with your students, showing them
how research is a recursive process that allows research-
ers to move closer and closer to a working thesis.
Doing Start-up Research
We recommend asking your students to do pre-research,
or start-up research. Today, most or all of us engage in
this kind of informal research when we have a question
to answer. Primarily, we use Internet search engines to
gain an overall sense of the topic and how people are
talking about it. Start-up research can also be extended
to a quick library search or discussions with experts on
campus.
The idea of start-up research is to get your students go-
ing and give them an overall familiarity with the topic
they are researching. They may find that the topic is
more complex than they realized, or they may see that
there are more sides to the issue than they originally
thought. That’s good. We don’t want students to settle
too early on a final answer to their research question.
We also hope that they figure out at the start whether
they are going to need to narrow their research question
further.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Some teachers insist that students not use resources
like Wikipedia or other online encyclopedias. But stu-
dents are going to use those resources, even if you pro-
hibit them. It’s fine to tell students that Wikipedia is not
a source they can cite in their texts. However, Wikipedia
and similar sites are often good places to gain a quick
overview of the issues and people involved in a topic.
Such sites can be helpful for doing start-up research.
Assessing a Source’s Reliability
This discussion is perhaps equally important to the dis-
cussion of a research process. With all the information
available at our fingertips, the problem is no longer col-
lecting enough information but managing the incredible
amount of information available to us. Your students
need to learn how to sort through all the voices, opin-
ions, and texts available about their topic to figure out
who is credible and who isn’t.
Teach students how to challenge their sources. Ask them
to list the urban myths they are aware of, or can find on
the Web sites that chronicle urban myths. Then have
them look at sources to determine who they can trust
and who they can’t trust. You might also have them ex-
plore junk science. But be careful that some of the more
prominent peddlers of junk science are the first to claim
that others are engaging in the activity.
Managing Your Students’ Research Process
If your students follow a real research process, they
are going to experience frustrating roadblocks to find-
ing information and challenges to their original beliefs.
And that’s what we are hoping for. We want them to get
a sense of how real researchers work. Research is un-
certain and at times frustrating. It’s not a simple, “now
I need to collect a few sources to back all this stuff up”
kind of experience.
Check in with your students regularly. Ask them about
their successes and the roadblocks they find. Encour-
age them to work around the roadblocks. Your goal is to
teach the research process, not to have them figure out
the truth about a topic or support their own truth.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. This group activity is designed to get students think-
ing about topics that interest them. More than likely,
your students will list rather broad topics. So, make
sure you have them narrow their topics as much as
possible. The group can serve as a sounding board
for ideas.
162
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
2. With a research question in hand, ask your students
to do start-up research on the Internet. Then, have
them begin formulating an answer to their research
question (a hypothesis). Your students may find that
their topic is too broad. If so, ask them to narrow it
more and do another round of start-up research.
3. Your students may have been told something like
“Internet bad, library good.” That’s just not true any-
more. The Internet has lots of junk on it, but it also
has solid, reliable information. And, as print becomes
cheaper and cheaper, the existence of a book doesn’t
mean the source is reliable. Plus, as more print texts
like journals, magazines, and newspapers go online,
the line between electronic and print sources has be-
come blurred. Have students debate the advantages
and limitations of electronic and print sources.
Try This Out
1. Start-up research is a good way to determine if a top-
ic is too broad or if initial assumptions about the top-
ic were off base. Make sure you have students e-mail
you their description of what kinds of information
is available on their topic. Doing this will encourage
them to start thinking about the ways they can com-
plete their research on their topics.
2. Writing out a research plan can be time-consuming,
but it’s worth the effort. By asking your students to
describe their research methodology, you will get
them thinking more broadly about the kinds of ma-
terials they need to track down. It will also help them
learn that research is a recursive process.
Write This
1. This activity should probably be an assignment unto
itself. You can sequence this writing of the research
plan with the drafting of the document for which stu-
dents need to do research. If you make this activity
a formal assignment, you will have a good chance to
review your students’ research process before they
get too far into it.
2. Journaling about research can be an interesting re-
flective activity. It helps your students step back
from the research process to figure out why they are
doing their research in a particular way. Remember,
our goal is to teach the process, not to concern our-
selves with what students discover about their topic.
If you are going to ask for a research journal (or blog),
check it twice a week. Otherwise, your students will
write the journal after their research project is com-
pleted.
 25
CHAPTER
Finding Sources and
Collecting Evidence
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
25.1 recognize the differences between primary and
secondary sources.
25.2 triangulate research by collecting evidence from
electronic, print, and empirical resources.
25.3 use reliable strategies to find and evaluatge
electronic sources.
25.4 collect evidence from a variety of print sources.
25.5 do empirical research with interviews, surveys,
and field observations.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
As we explained in the previous chapter, our goal is to
teach students that research is a recursive, open-ended
process. Finding sources is not the end-point to that pro-
cess, but such an important component of research, you
should spend significant time teaching them how to col-
lect reliable sources from a variety of media.
Triangulating Sources
The word triangulation has many meanings in contem-
porary culture, some positive and some negative. In this
chapter, we try to play off the positive meanings by sug-
gesting that students’ research should be multidimen-
sional and multimodal. The “research triangle” is an
easy way for them to remember that information should
be collected from a variety of different kinds of sources.
Our recommendation is to require students to collect
sources from all three corners of the research triangle
for any major research project. They will quickly locate
a list of electronic sources. Print sources might require
more effort, but with electronic access to most libraries,
locating print sources simply requires a few more steps.
Empirical sources can be challenging; we want students
163
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
to recognize that they can collect their own data and ask
others for information.
Once students have collected information from a variety
of sources, have them triangulate what they found. As we
discuss in this book, finding similar information from all
three corners of the triangle means it should be reliable.
Information from only two corners of the triangle can be
suspect. And if they can only find one type of source for a
claim or fact, it should be treated skeptically.
The research triangle is, admittedly, an artificial way to
get students thinking about gathering a variety of sourc-
es. It should not be taught as a hard-and-fast rule of re-
search. It should be used as a tool to persuade students
to be more critical about what kinds of information are
needed to make a good argument.
Finding Electronic Sources
Most of today’s students know how to use search engines
like Google or Yahoo. However, they probably don’t know
how to narrow their searches to target the kinds of infor-
mation they need. Discuss how search engines work and
how using key terms and symbols can help students find
more reliable information.
Don’t forget about other kinds of electronic sources.
Many documentaries, podcasts, television programs,
and other kinds of broadcast materials are widely avail-
able. Students can often borrow documentaries from
the campus library or through a service like Netflix.
Podcasts and television programs are widely available
through iTunes, Hulu, and YouTube.
Finding Print Sources
A thorough discussion of how to use your campus library
is a must. At most universities, students do not receive a
formal introduction to the campus library’s catalog sys-
tem, databases, and indexes. Unless you do it, chances
are your students won’t learn how to use their library
effectively.
Finding print sources through the library is not much
more difficult than finding them through an Internet
search engine. Show your students how your library’s
Web site can be used to locate books and articles on their
topic.
We recommend a field trip to the library and perhaps
a scavenger hunt. You can often schedule a librarian to
lead a tour and show students the kinds of sources avail-
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
able. Most students think books when libraries are men-
tioned, but college libraries hold much more than books.
You want to show your students what journals look like
and how they are accessed. Let them tour any special
rooms like map rooms or video rooms.
As print sources increasingly appear online, you may
find yourself unsure about the distinction between
print and electronic sources. That line will continue to
blur until it probably disappears altogether. For now, we
tell our students that print sources are those they can
locate through the library (with exceptions like newspa-
pers and magazines that also appear online). Electronic
sources are ones that appear exclusively in electronic
form.
Finding Empirical Sources
In this section of Writing Today, we give students guide-
lines for doing interviews, surveys, and field observa-
tions. Don’t worry about whether your students are do-
ing empirical research that will stand up to the scrutiny
of the scientific community. The important thing is that
they are out there collecting their own information and
data.
Students resist doing empirical research because they
don’t want to talk to other people if they don’t need to.
So, make empirical research a required component of
any research project. Surely there is an expert on your
campus or in your area who can speak with them about
their topic. Or they can find people through e-mail to
interview. They can do unscientific surveys to see how
people feel about a topic, or they can do observations on
campus or in your community.
Our intention is not to teach students how to do scientific
empirical research; that’s not teachable in one semester.
Rather, it is to show them the importance of collecting
information from other than electronic and print sourc-
es. Empirical information can confirm or challenge what
is found in other kinds of sources.
Assigning an Annotated Bibliography
Instructors often assign annotated bibliographies as an
intermediate step in the research project. An annotated
bibliography urges students to find and read good sourc-
es and it gives you a chance to review their sources to
make sure they are finding appropriate information and
drawing good conclusions. Chapter 13 discusses how to
write them and provides an example.
164
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
We recommend asking students to do more than simply
summarize their sources. After a summary, they should
also briefly explain how the source fits their topic and
their argument.
We also recommend requiring students to use MLA or
APA style for their bibliographic entries. Doing this will
give them a chance to practice using these bibliographic
styles, and it will help you check to see that they are us-
ing them properly.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. The real task in this activity is to have students
come up with ideas for empirical sources. Have each
member of the group brainstorm about the kinds of
sources needed for his or her research project. Most
students will list typical print sources and talk about
using the Internet.
2. Encourage your students to look for journal articles
as well as books. Depending on the topic, some kinds
of sources are more reliable than others. Print sourc-
es are good for traditional college research topics.
For popular subjects like television or popular cul-
ture, electronic sources may be the best place to find
information. Also, have students articulate what
kinds of empirical information might help them find
the information they need.
3. This exercise is intended to show them that elec-
tronic sources can be useful for some kinds of top-
ics. Many students have been taught that electronic
sources are completely unreliable, however. Have
them refer to the information in Chapter 24 and this
chapter to help determine whether a kind of source
can be trusted and how to determine its trustwor-
thiness.
Try This Out
1. This activity is designed to move students beyond
using electronic sources alone. By asking them to lo-
cate print sources and list them, this activity encour-
ages them to include a variety of relevant, credible
resources.
2. Make sure students do more than type in a few key
words in an Internet search engine. Have them nar-
row and focus their searches with the symbols and
strategies discussed in this chapter.
 Chapter 15: Finding Sources and Collecting Evidence

3. The purpose of this activity is to have them create

their empirical tools and then submit them for ap-
proval or guidance.

Write This
1. Students often don’t know how people in their field
do research. Ask your students what they know
about how researchers operate in their major. A few
of them will say something like, “I won’t need to do
research because I’m going to be an architect.” Many
students have the impression that “real” research
is something done by people in lab coats. So have
them do research on their field to see what kinds of
research are common.

2. Students like to locate suspicious sources and share

them with others. Political Web sites are ripe with
misinformation (unfortunately) and there are plenty
of special interest groups that twist the facts. Have
your students locate dubious online sources and ex-
plain why they think the information is biased, mis-
leading, or disingenuous. Ask them to pick a few and
write a brief explaining why the sources are ques-
tionable.

165
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
26
CHAPTER
Citing, Quoting,
Paraphrasing, and
Summarizing Sources
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
26.1 cite sources to give credit to other authors and
researchers.
26.2 quote other authors and speakers.
26.3 use paraphrase and summary to explain the ideas
of others.
26.4 frame quotes, paraphrases, and summaries in
texts.
26.5 avoid plagiarizing the words and ideas of others.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter distinguishes three basic ways that writers
incorporate information, ideas, and words from others
into their texts. It also explains how to incorporate, pro-
viding many examples; and it explains why writers use
material from others—not because it looks impressive
or is required but because it allows writers to “enter a
larger conversation . . . within a specific discipline.” Fi-
nally, it explains what plagiarism is and how to avoid it.
Your students will also need ample practice applying
principles. Both in and out of class, they should be work-
ing with material from other sources, and they should
be doing so not just while reading this chapter but while
working in specific genres throughout the semester.
Writing Today provides the principles and many activi-
ties for practice.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is discussed at length in Writing Today in
terms of what a student needs to know. As a teacher who
assigns writing, however, you need to understand pla-
giarism with greater sophistication: what plagiarism is
and is not, why students plagiarize, what are the best
166
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
practices for reducing the likelihood of plagiarism and
how to handle the situation when plagiarism occurs.
Find out whether your program or school has specific
policies for handling plagiarism. If so, read and under-
stand these policies, or seek out the person who directs
the writing program be­fore you take any action when
you encounter plagiarism.
The most authoritative and helpful resource for under-
standing, avoiding, and handling plagiarism is “Defin-
ing and Avoiding Plagiarism,” created and provided by
the Council of Writing Program Administrators (CWPA).
This statement is available at www.wpacouncil.org/
positions/WPAplagiarism.pdf.
Best Practices for Handling and Reducing the Likelihood
of Plagiarism
There is no guaranteed method for preventing plagia-
rism, but the CWPA’s “Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism”
describes the following best practices (and others) in de-
tail.
▪▪ Explain plagiarism and develop clear policies (see
“Preparing for a New Semester” in Part I of this man-
ual).
▪▪ Teach students how to quote, summarize, and cite
properly, and give them practice doing so (see Chap-
ter 26 of Writing Today).
▪▪ Improve the design and sequence of assignments
(see “Designing Writing Assignments” in Part I of
this manual).
▪▪ Support each step of the research process; make the
research process, and the technology used for it, vis-
ible; and attend to conventions of different genres of
writing (see chapters 24 through 28 of Writing To-
day and their corresponding chapters in this guide).
▪▪ Show students how to evaluate their sources (see
Chapter 25 of Writing Today).
▪▪ Distinguish between misuse of sources and plagia-
rism. Plagiarism is a deliberate act of “submitting
someone else’s text as one’s own or attempting to
blur the line between one’s own ideas or words and
those borrowed from another source”; misuse of
sources is “carelessly or inadequately citing ideas
and words borrowed from another source.” Al-
though they can be hard to distinguish, they need to
be handled in different ways.
 Chapter 26: Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources

▪▪ Ask students for documentation (see Chapter 25 of

Writing Today on annotated bibliographies).

Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals

Gaining Authority Through Citation; Getting Things
Done
Writing Today stresses that effective writing “gets things
done in the world.” If writing is to have that power, a
writer needs to establish a credible ethos, and one of the
most powerful means for doing that is showing readers
that the writer has engaged with the larger conversation
about an issue.

Different Genres and Situations Call for Similar Citation

Strategies
Although the conventions of citation vary across genres
and disciplines, many of the strategies remain relatively
the same. For instance, although different disciplines
use different citation systems (MLA, APA, and many oth-
ers), most readers of academic and professional writ-
ing expect that quoted and summarized material will
be “framed” in a similar way, with a signal phrase, the
presentation of quoted or summarized material, and an
explicit connection between that material and the ideas
of the writer.

Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres

Why Writers Use Sources
Sometimes the quotations in students’ writing appear
to have been parachuted in from nowhere. This happens
because students often have difficulty understanding
why writers use sources. Help them understand how to
use sources by explaining why they would use sources
to further the goals of their writing projects in a variety
of genres.

167
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Figure 3.1: Basic reasons for incorporating materials from others and examples from a
variety of genres.
PURPOSE
Providing information and
data—Use information and
data to provide context or
evidence.
Borrowing concepts and
terms—Use key terms,
principles, or concepts from
a source and apply them to
your own project.
Illustrating with exam-
ples—Illustrate principles
and provide evidence with
examples that give presence
to your claims and make
them tangible.
Citing the opinions of ex-
perts—Use the special
authority of experts to back
up your own claims.
Extending or opposing the
positions of others—De-
scribe the positions of other
writers so that you can op-
pose them, correct them,
or advance them into new
areas.
EXAMPLES FROM A VARIETY OF GENRES
P Argument on undocumented immigration: data about the number
of immigrants, how many attended public schools, and the dollar
amount of local taxes paid.
P Profile of a local television celebrity: information about the celeb-
rity’s life and career and a summary of her ratings.
P Argument, commentary, or proposal about the increasing amount of
homework in high school: cite and distinguish the key terms “explicit
learning” and “collateral learning” to help argue that both kinds of
learning must be encouraged.
P Proposal for oil drilling in your local urban area: borrow and distin-
guish the terms “recoverable oil reserve” and “economically recover-
able oil reserve.”
P Profile about your grandfather’s life as the millwright of the now-
closed steel mill: summarize events in his life that you gathered from
interviews and elsewhere that illustrate who he was and what he
stood for.
P Literary analysis of a short story that focuses on its metaphors: your
quoting and citing specific metaphors used in the short story illus-
trate how the author uses those metaphors.
P Proposal for oil drilling in your local urban area: a report from the
U.S. Department of Energy on oil reserves would be considered au-
thoritative and carry a lot of weight.
P Profile about your grandfather’s life as the millwright of the now-
closed steel mill: a history professor who has written on the history
of U.S. steel mills would be considered an expert.
P Commentary on performance-enhancing drugs: explain the position
of an author who argues that we must monitor and ban performance
enhancement; concede some of her points and refute others to ad-
vance your argument that performance enhancement is becoming so
widespread in so many areas that we are going to have to adjust our
ethics, which will require a new kind of debate about the issue.
P Argument, commentary, or proposal about the increasing amount
of homework in high school: explain the position of an author who
argues that video games develop a person’s ability to solve problems
and extend the author’s argument to the issue of homework, arguing
that forcing students to spend all their time doing homework pre-
vents them from learning other life skills from various forms of play
and social interaction.
168
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Chapter 26: Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Sources
Other Classroom Activities
Students need ample practice in weaving the ideas and
words of others into their writing. When they are com-
fortable with citation, they are more likely to use outside
sources and to cite them properly.
Practicing the Process of Quotation, Paraphrase, and
Summary
This can be done as in- or out-of-class activity, and it can
be done individually or in small groups. In this activity,
students should be working with a relatively easy but
engaging source text that is relevant to their current
writing project. Adapt this activity to the level of your
students.1
1. First, read through the source text, underlining key
phrases and making notes in the margin.
2. Now reread very quickly, paying close attention to
headings, passages you’ve underlined, and to first
sentences of paragraphs. Make quick notes.
3. Close the book; in a single sentence and in your own
words, write out the text’s main point or claim. If
you’re summarizing the author’s line of reasoning,
write a sentence about how the author develops and
backs up his or her claims.
4. With the book still closed, write a paragraph-length
summary of the text.
5. Now go back through and check your summary
against the source text. If your sentence structure
and phrasing are similar to the text’s, just quote the
text directly and accurately, and be sure to cite the
page numbers in parentheses.
6. Improve the summary.
a. Add signal phrases with action verbs (e.g.,
“Smith argues that . . .”) where necessary to
indicate what the author is doing (arguing,
complaining, objecting, concluding, etc.) and
to indicate whose ideas and words you’re
summarizing.
b. Make sure the summary is both brief and
accurate
1
This activity extends Rebecca Moore Howard’s recommendations
for teaching summary in “Plagiarisms, Authorships, and the Academ-
ic Death Penalty” (College English 57 [1995]: 788-806. Print).
169
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
c. Make sure that a person who had not read the
source text could understand the text’s contents
and main claims.
d. Make sure the source text is cited.
7. Add direct quotations from the text.
a. Weave words, phrases, or sentences into your
writing.
b. Use a block quote for a long quotation.
c. Make sure you have cited accurately.
Revising “Patchwriting”
After reviewing the discussions of “patchwriting” in
Writing Today, instruct your students to revise a patch-
written passage so that it quotes exact words and phras-
es and cites them. Use the example in Writing Today or
create one that deals with material that is currently un-
der discussion in your class.
Checklist for Quotation, Paraphrase, and Summary
Have your students use these questions as they examine
their own work and their classmates’ work where they
have quoted, paraphrased, or summarized sources.
1. Have I chosen the best strategy (quoting, summariz-
ing, paraphrasing) for representing the material?
2. Have I prepared my reader for the source material?
Will my readers understand or need to know
▪▪ that research material is about to appear?
▪▪ who the author is?
▪▪ the author’s credentials, expertise, or bias?
▪▪ where the material appeared?
3. Have I connected the material to my project by clear-
ly explaining how the material supports my points
and claims?
4. Have I used too much quotation? If you have more
than one block quotation per page, that’s probably
too much.
5. Does the source material flow together with my
words logically, grammatically, and smoothly?
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

6. Have I presented the material accurately and fairly?

7. Have I cited the material properly with MLA (Chap-

ter 27), APA (Chapter 28), or another citation style?

End-of-Chapter Activities
Write This
1. This activity provides practice summarizing. You
can extend this by instructing students to incorpo-
rate different kinds of quotations—single words,
phrases, whole sentences, and sentence sequences
in long quotes. Consider making this an assignment
that requires “full competency”: students must sub-
mit a fully competent performance or they will be
required to revise and resubmit until they achieve
the level of competence that shows they understand
how to correctly use sources without plagiarizing.

2. When students engage with this activity, they will

not only improve their ability to state a position in a
position paper but will also acquire a better under-
standing about using sources. As they invent ideas
for avoiding plagiarism, they will be teaching them-
selves how to avoid plagiarism.

170
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
CHAPTER 27 Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Literary Analyses
Literary Analyses are a logical choice for practicing MLA
style. Ask students to consider why MLA is the most ap-
propriate style for literary analyses. Explain that names
Using MLA Style and page numbers help the reader track down the origi-
nal source. Dates are less important to literary analysis
because it depends on ideas over the most recent statis-
tical information.
In this chapter, students will learn how to:

27.1 use MLA parenthetical citations. Classroom Activities

Web Page Analysis
27.2 create bibliographics entries for a Works Cited list.
Have students print and bring in a Web page (like the
27.3 prepare a Works Cited list in MLA style. ones in the book). In groups they should practice cre-
ating citations in MLA style for the pages they bring
Looking at the Chapter in Brief in. Have them consider what to do when information is
missing from the page.
The chapter on MLA style provides a range of artifacts to
cite. The current information helps students realize that
they will have to look up how to do the citation for each Online Resources
source they use. Explain that it’s important to include Citation Machine
time for writing and planning when creating the Works http://citationmachine.net/
Cited page and for looking up how to do citations.
A straightforward, easy to use citation wizard.
This chapter includes Web pages for students to practice
Style Wizard
locating information they will need to use in citations.
http://www.stylewizard.net/
Using online citation wizards will help students as well.
Some databases allow students to e-mail citations to Good for citing bibliographies. Uses APA 6th edition (5th
themselves in MLA style. edition also available).

Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals

Citation Builds Ethos
Finding good sources and citing them correctly builds
a writer’s credibility. A scientific experiment that can-
not be replicated is worthless; in the same way, using a
source that the reader cannot easily find is problematic.
Correctly doing citations does not win accolades, but the
audience notices when they are incorrect!

Citations Reflect Ethical Research

Citations indicate that the writer has represented the
original source ethically by reading it in its entirety and
selecting information to bolster his or her own points.
Using other people’s work gives a writer real responsi-
bility to represent that work accurately.

171
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

28
Ask students to consider why APA is the most appropri-
CHAPTER ate style for reports. You may need to explain that the
process of attaching dates to information helps readers
understand how current is the information they are get-
ting. Students may also need to understand that in APA,

Using APA Style they look at information as a whole rather than at the
exact language used in MLA style.

In this chapter, students will learn how to:
28.1 use APA parenthetical citations.
28.2 create bibliographic entries for a References list.
28.3 prepare a References list in APA style.
Classroom Activities
Web Page Analysis
Have students print and bring in a Web page (like the
ones in the book). In groups they should practice cre-
ating citations in APA style for the pages they bring in.
Have them consider what to do when information is
missing from the page.

Looking at the Chapter in Brief

Online Resources
The chapter on APA style provides a range of artifacts
Citation Machine
to cite. The current information helps students realize
http://citationmachine.net/
that they will have to look up how to do the citation for
A straightforward, easy to use citation wizard.
each source they use. Explain that it’s important to in-
clude time for writing amd planning when creating the Style Wizard
Reference page and looking up how to do citations. http://www.stylewizard.com
Good for creating bibliographies. Uses APA 6th edition
This chapter includes Web pages for students to prac-
(the 5th edition is still available as well).
tice locating information they will need to use in cita-
tions. Using online citation wizards will help students
as well. Some databases allow students to e-mail cita-
tions to themselves in APA style.

Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals

Citation Builds Ethos
Finding good sources and citing them correctly builds
a writer’s credibility. A scientific experiment that can-
not be replicated is worthless; in the same way, using a
source that the reader cannot easily find is problematic.
Doing citations correctly does not win accolades, but
the audience notices when they are incorrect!

Citations Equal Ethical Research

Citations indicate that the writer has represented the
original source ethically by reading it in its entirety and
selecting information to bolster his or her own points.
Using other people’s work gives a writer the responsi-
bility to represent that work accurately.

Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres

Reports
Reports are a logical choice for practicing APA style.
172
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 6: GETTING YOUR IDEAS OUT THERE
29
CHAPTER
Writing with Social
Networking
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
29.1 create a social network site.
29.2 start a blog.
29.3 contribute an article to a wiki.
29.4 upload videos and podcasts to the Internet.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
The purpose of this chapter is to offer students options
for taking their writing public. The availability of
blogs, social networking sites, wikis, and audio-video
broadcasting sites gives your students a chance to work
outside and beyond the classroom. In our experience,
when students are asked to go public with their writing,
they feel more invested and work harder on creating
something they are proud of.
Some writing instructors are making new media a
required feature of assignments. Others are simply
adding new media as an option, often for extra credit.
Our guess is that new media will become a standard
component of the composition classroom and a college
paper won’t be produced on paper at all. This chapter
should help your students experiment with new media
options.
Social Networking Sites
Most of your students will already have a social network-
ing site, probably Facebook or MySpace. Until now, they
have been using it to communicate with their friends and
to have fun. You can show them that social networking
sites are also a good medium for publishing their ideas
and making contacts that can help them in the future.
173
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ask your students to start their own social networking
sites if they haven’t already. Have them choose among
Facebook, MySpace, Bebo, LinkedIn, and Spoke. Once you
get them going, they will usually do the rest.
Our suggestion is that you not require your students to
list you, the instructor, as a friend. Let them make that
decision. For many of your students, their social net-
working site is a personal space in which their instructor
would be an intrusion. For the same reason, we recom-
mend you not invite your students to be a friend on your
personal social networking site. Instead, create a class
site that makes those kinds of connections.
Blogging
Blogs can be required. You might ask students to create
their own blog, or you could create a class blogs to which
they all contribute. There are free blogging host sites,
such as Blogger.com, Wordpress.com, Blogsome.com, and
Moveable Type, that your students can use. If your stu-
dents are already bloggers, we suggest letting them use
the one they like. If they are not bloggers, you can specify
the one you want them to use.
You probably don’t need to be looking over students’
shoulders as they create a blog. Just give them the ba-
sic instructions, tell them to do it as homework and send
you the address the next day. More than likely, they will
succeed at creating their own blog.
You can decide how you want to incorporate this tech-
nology into your class. Students can use their blog as a
journal or to post responses to readings. They can col-
laborate through their blogs.
Wikis
Wikis are becoming common in the workplace, and they
are already common in academics. So first-year composi-
tion is a good place to teach students how to operate in a
wiki environment.
A good place to start is demonstrating how wikis work.
Most of your students are probably familiar with Wikipe-
dia and other large wiki sites, so show them how these
wikis are produced and edited. Wikipedia has grown to
the point where its editors are restrictive about who
can make changes to the site, but other wikis, such as
WikiHow, WikiTravel, and ProductWiki, can be used as ex-
amples for editing. You could demonstrate how to edit an
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
article on one of these wikis and then ask your students
to add or edit an article themselves.
Some writing instructors are much more heavily invest-
ed in wikis: The material from their course goes on the
wiki, and students share their work through the wiki.
Videos and Podcasts
Your students are no doubt familiar with YouTube and
other video broadcasting sites. They are also probably
aware of podcasting. The audio and video capabilities of
today’s computers allow them to create their own videos
and podcasts, which they can then put on the Web.
Podcasting is something you can ask of your students.
Minimally, you can ask them to read a paper out loud to
create a podcast. They can edit their podcast with audio
software such as Adobe Audition, Audacity, Garage Band,
and Cubase. Then they can put it on a Web site or upload
it to Podcast Alley, Digg, or Podcast Pickle. You will need to
introduce these tools to your students, but they will pick
up on them rather quickly. Don’t spend too much time
holding their hands.
Making videos is a bit more complex, so you shouldn’t re-
quire your students to use video for an assignment. They
will need access to a digital video recorder and good ed-
iting software like MS Movie Maker, Final Cut, or iMovie.
Uploading the video to a video sharing site is not diffi-
cult, but you should show them where and how to do it.
Generally, they can figure out how to upload their work
by following the directions on the site.
End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. This exercise will help you gauge your class’s fa-
miliarity with new media tools. More than likely,
you will be surprised at how much new media your
students already use. Your students can share their
experiences with each other, showing what kinds of
interesting opportunities are available.
2. Students probably aren’t going to know what is hap-
pening in the workplace, so this task might be a good
lead-in to an overnight exercise. Ask them to talk to
their parents or search the Internet to find out how
people in the workplace are using the new media
tools.
3. You can locate many articles on the Internet that dis-
cuss this very issue. We suggest you have these kinds
174
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
of articles ready for your students. They may also
have strong opinions of their own about this topic.
Try This Out
1. This activity is a good one to start a talk about the
readers in social networking sites. Like most stu-
dents, those in your class probably see their social
networking site as a place to stay in touch with
friends and post stories and pictures. You might
have them talk about alternative audiences and how
unexpected readers might react to the materials
sometimes shown on social networking sites. Your
students will claim that only their “friends” have ac-
cess to their site, yet many employers are using these
sites to do research on potential employees.
2. This assignment should be kept simple. Have stu-
dents introduce themselves or read one of their pa-
pers. Then ask them to do minimal editing and up-
load the video or audio to the Web.
3. Students will immediately find Wikipedia. That’s
fine. Have them turn to other wikis to compare and
contrast what they find on Wikipedia. Ask them to
explain why some information differs among wikis.
Write This
1. It’s unlikely your students are familiar with all these
new media tools. Ask them to choose a medium that
is unfamiliar to them and review it. Ask them to re-
search that medium, especially its applications to
the workplace. Have them make connections to the
careers they want to pursue.
2. Besides social networking sites, blogging may be the
simplest new media discussed in this chapter. Have
students start a blog on a topic that interests them
(ask them to keep the issues PG-13). Then have them
add something daily to the blog for two weeks. The
e-mail from students to you at the completion of this
assignment will allow you to monitor their progress
and it will give them a chance to reflect critically on
their experience.
 30
CHAPTER
Creating a Portfolio
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
30.1 create learning portfolios and showcase portfolios.
30.2 get started putting together a portfolio.
30.3 gather materials for a portfolio.
30.4 select the best artifacts to show their skills.
30.5 write a reflection on their work and growth.
30.6 present their materials for academic and
career-related purposes.
30.7 create a résumé of their experience and skills.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
This chapter describes portfolios for a variety of dis-
ciplines, audiences, and situations. To help students
make sense of the range of portfolios, two basic kinds
are distinguished: “learning portfolios” and “showcase
portfolios.” Learning portfolios focus on the process of
learning, taking readers step-by-step through the writ-
er’s journey. These are very often used in college for in-
dividual courses, and they are increasingly required for
students taking capstone courses at the end of their col-
lege careers. Showcase portfolios focus very little on the
process of learning and instead demonstrate the writer’s
mastery. They are used to gain employment and display
a person’s best work.
The chapter explains how to create a portfolio using
a four-stage process: collecting, selecting, reflecting,
and presenting. Figure 30.1, Kinds of Portfolios, dem-
onstrates the various kinds of portfolios your students
might create.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
Portfolios Across the Curriculum and Beyond
Students who are required to create a portfolio for their
writing classes might believe that portfolios are used
only by writing instructors to evaluate how well they
175
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
write. But this chapter explains that portfolios are be-
coming an increasingly important practice throughout
one’s college career and beyond.
The Importance of Reflection
Writing Today focuses on learning by doing, but it
also provides the terminologies and principles stu-
dents need in order to reflect on their writing. As ex-
plained in the first chapter of this instructor’s guide,
when students reflect on their learning, that learn-
ing is far more likely to transfer to new and different
situations. Portfolios play a powerful role in reflection
because students are required to explain the contents
of their portfolios using the terminology and principles
they’ve learned.
Many Genres Gathered in a Single Portfolio
Portfolios connect specific genres because they usually
include examples of writing from many genres. But the
act of composing their reflections requires that students
forge connections themselves as they tell the story of
how they have mastered certain course objectives,
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Genre Bending/Blending the Reflection
One of the best ways to learn a new genre is by playing
around with it, bending it in new ways, or blending one
genre with another. As an in-class activity, ask students
(perhaps in groups) to blend the reflection genre with
others. For instance, one group of students might work
on a reflection that blends the reflection with the “rave”
microgenre (chapter 7), another group, the “pitch” mi-
crogenre (13), and others. This can be a fun activity.
Other Classroom Activities
Workshopping or Peer Reviewing Portfolio Reflections
Have students peer review each others’ reflections,
or conduct in-class workshops with student work. See
Chapter 7 of this instructors’ guide, “Responding to and
Evaluating Student Work.”
End-of-Chapter Activities
Write This
1. Usually, portfolios are assigned at the end of the se-
mester as the final capstone project, but most stu-
dents need more than one shot at writing the port-
folio reflection. Even students who can write well
often have difficulty writing about their writing. Give
your students more practice by assigning one or
 176
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

Portfolios follow a four-step process that begins long before the final portfolio is presented. Get in the habit of
collecting your work into an archive from which you can select examples and reflect on them and your portfolio
as a whole.
 Chapter 30: Creating a Portfolio

more mini-portfolios during the semester. They can

create a mini-portfolio for each sequence of assign-
ments. For instance, if the class were looking at the
issue of “performance enhancement,” and each stu-
dent wrote a reading response (Chapter 8), a letter
to the editor (10), a commentary (11), and a culmi-
nating position paper (11), all could be combined in-
to a portfolio, with students’ reflections describing
how they shaped their responses according to each
genre and how each genre allowed them to make
certain moves and positioned them in relation to the
material in different ways.

2. One of the best ways to understand a new genre

is to conduct a rhetorical analysis of it. Make sure
your students understand how a rhetorical analysis
works (Chapter 9 of Writing Today). This can also be
altered to an in-class exercise if your students have
access to computers. Or it can be altered by having
students write an evaluation (Chapter 7). To have a
little fun with this, they can play around by writing
with various microgenres such as the rave or a slam
(Chapter 7), or others.

177
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
CHAPTER 31
Succeeding on
Written Exams and
Assessments
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
31.1 prepare to succeed on a written examination.
31.2 begin the exam with confidence, while budgeting
their time.
31.3 organize ideas so that questions are answered
quickly and effectively.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
The chapter examines written exams and assessments
as another genre for students to understand and prac-
tice. But written exams are different in that their pri-
mary purpose is not communication in the usual sense
but demonstrating knowledge under pressure (see “Con-
necting with,” below). Unlike other genres in Writing
Today, the written exam is an artificial school genre.
Furthermore, students are anxious about written ex-
ams. They want to understand “what does the professor
want?” Like most of us, they find writing under pressure
difficult and stressful.
Therefore, while all of Writing Today takes a hands-on
approach, this chapter is especially efficient in present-
ing only the most important strategies for taking essay
exams. This chapter keeps things simple and focused so
that students can take this information to their college
courses and use it.
Some writing programs require teachers to cover essay
exams; others cover them while others discourage teach-
ers from spending time on them. If you will be spending
time with essay exams, recognize that they are anxiety
producing and that students need practice doing them.
Therefore, even if your students will be completing an
written exam as a high-stakes assignment (i.e., as a ma-
jor part of the final grade), they should also be practicing
written exams as low-stakes assignments.
178
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Connecting with Writing Today’s Overall Goals
The Written Exam as a Genre
Students are anxious about written exams not only be-
cause they induce stress but also because they sense
there is something strange about the genre. And there
is. In the real world, we write because we have informa-
tion or ideas that we want to communicate. We write be-
cause there is a situation that requires us to use writing
to get something done. Writing Today stresses the ways
that genres and microgenres work in college and the real
world to achieve communication. However, with written
exams, writers write solely to prove themselves to some-
one (the professor) who knows more about the subject
than they do.
Essay Exams in College
Writing Today has the basic aim of preparing students for
the writing they will do in college and beyond. Although
the written exam is artificial, it is important because
students will probably be taking many written exams
in their years ahead. They understand that they need to
become competent at writing written exams if they are
to succeed in college.
Ideas for Connecting to Specific Genres
Seeing the Essay Exam Through Its Subgenres
You can help students understand the written exam
genre—and simultaneously help them understand the
general concept of genre—by examining the subgenres
within the genre. Specifically, when students turn to
Figure 31.3 in Writing Today and examine the major cat-
egories (“Knowing,” “Applying,” “Analyzing,” etc.) as sub-
genres, they’ll see that each has particular roles for writ-
ers, as it asks writers for different kinds of information.
This will help students see the written exam in terms of
its general characteristics and appreciate how different
question cues ask for significantly different responses.
Classroom activities
Role Playing Student-Professor Conversations
The chapter suggests that one way of preparing for a
written exam is to speak to the professor about what
kinds of questions are likely to appear on an written
exam. These conversations can be difficult because
it’s all too easy for a student to appear to be asking the
grade-grubbing question, “Will this be on the exam?”
Some teachers hate this question because it seems to
them that students are only interested in the course
material as far it will help them get their grade. So, help
 Chapter 31: Succeeding on Written Exams and Assessments

students feel more comfortable by having them role play

situations between professors and students. One person
can play the role of student, another the professor, as the
rest of the class watches and critiques.

Invent Essay Exam Questions for Students’ Courses

Ask students to bring in their textbooks for one of their
classes (preferably a class that uses written exams). It’s
best to work in groups because coming up with exam
questions is difficult. Using Figure 31.3, students either
find in the textbook’s end-of-chapter apparatus or create
a question cue that requires “knowing.” Then they “re-
purpose” the question to cue into one that requires “ap-
plying,” “analyzing,” “synthesizing,” and/or “evaluating.”

End-of-Chapter Activities
Write This
1. When students respond to this question, they get
practice working the genre of the written exam. You
might choose to extend this exercise by sequencing
it: First, they write a response about material that
requires just “knowing,” followed by one that re-
quires “applying,” “analyzing,” “synthesizing,” and/
or “evaluating” of that same material.

2. This prompt gets students thinking about the pros

and cons of written exams because in order to write
an effective letter to the editor, one has to under-
stand both sides of the question. You might supple-
ment this activity by having them play the “believing
and doubting” game.

179
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
32
CHAPTER
Presenting Your Work
In this chapter, students will learn how to:
32.1 get started on developing a presentation.
32.2 organize a presentation with a good introduction,
body, and conclusion.
32.3 design visual aids.
32.4 deliver a presentation with confidence and style.
32.5 practice and rehearse a presentation.
Looking at the Chapter in Brief
Most first-year composition courses are not expected to
address public presentations in depth. However, there
is a fine line between presenting ideas in writing and
presenting them verbally. Many of the strategies and
genres are the same. Moreover, as the computer contin-
ues to blur the line between written and spoken text,
soon most texts will be multimodal, utilizing a variety of
media to bring a message across. In this chapter, we go
over some of the basics of public presentations. The aim
of this chapter is not to replace a full course on public
speaking; it is designed to give your students an over-
view of public speaking that will help them convert their
written texts into presentations.
Getting Started
Students need to learn that a public presentation is more
than the spoken version of their document. Their audi-
ence wants to see a show, and they want to interact with
the presenter. They want the highlights highlighted, and
want the speaker to “perform” the material, not just read
it.
To get this point across, have students begin by answer-
ing the Five-W and How questions about their presenta-
tion. This will give them an overview of the rhetorical
situation and help them determine how their audience
differs from the readers of their document. It will also
help them recognize how the context of a spoken text dif-
180
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
fers from the context of a written document. Specifically,
the place and medium used for the presentation will add
options and constraints.
Let students look over their technology options. Today,
it’s common for speakers to default to data projector pre-
sentations (PowerPoint, Keynote, etc.) but other options
are available. The chart in Figure 32.1 of Writing Today
should help them see that some technologies are better
than others from specific audiences and contexts.
Work on allotting time. Student presentations are often
uneven because speakers take too much time on issues
at the beginning and then rush the ending. Show them
how to break up their presentation into manageable
parts. Figure 32.2 in Writing Today should help them see
that presentations can be divided into blocks of time.
Organizing Presentations
In this section we offer conventional wisdom for orga-
nizing a public presentation. The old formula, “Tell them
what you’re going to tell them, tell them, tell them what
you told them” still works well. This pattern is memo-
rable, and it gives students a concise reminder that their
presentation should be organized with a beginning, a
middle, and an end.
The question and answer portion of this section is prob-
ably new to your students. Have them practice answer-
ing these three kinds of questions. You can do this in
small groups. Have each person in the group make a
one-minute presentation on something he or she knows
well. Then have the others in the group come up with the
three kinds of questions. Each speaker then practices
recognizing what kind of question is being asked (clarifi-
cation, hostile, or heckling) and responding accordingly.
Making Visual Aids
With the technology available today, there are few ex-
cuses for presentations with no visuals. Your students
should learn that audiences expect a visual component
to any presentation.
The advice on formatting slides in this section should be
easy for your students to use. Have your students make
a few slides in class. If you are in a computer classroom,
let them practice with the presentations software that is
probably already loaded onto the computer. Otherwise,
have them sketch out some slides by hand.
We suggest that you ask your students to print out their
slides, putting six or nine slides on one page. This edit-
ing exercise is the best way to look at the overall flow of
 Chapter 32: Presenting Your Work

the argument while checking for inconsistencies in the
slides.
Delivering the Presentation
Because most first-year composition courses are not
courses in public presentation, it’s unlikely you are go-
ing to turn your students into polished orators. Never-
theless, the techniques and strategies offered in this
section will help them give a good presentation. In class,
you can have them practice standing up straight, using
open hand gestures, and making eye contact. Show them
how to speak “lower and slower.” Teach them how to use
pauses to reinforce major points and eliminate verbal
tics. These class days may be uncomfortable for some
students; but the techniques and strategies will help
them improve quickly. They will be enthusiastic about
improving their verbal skills.
ing skills. For the most part, they won’t have time to
prepare a polished presentation. More than likely,
they will be working off an outline. So, this exercise
will help them bring their speaking weaknesses
to the forefront, so they can be identified and dis-
cussed.
3. The aim of this exercise is twofold. First, we hope
students will see that turning a college paper into
slides is not difficult or time-consuming. Second,
we want them to recognize that they make strategic
choices about what information stays in the presen-
tation and what needs to be removed. You might give
them a generous time limit for the original presen-
tation (20 minutes). Then tell them they need to cut
their presentation in half. They will need to make
hard decisions about what stays and what goes.

End-of-Chapter Activities
Talk About This
1. Ask your students to make up a list of people who
speak well and a list of people who don’t. Then have
them identify the common traits of good speakers
and contrast them with the traits of people who
don’t speak well.
2. You can find many ineffective public presentations
on YouTube or similar video sharing sites. Run the
speech, pausing occasionally to discuss what the
speaker is doing well and not doing well. Use the
vocabulary in this chapter to critique the speaker’s
performance.
Write This
1. This exercise gives students an opportunity to pay
attention to a speaker’s public speaking techniques
rather than the content of his or her speech. Make
sure your students highlight the speaker’s strengths
and weaknesses in their review.
2. Your students may or may not have a major paper
from another class. At many universities, first-year
students usually attend courses in large lecture halls
where papers are not commonly written. If neces-
sary, you can ask students to turn a paper from your
course into a presentation. Or you can have them
find one on the Internet and make the conversion.

3. This question is a bit odd, but it’s intended to get your

students thinking about public speaking while actu-
ally doing it. Have them pick a part of this chapter
to present to their group. Give them a few minutes
to come up with their presentation. Then have them
give it, trying to use the content of this chapter to
improve their mini-presentation.

Try This Out

1. On a college campus, speeches are being given all the
time. Require your students to attend one and cri-
tique it. You might even ask your students to critique
the performance of one of their professors—perhaps
even you.

2. This activity is a good one for highlighting places

where students need to improve their public speak-

181
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
PART 7: ANTHOLOGY OF READINGS
33
CHAPTER
Memoirs
Using the Readings
Edward Abbey, “The First Morning”
Abbey mixes elements of personal narrative and nature
writing to create an effective memoir. The text paints
strong pictures of both the environments and of Abbey
himself. Further, Abbey’s vocabulary changes frequently
from solemn to silly, such as in his consideration of alien
life at the end of the passage, making his essay more
playful and fun than otherwise.
A Closer Look
1. Inexperienced students often struggle to understand
how writers achieve a particular ethos in their
writing. By asking students to identify and discuss
details that utilize the five senses, this exercise
helps them to see how a nature writer like Abbey
effectively invokes a moving, rich description of
place in his writing.
2. This type of exercise can often lead students to speak
in vague generalities, failing to discuss specific
passages with concrete language to back up their
claims. Remind students that arguments about texts
and what they accomplish must be accompanied
by evidence from the text. Help them find specific
sentences that include language which personify
nature.
3. In many ways, Abbey’s memoir might seem lacking
in conventional plot structure and narrative
conventions, in comparison to much of the
storytelling that students consume. Some students
may find Abbey’s story a simple matter of a writer
taking a walk in nature, which likely will not seem
particularly complicated to them. Encourage them
to identify particular changes in tone, diction, and
attitude during the memoir. Where does Abbey’s
attitude towards his surroundings seem to change?
At what point(s) does his language obviously change
182
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
the most? Make sure this discussion refers to
specific passages to make Abbey’s moves concrete
and understandable to students.
Ideas for Writing
1. This activity is a great way for students to explore
the boundaries of genre, in this case between
memoir and profiles. How would Abbey’s piece
have been different if it had been part of the profile
genre rather than the memoir genre? Students may
consider a place as broad as the city they live in, or
they may analyze the specifics of a room they spent
time in during their lives. They may also draw a map
of the space to help jog their memories. Use Chapter
17 on style to practice writing about these places
using figurative language.
2. Students may be confused by the text’s counsel to
“over-use” metaphors, similes, personal narrative,
and rich description. Discuss exaggeration and
hyperbole with students. How does exaggeration
impact the ethos of a writer? What are some of the
uses (and abuses) of exaggerated style? Help them
see how exaggeration can help to make a writer’s
ideas more resonant.
Thomas Rogers, “The College
Hazing That Changed My Life”
Roger’s memoir discusses how, surprisingly, the hazing
imposed by his fellow rowing team members changed
his life in a positive way. He integrates vivid detail
and characterization in this college freshman hazing
experience to reflect on how he learned the importance
of being himself, instead of conforming to hyper-
masculine, heterosexual male jock expectations.
A Closer Look
1. This activity asks students to focus on how memoir
openings work in context. You might ask them to
compare Rogers’ with those in the other sample
memoirs. Why do other writers use different leads?
2. Asking students to point out Rogers’ methods of
scene setting and characterization might help them
use similar techniques in their own writing.
3. It is important that students realize an effective
memoir presents a conflict and reflects on what the
writer learned as result of resolving or failing to
resolve it. Some students will think their memoirs
merely need to consist of funny or interesting stories,
 Chapter 33: Memoirs
so highlighting these elements will help them realize
the requirements for writing a compelling memoir.
Ideas for Writing
1. Many students will relate to Rogers’ story, as they
too are college students struggling to carve out their
own identities. Ask them to think about a specific
anecdote or experience that helped them learn
something about themselves.
2. This topic leads students to write in another genre
about the same topic. Have them read Chapter 10
on commentaries and discuss how memoirs and
commentaries differ. Which strategies will they use
to write the commentary?
Demetria Martinez, “Lines in the Sand”
A Closer Look
1. This activity helps students realize that memoirs
express some sort of overarching theme, and in
some cases it is directly stated. Have them consider
how Martinez’s theme influences which details she
includes in the memoir. Make sure students discuss
their conceptions of personal beauty in a way that is
respectful to all members of the class.
2. Memoirs as well as profiles often use personal stories
and experiences to comment on larger social issues.
Ask students how a memoir written by a Latina
woman, reflecting on what it means to be a Latina
woman, helps them understand culture and beauty
standards even if they themselves are not Latina.
How do humor and self-deprecation make Martinez’s
work more universal? How does her humor change
the overall tone of the memoir?
3. Encourage students to make their own restatements
of Martinez’s thesis personal and individualized.
Remind them that there’s nothing wrong with
different students taking slightly different messages
from her work. Ask them to reflect on how their
individual identities and experiences change their
perception of Martinez’s point of view in this essay.
Ideas for Writing
1. Effective rhetorical analyses use specific criteria to
evaluate something. Emphasize that typical memoir
genre conventions outlined in Chapter 5 serve as
the criteria. Additionally, give students a context for
this piece, and ask them to apply the criteria with
this in mind. Would the piece work if published in
183
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
their college newspaper, for example? Why or why
not? Refer them to Chapter 9 for help with rhetorical
analysis.
2. Remind students that in telling their personal
stories of change and growth, they will need to make
decisions concerning what to include and exclude
based on their chosen themes. How do details,
characterization, and narrative structure reflect
this theme?
Jackie Robinson, “The Noble Experiment”
Robinson, one of the great pioneers of American history,
broke baseball’s “color barrier.” This experience might
seem entirely foreign to the lives of your students.
Help them to see how a memoir such as this one brings
historical lives like that of Robinson into their own
understanding.
A Closer Look
1. This assignment, though it is derived principally from
the text, could be easily enriched with additional
historical details through library research. Discuss
effective means for finding credible historical
research with your students. Refer them to Chapters
24 and 25 for tips on research.
2. The “stretchiness” of genres is a core concept
of Writing Today. This activity is an excellent
opportunity to talk through the notion of stretchy
genres with students. In particular, try comparing
and contrasting this passage with a profile. What
aspects of this essay are similar to profiles? Why can
we still be confident that Robinson’s piece belongs in
the memoir genre? Refer students to Chapter 6 for
more information on the profile genre.
3. This exercise can be used to fruitfully explore the
notions of history and greatness, and how all great
historical figures rely on others to help them. Ask
students to think of other promiment historical
figures whose greatness involved help from friends
and allies.
Ideas for Writing
1. Students might initially protest that they have never
faced a challenge remotely like that facing Robinson
when he broke baseball’s color barrier. Remind them
that the important thing is not that their challenge
was on the same scale, but that they saw the challenge
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

as beyond their ability and utilized the help of others

to rise above it.

2. This activity will help students consider the ideas

of history, memory, and credibility. Ask them to
consider whether the discrepancies between the
two depictions means one or the other is wrong.
Encourage them to consider the differences in
mediums. How does depicting a story in a movie
require different techniques than depicting a
story in writing? Refer them to Chapter 7 for more
information on the review genre.

184
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 34
CHAPTER
Profiles
Using the Readings
Carl Wilkinson, “David Grohl and the Foo Fighters”
Wilkinson’s profile of Grohl illustrates how an interesting
profile reveals something unexpected about the person
being profiled. Even though Grohl was part of a hugely
influential grunge band in the 90s and currently fronts
a highly successful rock band, Wilkinson depicts him
as the unassuming rock star who has dealt with the
trappings of rock star fame and fortune in stride.
A Closer Look
1. Pondering this question prompts students to consider
how profiles serve as the backdrop for discussing
larger social and professional issues. Throughout
his career, Grohl has had to face issues with which
many famous musicians struggle: creating new and
interesting material, fans illegally downloading their
songs, corporate exploitation, and band politics.
2. This question helps students realize that profiles
entail more than simply interviewing an interesting
figure. Wilkinson’s closing suggests that good
profiles explicitly or implicitly signal some greater
meaning and purpose.
3. The question helps students consider how outside
research my be used to develop key themes in a
profile. It also reminds students that writers profile
specific figures in order to address larger social
issues and illustrate novel or interesting responses
to these issues.
Ideas for Writing
1. Asking students to identify their purpose for writing
and targeted readership encourages them to reflect
on their rhetorical choices. Oftentimes students
185
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
write for the teacher or a generic reader out there
somewhere, so asking them to create a hypothetical
scenario encourages them to consider ways to tailor
their writing to meet a specific readership’s needs.
2. Having students write a rave not only teaches them
moves in a similar but different genre makes but
also might help them gather information they can
repurpose in writing a longer profile.
Judy L. Ipsen, “Prudencia”
In this profile, Ipsen uses Prudencia’s life and experiences
to illustrate the devastating results of the United State’s
participation in the Guatemalan civil war. Even though
readers do not hear Prudencia’s voice in the piece, Ipsen’s
profile gives voice to her story and the social and political
issues reflected in it.
A Closer Look
1-3. These questions ask students to think about how
the opening, organizational, and closing strategies
contribute to the overall theme and imply a specific
angle. In their first few profile drafts, students will
most likely record key narrative details and quotes
without regard to how opening, organization, and
closing signal an overall message. Looking at how
other profile writers use various techniques to do
this, might offer students strategies for revising
theirs.
4. Thinking about how the piece’s title creates double
entendre shows how writers use figurative language
to signal multiple messages. You might connect
this discussion with information in Chapter 17 that
shows how figurative language helps readers see
something from a new and different perspective.
Ideas for Writing
1. This assignment encourages students to think
deeper about these issues and introduces them to a
new genre. Refer them to Chapter 10 for information
on inventing, organizing, revising, and editing
commentaries. Also, since the assignment calls for
research, discuss strategies provided in Part 5 of
Writing Today.
2. This prompt provides a different scenario for
responding to this issue. To illustrate the need to
tailor information to suit the context, you might ask
students to reflect on how writing a commentary
and a letter would require them to make different
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

moves. Refer them to Chapter 10 for information on
writing letters to the editor.
Nathan Miller,
“Lorde: The Music Phenomenon of the Year””
do once they arrive. It also provides a brief park history.
Clearly this piece promotes the park by highlighting
points of interest and fun things to do.
Benjamin Percy, “Welcome to the Jungle”

This profile concerns a popular, current musical

Percy’s profile depicts Griffith Park as a haven among
figure who many of your students will recognize. That
the many rough and rugged LA landscapes they encoun-
familiarity may help attract resistant or uninterested
ter in the course of their day.
students to this genre..

A Closer Look A Closer Look

1. An essential element of the profile genre lies in
giving readers an impression of what it is like to be in
the presence of the profile’s subject. Ask students to
consider the difference between profiling someone
and researching his or her life. What is gained
through personal exposure to the subject?
1. These questions really help students consider
how writers tailor information to suit the context.
Even though both pieces profile the same place,
the writers do so for very different purposes and
audiences. The authors adapt genre conventions to
serve their respective reasons for writing.

2. The quoted line is only one example of Miller’s use
of colorful language and complex ideas. This makes
this profile ideal for stylistic analysis. Refer students
to Chapter 17 for language and ideas about style.
3. This exercise is a good opportunity to explore the
difference between facts and impressions. Ask
students whether anything in the two texts appears
contradictory of the other. Have them discuss
whether a profile is more or less appropriate for an
entertainer like Lorde.
Ideas for Writing
1. This exercise is a great opportunity for students to
undertake primary research in an unintimidating
and fun way. .
2. Question 4 points out how description of the
landscape can serve as a way to organize a place
profile.
Ideas for Writing
1. This prompt encourages students to practice adapt-
ing content, organization and style to effectively
respond to two different writing situations. Prior to
assigning it, make sure they analyze the differences
between the Griffith Park profiles.
2. This writing assignment encourages students to
write a more reflective and creative profile. Have
them read the memoir chapter to learn literary
devices (rich detail, plot, dialogue) that help create a
central theme.

2. Use Chapter 12 on proposals to help students

structure this task, and Chapter 18 to help them
understand different types of multimodal design.
This is a great activity for integrating many different
genre types together.

City of Los Angeles Department of

Recreation and Parks,
“General Information for Griffith Park”

These profiles of the same place emphasize how writers

with very different purposes can depict the same location
in different ways. The LA Department of Recreation and
Parks’s profile is used to inform visitors of practical and
historical information about the park so they will know
how to get there, which hours to go, and what they might
186
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 35
integrate their own ideas. Use Chapter 25 on quoting,
CHAPTER paraphrasing, and summarizing to help them format
their rebuttals.

Stephen King, “Why We Crave Horror Movies”

King provides a broad evaluation of horror movies in

general while offering intellectual and psychological
explanations for their function. Like the horror movies
he evaluates, his own writing is filled with macabre
Reviews imagery and dark humor.

A Closer Look
1. King argues that good horror films must be
“reactionary,” “anarchistic,” and “revolutionary.” He
Using the Readings elaborates on how horror films specifically achieve
these goals. Note that this piece was written long
Dan Schindel, “Frozen Tries and Fails to before the arrival of ironic and postmodern horror
be Both Traditional and Modern” movies like Scream that younger students may
be more familiar with. Do their answers suggest
Schindel’s piece breaks with the general positivity given
something about how the horror genre has changed
to Frozen in most reviews. He considers the movie’s
since the time of King’s writing?
consistency to provide insights beyond the surface level.
2. Sentences like “The lyncher is in almost all of us”
A Closer Look
and the inclusion of a dead-baby joke are moments
1. Schindel is sure to note positive elements, such as
that may shock the reader. However, they never seem
in the fifth paragraph. He knows he is fighting an
intended just to shock. King always elaborates to
uphill battle with his argument since most people
show how his own use of dark humor functions like a
loved Frozen. By acknowledging what he likes about
good horror movie. This tactic (of matching the style
the movie too, he gains some audience trust by
to the subject) gives King a greater ethos with which
balancing his criticisms.
to persuade us of his point.
2. Students should be encouraged to explore the
3. King argues that horror films let us think like children
difference between calling a work of art flawed
again, in terms of simple black and white. They also
and saying that it is unenjoyable or lacks value. Ask
let us relish darker emotions that we may not want
students to consider which flaws can be forgiven
to exhibit in real life. Again, it may be interesting
and which can’t.
to explore with your class whether the craving for
3. “Princess movies” may not seem like a typical genre movies has changed as the genre has changed.
to students at first. Use this discussion to explore
what genre means. Refer to Chapter 1 if they struggle
Ideas for Writing
1. Use the “Believing, Doubting, Synthesizing” section
to think of princess movies as a genre. In what ways
from Chapter 9 on commentaries to help students
is this genre similar to genres like memoirs or
synthesize King’s views and their own.
commentaries? In what ways is it different?.
2. King’s book-to-movie translations seem to have a
Ideas for Writing
hit-or-miss reputation. Some are applauded (Misery)
1. Mashups turn conventional genres on their heads
while others are treated far less kindly (It). Ask
by combining two or more movies into one. Discuss
students to consider if the problem lies in translating
how this hybrid nature makes the review genre
books to film in general. Ask them if Chapter 8 on
easier or harder.
literary analysis would be useful for examining film.
2. When responding to Schindel’s piece, students will
likely need to quote and paraphrase in order to
187
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

Dorothy Woodend, “Why Watching Christian Block- exercise reveals the ways in which genres can cross
buster Noah Is Like Sitting in a Giant Bathtub” mediums.

Woodend’s review contrasts the simplicity and emotional
power of the original Bible story with the bombast and
excitement of the Hollywood version. This can prompt
a good discussion about Hollywood filmmaking and the
current state of blockbuster movies.
A Closer Look
1. Humor can be a powerful tool for writers, but it must
be used carefully. Discuss with students whether they
felt the humor in Woodend’s piece made her opinion
more relatable. Is Noah’s status as a religiously
themed movie relevant to this discussion?
2. Try to direct your students to consider the specific
question of box office success or failure, rather than
which movies they like or dislike. Otherwise, this
discussion could simply become an argument about
personal preference. If students struggle, allow them
to research which factors effect box office returns on
the internet.
3. This conversation should be tightly controlled to
ensure that no student feels like his or her religious
beliefs are being evaluated. Instead, make sure that
the attention remains firmly on the topic of religious
movies as artistic and commercial vehicles..
3. This video game has one of the most famous female
protagonists in the history of gaming. Discuss how
this might, or might not, open gaming up to new
audiences. Be sure to have students investigate
other prominent female characters from the history
of video games.
Ideas for Writing
1. Music reviews share many genre elements with
video game reviews, and yet there are a host of
unique challenges and conventions that come
along with those elements. Have students list some
of the particular requirements for music reviews.
Then have them compare that list to the typical
requirements of the video game review genre.
2. The pitch microgenre has application across a
wide variety of situations and purposes. (Chapter
12 contains information and a model to help your
students.) Make sure students articulate which
parts of the movie would be portrayed in the video
game and which wouldn’t.

Ryan Taljonick, “Tomb Raider: Definitive Edition”

Taljonick reviews the latest version of a longstanding,

popular video game franchise. His review is positive, and
works to connect the current Lara Croft, protagonist of
the Tomb Raider franchise, with past games. The format
of the video game review may be new and unusual to your
students. Use Taljonick’s piece to discuss the various
moves that are unique to reviews of video games.

A Closer Look
1. Like many reviewers, Taljonick builds credibility
with his readers by being sure to mention negatives
along with positives. Ask students how this balanced
approach impacts his ethos. What would be lost if
Taljonick only discussed the game in terms of its
strengths?

2. Many of your students are likely gamers themselves.

This discussion allows them to play with genre and
medium conventions in a way that they might find
funny and generative. Help them to see how this

188
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 36
CHAPTER
Literary Analyses
Robert Frost,
“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”
This is one of Frost’s most famous poems. Readers have
found any number of deeper meanings and intentions
within its deceptively simple lines.
A Closer Look
1. When read aloud, the rise and fall of the words’
syllables takes on a sing-song feel that might
be described as feeling like forward motion or
momentum. In this sense, the poem’s sound mimics
the need of the speaker to keep moving on past the
beautiful scene.
2. The speaker describes a journey through privately
owned woods. At one point, he stops to take in the
beauty of the scene, despite the horse’s confusion
and desire to keep moving. Conflict is generated
because the speaker wants to linger and enjoy the
moment but realizes that the journey ahead is still
quite long. The repetition of the line emphasizes its
importance and shows how the need to keep moving
must win out over other desires.
3. Students will likely have both reactions: interest and
frustration. For those who respond with frustration,
ask them why other people might enjoy the poem’s
open-ended nature.
Ideas for Writing
1. Chapter 17 will help students imitate the style of
Frost’s poem. Chapter 21’s discussion of narrative
patterns may be useful in constructing a parody of
the plot.
2. If students decide to compare the poem with another
type of text, like a song, remind them that the criteria
189
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
for the two forms might not be the same. Ask if this
means such comparisons are unfair or if they just
require a slight change in purpose.
Steven Monte, “Overview of Stop-
ping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”
Monte takes the rather short and seemingly simple
poem and illuminates a great deal of complexity. He asks
questions that do not immediately come to a reader’s
mind, and he tries to show that the poem is darker in
tone than we might think.
A Closer Look
1. Monte uses the questions as set-ups to answer
them with his own deeper reading of the text. The
tactic also gives us insight into how Monte’s mind
works when he reads the poem, and it creates a
conversational tone that invites the reader to ponder
with him.
2. Monte uses somewhat of a “plain style,” worth noting
because some literary analyses uses technical jargon
from literary theory that can often be hard to follow.
This technique allows Monte to make complex
observations in a manner that most people can
follow.
3. Monte is suggesting that neither reading is better
than the other. He suggests that a first read (the
more positive one) is only made more complex
after critical questioning (which leads to the darker
reading). In a sense, the poem encompasses both
readings, and the chosen reading may depend on the
current mood of the reader.
Ideas for Writing
1. Consider showing a television show or movie in class
and have all students write on the same text. Using
Chapter 32 on presentations, have students present
their papers to further the point about the value of
multiple interpretations.
2. As a prewriting activity, ask students to decide which
organizational pattern for position papers (Chapter
12) will best suit the purpose of their argument.
Why does the chosen pattern work better?
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

Laura Miller, “Touched by a Vampire”
Miller provides an in-depth analysis of the Twilight
series that tries to account for both its popularity and
the condemnation of it. She aims for observations that
might not be so obvious on a casual read.
A Closer Look
1. As Miller discusses the thin characterizations of
Bella and Edward, the piece feels very much like
literary analysis. Her discussion of fan responses
make the piece feel more like a review. Ultimately,
“Touched by a Vampire” is a mix of genres and is not
easily classified.
2. Buffy seems to come off as the superior show in
Miller’s mind. Not only is Buffy a better developed
character, she demonstrates female power and
agency that Miller finds more appealing than Bella’s
weak dependence on Edward.
3. Miller does not offer an easy answer to this question.
She condemns the romance genre for its unrealistic
sappiness. On the other hand, her conclusion
suggests that she realizes that the genre plays an
important (and timeless) social function.
Ideas for Writing
1. Use this prompt as an opportunity to have students
review sections of the book they’ve already worked
with. Perhaps assign a map or diagram that charts
out the various features of each genre.
analysis can be effective without spending much
time on biographical details..
2. This exercise provides a nice contrast with the
previous one, which notes that a good literary
analysis need not involve biographical details of
the writer. Ask students to consider the difference
between providing biographical information about
a reader in an analysis and trying to detect the
influence of biography in a work of poetry or fiction..
3. Hughes was a poet who was unusually influenced
by a particular musical style. Invite students to look
for particular rhythms and patterns in his work that
mimics one of these styles. What textual evidence
can they provide to support this reading?
Ideas for Writing
1. Use this prompt as an opportunity to have students
review sections of the book they’ve already worked
with. Chapter 6 and Chapter 25 may be particularly
useful..
2. Students may not have many good ideas about poets
to choose for this assignment. Encourage them to
explore Poets.org for poetry that is meaningful or
moving to them.

2. You may have students who have never read (or don’t
want to admit having read) a romance novel. In this
case, lead a class discussion that identifies elements
of the romance genre in texts they are familiar with.

Poets.org, “Reader’s Guide to Langston Hughes”

This Reader’s Guide offers readers a detailed analysis

of the poetry of Langston Hughes. It focuses on helping
readers understand the poet’s work, giving them
ideas for the kind of themes and language that Hughes
regularly incorporated into his poetry. Since style is so
deeply connected to a poet’s ethos, have students review
Chapter 17 to prepare for this discussion.

A Closer Look
1. As mention in Chapter 8, inexperienced students
often expect literary analysis to necessarily involve
biographical details about a writer’s life. Use the
Poets.org guide to demonstrate how a literary
190
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 37
CHAPTER
Rhetorical Analyses
Using the Readings
Garrett Epps, “The ‘Spectacularly Un-
helpful’ Second Amendment”
Epps takes an example of a text that has been analyzed
endlessly and puts a new spin on it by considering it as a
rhetorical text. Encourage students to look beyond their
own particular take on gun control to consider Epps’s
argument as a rhetorical analysis.
A Closer Look
1. Epps’s comparison between the Second Amendment
and the poetry of Emily Dickinson will likely seem
quite unusual to students. Be sure to explore his
analogy using specific details from the text.
2. This exercise invites students to consider the
difference between a procedural reading and a
interpretive reading. Ask students what other
readings they have encountered this semester have
a procedural nature rather than an interpretive
nature. Ask them to list conventions from this type
of writing. How would Epps’s piece be different if he
offered one particular interpretation?
3. Asking students to try and detect Epps’s take on
this con-troversial issue will help them to consider
elements of word choice and implication. Chapter 17
can help here.
Ideas for Writing
1. Ask students to read or review Chapter 11 on profiles
to help them write their responses to Epps. Make
sure that they carefully arrange claims and evidence
in order to effectively respond to Epps. Chapter 22
provides students with many techniques for writing
this kind of an argumentative response.
191
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
2. Use Chapter 18’s advice on designing to help students
understand the different types of multimodal
composing they could perform for this assignment.
Then refer them to Chapter 29 to show them how to
share these multimodal compositions online.
Gary Sloan, “Sleuthing Patriotic Slogans”
Sloan connects with his readers by using familiar
slogans. This also shows he is aware of his readers and
their contexts.
A Closer Look
1. The messages of these commands are undermined,
primarily for two reasons. First, they use abstract
language that is either vague or can lead to multiple
interpretations. Second, famous slogans may contra-
dict each other as did : “Let Freedom Ring” and
“United We Stand.”
2. The grammatical term for these slogans is the
subjunctive mood. This mood is used to express
wishes, emotions, and possibilities. However, when
paired with the abstract words that often accompany
these slogans, it becomes unclear exactly what is
being wished for.
3. Sloan points out that “God Bless America” becomes
a problem when we stop to consider who Americans
are. Are we blessing criminals, bigots, and racists?
Sloan uses this example to highlight how these broad
words do not stop to consider the complexities of the
reality they want to represent.
Ideas for Writing
1. Some popular slogans use analogies and symbolism.
Point students to Chapter 8 on literary analysis to
give them another tool for their position papers.
2. Advertisements are excellent texts to use for
rhetorical analysis. To complicate this prompt, ask
students if the slogan can be seen as an appeal to
logos, pathos, or ethos.
Libby Copeland, “Shooting from the
Hip, with a Smile to Boot”
Copeland tackles one of the more controversial
political figures of recent times. Note how she tries to
simultaneously show why some people love Palin while
others take issue with her.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

A Closer Look kind of tools they can use in their own rhetorical
1. Copeland suggests that Palin uses facial expressions, analyses.
body language, tone of voice, folksy terms, and
2. Issues of nutrition, obesity, and healthy eating have
comedic timing. Whether she uses them strategically
been in the news a great deal in recent years. Ask
or not is open to debate. To help students, show
students to name prominent works in the media that
videos of Palin in a variety of media settings.
have discussed these subjects.
2. Some people suggest that Palin’s folksy words and
3. Researched writing can be an intimidating task
style of speaking make her sound unintelligent.
for students. Discussing another writer’s selection
Others think her “cheerful aggressiveness” is too
and use of sources can help demystify the process.
reminiscent of beauty pageants and cheerleading
Students should refer to Chapters 24–26 for advice
competitions. Still others think she plays to a
on how to evaluate Lundgren’s sources.
stereotype of “perky femininity.”

3. By interrupting her own first sentence, Copeland

Ideas for Writing
1. For a variation on this prompt, have students
models the way some people become captivated by
compare and contrast an ad from the Subway and an
Palin’s presence. She also uses many examples from
ad from a different fast food company. Does Subway
pop culture as points of reference for the audience.
appear to act more ethically in comparison?
Finally, lines like “hugging us into confusion” offer
surprising turns of phrase that make the reader do a 2. While rhetorical considerations of advertisement
double-take and work to understand the message. campaigns will often involve criticism, remind
students that there is also room for praise. Ask them
Ideas for Writing
to consider advertisement campaigns that they find
1. This prompt will be easier if students have the texts of
particularly effective or interesting when they are
speeches from both candidates. Most of the speeches
choosing a topic.
can be found online. Pair the text with video footage;
as Copeland’s essay suggests, the candidates’ body
language matters.

2. Try using the classification section of Chapter 21

on patterns to help students classify the rhetorical
features of Palin’s style. Students may also want to
analyze the comments on these YouTube videos to
incorporate into their responses.

Jessica Lundgren, “‘Eating Fresh’ in America:

Subway Restaurant’s Nutritional Rhetoric”

Lundgren’s analysis concerns a matter of obvious social

importance in a country with an obesity epidemic.
Rhetorical analyses of advertising campaigns are a
great way for students to approach this genre. Point
out to students that Lundgren was an undergraduate
student herself when she wrote this text, demonstrating
to them that they can write work of publishable quality
themselves.

A Closer Look
1. Students should use this exercise to understand that
the techniques and arguments that Lundgren makes
are no different from those that they can use in their
own work. Consult Chapter 21 to show students the
192
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 38
CHAPTER
Commentaries
Using the Readings
Brandon Ambrosino, “Being Against Gay
Marriage Doesn’t Make You a Homophobe”
Ambrosino takes a different approach to a debate that
has been explored at great length in the political media
in the last several years. Rather than presenting a case
against gay marriage, Ambrosino argues that being
anti-same sex marriage does not in and of itself make
someone homophobic. Work with students to make sure
they grasp this nuanced claim.
A Closer Look
1. Structuring an argument requires careful attention
to organization, claims, and evidence. By spelling
out Ambrosino’s particular claims, students will
gain a better idea of how to undertake these moves
themselves..
2. This activity meshes well with a consideration of
ethos, logos, and pathos. Consult Chapter 21 to find
out more about them.
3. Many students may assume that Ambrosino’s
status as a gay man should be irrelevant to the
conversation, as “the facts are the facts.” Ask your
students whether a writer’s identity can ever
meaningfully impact his or her persuasiveness.
Ideas for Writing
1. Students will need guidance on how to effectively
summarize and quote the arguments of others.
Chapter 26 can help.
2. Students will often reflexively answer “no” to
this question. Try to get them to expand their
consideration. For example, does identifying an
argument as racist amount to name calling? Why or
why not?
193
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ariel Levy, “Female Chauvinist Pigs”
Levy’s commentary discusses how women’s current
acceptance and emulation of hyper-sexualized popular
culture is not liberating but makes them complicit
in their own objectification. Her commentary nicely
illustrates how a commentary responds to a current
issue, as she discusses it with relevant popular culture.
Instead of stating her purpose sentence upfront, she uses
inductive reasoning to make her point.
A Closer Look
1. Getting students to consider her reasons emphasizes
that effective commentaries include logical support
to reinforce the writer’s central claim.
2. This line of questioning might generate ideas for
students to write rebuttals or qualifications in
response to Levy’s commentary.
3. Questioning which type of evidence is more credible
encourages students to consider what readers value.
Some disciplines or communities value quantitative
instead of qualitative evidence, and vice versa.
Students need to analyze their purpose and audience
when determining which resources to integrate.
Ideas for Writing
1. Remind students that their arguments need to be
supported with compelling evidence. As a class,
generate writing scenarios that would allow for
personal examples and experience and ones that
would require library research.
2. Require students to read Chapter 5 on profiles to get
a clear sense of what this genre does.
Ben S. Carson, “Recovering
America’s Exceptionalism”
Carson’s argument plays into a long history of arguments
that represent America as a chosen nation. Discuss this
attitude with students. Ask them whether Carson’s
claims can fit naturally into this tradition.
A Closer Look
1. This exercise helps students to think about how to
structure their own arguments. Many students will
have been taught to always include a clear thesis
near the beginning of their essays. Discuss whether
Carson’s lack of a clear topic sentence early in his
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

piece is necessarily a mistake or failure. Are there
times when not using a clear thesis statement is
useful for writers?.
2. Ask students to consider this exercise through the
lens of ethos. What is the connection between a
writer’s willingness to consider the other side of an
issue, and the fairness of that consideration, and that
writer’s credibility? Have students discuss whether
they find Carson credible.
3. Stress to students that they need not be persuaded
by Carson to play the Believing game, or reject his
arguments to play the Doubting game. Try and get
them to understand the Believing and Doubting
Game as an analytical exercise..
Ideas for Writing
1. Encourage students to choose a specific paper or
magazine to publish their rhetorical analysis. Then
ask what kinds of rhetorical choices they may need
to make based on the publication’s readership. For
example, will the audience be potentially hostile or
sympathetic to their analysis?
Discuss whether the experiences Williams had in
the military are effective as evidence in a formal
argument. In what situations would such personal
stories not be appropriate?
Ideas for Writing
1. Inviting students to tell moving personal stories in
this way can result in inspiring class discussions,
but instructors must take care that the discussion
remains productive. Remind students that these
issues can be sensitive.
2. Although this assignment can be used to profile
anyone who has made a personal sacrifice, veterans
are natural subjects for this exercise. There are
often community opportunities to speak with local
veterans. Encourage your students to research
retirement homes and VFA centers to find a willing
participant.

2. Use Chapter 12 on proposals, and encourage

students to turn their proposal into a multimedia
presentation using Chapter 32. Ask students to give
their presentations in class and have other students
write evaluations of their rhetorical effectiveness.

Kayla Williams,
“Will America Forget Its Veterans?”

Williams makes a case that your students will be

very familiar with, given how frequently veterans are
celebrated in our culture. Expect passionate feelings
regarding this essay.

A Closer Look
1. Asking for Williams’s purpose in writing this piece
invites students to consider one of the chief elements
of the rhetorical situation. Chapter 3 gives students
an effective introduction to the task of matching
arguments to audience, purpose, and context..

2. This text is a good example of the power of economy

in writing. Williams understands the power of
simplicity and minimalism in her essay. Talk through
these ideas in class.

3. Chapter 5 will prepare students to have a meaningful

discussion about the uses of personal narrative.
194
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 39
CHAPTER
Arguments
Using the Readings
Barack Obama, “A More Perfect Union”
Obama’s speech navigates between America’s conflicted
history with racism and a future in which those conflicts
lessen with each generation. While decrying racism, es-
pecially the views held by older generations both black
and white, he explains why people of an older generation
might hold those views.
A Closer Look
1. Anaphora is a common technique for building
intensity in a speech. Each repetition of an opening
phrase adds a further level of energy. Also, the
repetition and cadence with anaphora helps drive
home specific points.
2. The written and oral versions of the speech are
both rhetorically powerful. Obama’s ability to use
his rhythm and sense of timing brings the words
on the page to life. However, in the spoken form
many points fly by without allowing time for closer
analysis, which the print version allows.
3. The main point is that racism is a part of America’s
past and cannot be wished away. Nevertheless,
progress has been made and there are yet more
opportunities to deal with racism past and present.
Ideas for Writing
1. Students may want to write about topics that are
especially near and dear to them, including religion,
politics, and even racism. More than likely, they will
have trouble putting their strong feelings into words;
so you might want to make this paper a “no-stakes”
assignment. They can write it in class or overnight.
195
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
2. The speech blends elements of logos, ethos, and
pathos quite well. Have your students look for places
where Obama uses logos in the form of reasoning
and examples. He also references historical figures
and family members to build ethos. Finally, his
discussions of anger and hope are uses of pathos.
Lisa Endlich Heffernan, “Princeton Mom vs. the Facts”
Heffernan’s piece illustrates how an argument is situ-
ated within a larger cultural or academic conversation.
In this case, Heffernan’s argument directly responds to
the work of another writer, Susan Patton, the “Princeton
Mom” whose conservative advice for college women
caused an online firestorm.
A Closer Look
1. Asking students to consider the facts helps them
to recgonize the logos appeals that Heffernan is
making. Chapter 22 can help demystify this type of
argument for students. What does Heffernan gain
with this kind of appeal? What risks does she take
in having her argument be so grounded in facts and
reason, particularly in response to an argument like
Patton’s?.
2. Even though their own marriages may be many years
off, your students will likely have strong feelings
about the topic. Expect a lively discussion about
romantic vs. economic ideals and how they relate to
marriage as a social phenomenon.
3. As your students are themselves mostly of college
age, this will be a particularly acute question for
them. Don’t be afraid to give them space to get some
of these feelings off of their chests.
Ideas for Writing
1. This activity nicely combines a form of introspection
in writing, as the students must ask themselves who
they want to be in the future, and speculation, as
they imagine where their lives have taken them 10
years in the future.
2. Bringing their own campus lives into discussion is
a perennially useful way to get students engaged.
Have students think about all the people who would
potentially read their letters: not just other students
but faculty, staff, and parents.
Chapter 38: Arguments Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
Jeffrey A Miron and Elina Tetelbaum,
“The Dangers of the Drinking Age”
Miron and Tetelbaum’s piece clearly illustrates several
effective rhetorical strategies one can deploy in an argu-
ment. First, the opening identifies the piece’s motivating
occasion and summarizing key arguments concerning
the issue. They then rebut points with which they dis-
agree and use historical evidence and studies to support
their claims.
A Closer Look
1. Considering how the authors use historical evidence
helps students not only realize how writers situate
their arguments but also how historical information
can be used as compelling evidence.
2. Asking students to identify the authors’ reasons for
claiming the legal drinking age is not working in
certain states helps them focus on how arguments
should be supported with good reasons and credible
evidence.
3. Prior to their analyzing “The Dangers of the Drinking
Age,” consider having students read Heffernan’s
response to Patton in “Princeton Mom vs. the Facts”
and notice how Pollitt revealed holes or blind spots
in Patton’s arguments. What similar “holes” can
they find in Miron’s and Tetelbaum’s argument, and
how might one “fill” them?
Ideas for Writing
1. Every genre incorporates some element of
argumentation. Using argumentative strategies is
crucial to writing a compelling proposal. Writing
in the proposal genre helps students see this. Refer
them to Chapter 12 to learn about writing proposals.
Also, ask them to analyze sample proposals found in
Chapter 12 or Chapter 39 in terms of argumentative
strategies to help them see how proposal writers use
these.
2. Students are generally quite interested in the legal
drinking age and therefore have strong opinions
about it. To help them situate their arguments
within the larger conversation, have them research
your state law on this issue and local statistics
surrounding under-age drinking.
196
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Hillary Clinton, “Helping Women Isn’t
Just a ‘Nice’ Thing to Do”
Clinton argues that in the twenty-first century, women
do not need “help” in the traditional sense, but rather
need to be empowered to make change in their own
lives. Ask students to consider what Clinton’s role as a
politician and leader means for the position she lays out
here.
A Closer Look
1. Students may not naturally see new media as tools
of social change, instead viewing services like
Facebook and Twitter as places just to share photos
or message people. Try connecting the discussion
to recent events like the Arab Spring, where social
media was used for real political change.
2. Your students will need to undertake a little research
to fulfill this activity. Chapters 24 and 25 can help
them.
3. Anecdotes can lend powerful credibility to any
argument, if they are chosen carefully. The memoir
genre shares many rhetorical aspects with these
kinds of stories. Students can study Chapter 5 for
tips on how to make such anecdotes meaningful.
Ideas for Writing
1. Your students should be able to boil this analysis
down to a few hundred tightly-drafted words. Stress
the importance of efficiency in this type of writing.
If they struggle, refer them to Chapter 13 for tips and
models.
2. Your students may very well pick Clinton herself for
this task. Don’t discourage this, but also prompt them
to seek out other women to praise as well. Turning
to Wikipedia or an international news website could
provide important information to help them. Try to
develop a list of admirable qualities for any politician
with the class. In what way do women politicians
exemplify these traits? What special concerns for
women politicians can be integrated with these
questions?
CHAPTER 40
Proposals
Using the Readings
Elizabeth Schaeffer Brown, “Ethical Chic: How
Women Can Change the Fashion Industry”
Critiques of gender norms and critiques of industry are
both common types of arguments that appear in our
popular media. Here, Brown demonstrates the gender
inequality and related problems in a glamorous, high-
profile industry, and proposes ways in which to solve
them.
A Closer Look
1. This activity encourages students to consider shared
assumptions, as Brown’s piece operates under the
assumption that readers will recognize the need
to solve the problems she identifies. Ask students
whether they themselves are already convinced of
the need for change.
2. This exercise helps students to consider change at a
number of levels, from both a “top down,” leadership-
based approach and a “bottom up,” people power-
based approach. Remind them that these types of
change can be used together.
3. This activity helps students to recognize that
information, and opportunities for research, are
all around them. You can start the process yourself
by looking at the label of one of your own pieces of
clothing and running an internet search in front of
the class. Then, ask students to do the same. Use
this opportunity to ask what extra responsibilities
we face as consumers in an age of ubiquitous
information.
197
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ideas for Writing
1. Use Chapter 15’s information on cubing to help
students draw a comparison between their chosen
subjects and environmentalism.
2. Brown’s piece offers one type of solution to these
problems, but it is not exhaustive. Students should
get creative in their ideas.
John U. Bacon, “Reforming College Sports”
Lukas offers multiple perspectives on a complicated is-
sue. Toward the end, she works in her proposed solution.
By offering both pros and cons she is able to locate her
own position somewhere in between.
A Closer Look
1. Writing Today’s take on genre encourages students
to see them as sets of conventions and typical
practices, not as black-and-white sets of rules. Use
this quasi-proposal as a way to explore the notion of
genre boundaries and genre conventions. Chapter 12
can help in this discussion.
2. An effective aspect of any proposal is laying out
the current conditions in a way that is mutually
intelligible for writer and reader. By arguing for a
causal relationship, Bacon stakes a strong claim that
is essential to his proposal. Ask students to consider
whether his claim of causation is persuasive. .
3. Here again is a good opportunity to bring the day-
to-day lives of your students into discussion in the
writing classroom, particularly if you teach at an
institution with a big-time college football program.
Tell your students to consider this question from an
economic, social, and practical standpoint. You might
get the ball rolling by asking whether school spirit
is an essential element of a campus community, and
what amount of expense is approrpiate to achieve it.
Ideas for Writing
1. This exercise asks students to define a problem in
their own campus community. Remind them that
a college campus is a large community with many
types of stakeholders, including not only students
but professors, staff, administrators, and members
of the local community. Make sure they appeal to
different audiences.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
2. College athletes have been famous, influential
figures for decades. Remind students that profiles
need not concern only the world famous, however.
Refer them to Chapter 6 for advice on profiles..
Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal”
Swift’s essay has been widely used in composition class-
es. Students (and first-time readers in general) are often
surprised when they discover Swift’s topic. This sur-
prise draws them into the proposal and provides a good
springboard for analyzing the satire.
A Closer Look
1. Swift begins with a problem analysis and offers
examples in evidence. Much of the piece is dedicated
to the major steps in solving the problem. The steps
are noteworthy for how they will not only address
the main problem but also solve related subproblems
(skin from the bodies will provide ladies gloves).
2. Swift proposes that young children should be
eaten to solve the Irish famine. Swift’s intent is to
shock the Irish people out of their inactivity and
inability to creatively tackle problems facing the
nation. In essence, he makes a strong argument for
an unacceptable thing. In this sense, the piece also
points out the problems of not critically analyzing
other people’s proposals on important issues.
3. Answers will vary to this question. Swift’s
proposal is an odd piece of writing that resists
easy categorization. Certainly, he is playing with
genre expectations. He is providing commentary,
evaluating a situation, and even ranting under the
surface.
Ideas for Writing
1. This prompt may prove challenging to many
students. Satire is often enjoyable to read but very
difficult to produce. Use Web resources to have
students research and find other forms of satire. Ask
them what genre features satire contains to ensure
audiences get the point.
2. Ethos plays a particularly strong role in Swift’s
proposal. Note how he constantly gives credence
to other people’s ideas and claims he does not
himself require praise or attention. Swift uses
the entire section before the proposal itself
to build himself a modest and knowledgeable
198
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
ethos. This softens the blow when he makes his
horrible proposal known.
Jeffrey D. Sachs, “With 7 Billion on
Earth, a Huge Task Before Us ”
Sachs’s proposal discusses why the global population
growth creates complex environmental and economic
problems and proposes two specific solutions.
A Closer Look
1. This activity helps students identify how and why
writers make specific proposal moves; it helps them
become more familiar with the genre and see how
writers adapt to suit their own purposes.
2. When writing proposals, some students fail to
provide ample evidence that a problem exists and
discuss its complexity. They assume readers know
and agree the targeted problem exists. Have them
notice how Sachs uses evidence (type and frequency)
to articulate and analyze the problem.
3. This activity focuses students’ attention on the
social and economic contexts of use. It’s important to
point out that the solution section must consider the
costs and how the proposed plan will affect everyone
involved.
Ideas for Writing
1. This prompt will help students realize how writers
have to make rhetorical choices to suit the context
of use. How does writing for the Web affect what a
writer includes and excludes? Does this medium
often encourage writers to sacrifice needed content?
How might this influence how they read Web
content?
2. You might have students write a profile of a scientist
who takes a different stance on this problem. Doing
so might help them see how Sachs and the profiled
figure bring different values and angles to this topic.
Other ways of framing this issue exist. To learn more
about profile writing, assign them to read Chapter 6.
 41
CHAPTER
Reports
Using the Readings
NDSUH, “Major Depressive Episodes
among Full-Time College Students”
The NSDUH uses statistics and graphs to report on an
increasingly serious problem on college campuses. Note
how it focuses on presenting the statistics without pro-
viding commentary.
A Closer Look
1. Statistical and quantitative data may be difficult for
inexperienced students to read and parse. Help them
to find the claims that are being buttressed by this
data in the report.
2. This question has the potential to provoke emotional
reactions from your students. Be prepared to share
information about campus resources for dealing
with depression and other mental health issues.
3. Students are often unaware that they can seek help
for these kinds of problems. Showing them online
resources helps to remove stigma from mental
health issues and shows that they are not alone.
Ideas for Writing
1. Ask students to use information from this report to
support their own points. They may also do research
to look for more current data. Chapter 10 will be
useful.
2. This task will require not only identifying a problem
but researching it effectively. Refer students to
Chapters 24, 25, and 26 for practical advice on how
to undertake this kind of research.
199
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Samuel Axen, “7 Days on
Craigslist’s Casual Encounters”
Axen investigates the difficulty in finding a real encoun-
ter through a virtual dating service. His research con-
sists of his establishing an account and using various
methods to attract a potential hookup, and he finds some
surprising results. One might find a report like this on a
blog or included in a newspaper column instead of in a
more scholarly publication because he uses informal re-
search methods, and the piece lacks peer review.
A Closer Look
1. This activity helps students see how genres might be
modified to suit a specific context.
2. In addition to discussing if Axen’s method is
interesting, ask students to consider how significant
his findings are. Would a different method have been
more convincing?
Ideas for Writing
1. This writing assignment also provides opportunities
to introduce the concept of triangulating information
and using both primary and secondary research. Ask
students to brainstorm a rhetorical situation and
corresponding method of research. Use information
from Chapters 3 and 25 to help students complete
this activity.
2. Require students to read Chapter 9 on rhetorical
analyses and Chapter 3 on readers contexts, and
rhetorical situations. The list of questions in Figure
3.1 will help them analyze the audience.
3. Students who have never written a literacy narrative
may find it difficult to visualize what the final
product should look like. Ask all of them to locate
literacy narratives and bring them to class. As a class,
generate a list of literacy narrative genre features.
Jennifer A. Carithers-Thomas,
Shelley H. Bradford, Christopher M. Keshock, and
Steven F. Pugh, “Freshman Fifteen: Fact or Fiction?”
This report provides empirical research that tests a com-
mon cultural assumption. The topic’s accessibility and
appeal will help students learn common report moves:
introduction, literature review, method, results, use of
figures, discussion, and conclusion.
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies

A Closer Look
1. Discussing common assumptions, like the dreaded
freshman fifteen, might help students find a report
topic. Additionally, writing such a research project
will help them use primary and secondary research
to test their subjective impressions about a topic
they thought they knew well.
2. Having students analyze how the authors frame their
research question and situate their research among
similar studies teaches them these report moves and
provides them with models for doing these things in
their own reports.
3. Analyzing the researchers’ methodology will help
students see how scientists generate and explain
relevant methods of research but also how scientific
reports are limited in many ways, as they focus on
a specific data set. How does this data compare to
their personal experiences?
Ideas for Writing
1. This assignment asks students to question and
rebut the report’s method of gathering evidence
and assumptions, thereby helping students see
reports as arguments. A common misconception is
that scientific reports are “objective” and therefore
more reliable. Asking them to discover “holes” in the
report’s argument will help them realize how even
scientific writing involves authors making rhetorical
choices.
term mate. This report clearly illustrates the distinction
between the method, results, discussion, and closing
sections. It also makes good use of visuals and design
elements.
A Closer Look
1. Prior to discussing the authors’ use of a colon in the
title, assign reading in Writing Today’s “Punctuation,
Mechanics, and Spelling” section addressing colon
usage.
2. Discuss the information in Chapter 25 about finding
and evaluating online sources before students
conduct their searches.
3. Use this conversation about theoretical framework
to also discuss how academic fields often value
different things and how these are implied in their
methods of research.
Ideas for Writing
1. Summarizing an article’s key findings is akin to
writing an abstract. Point out that this article
contains one and ask students why one might write
one.
2. Students who agree with the findings might also
choose to write an Explainer addressed to other
college students covering this topic. Refer to the
earlier chapter on reporting for more information on
writing one.

2. Writing a food memoir, of sorts, helps students

use personal experience to shed some light on the
freshman fifteen issue. It might be useful to have
them write this prior to writing a report supported
by empirical and secondary research. Reflecting
on their own experiences might help them fashion
their methodology; after they have gathered
outside research, have them consider how this data
compared to their personal experience. What did
they learn?

Jaime C. Confer, Carin Perilloux, and

David M. Bus, “More Than Just a Pretty Face:
Men’s Priority Shifts Toward Bodily Attractiveness
in Short-Term versus Long-Term Mating Contexts”

The authors use a Darwinian theoretical lens to study

mate selection factors. They tested whether men’s pri-
orities change when looking for a short-term and a long-

200
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 42
CHAPTER
Research Papers
Using the Readings
Alyssa Battistoni, “The Public Overwhelmingly
Wants It: Why Is Taxing the Rich So Hard?”
Battistoni’s research paper illustrates how a good
research paper takes a specific angle on a specific issue.
Plus, her research paper is not simply a regurgitation
of facts. She integrates research to support her overall
point of view and analyze the issue. In reading this one,
students also realize that writers produce sustained
arguments supported by research in contexts other than
the classroom.
A Closer Look
1. These talking points help students realize how
research papers include argumentative strategies
and integrate appropriate methods of development.
Ask students to read Chapter 10 on writing
arguments and Chapter 21 on rhetorical patterns
prior to analyzing samples and writing their own
research papers.
2. In addition to asking students about the author’s
frustrated tone, ask them how they think her tone
adds or detracts from her sense of ethos.
3. Prior to discussing this question, ask students to read
or review the information on logical fallacies found
in Chapter 22. Students can often identify fallacies
in bumper stickers or ads but have a difficult time
pointing them out in a prose argument.
Ideas for Writing
1. Asking students to write a commentary supported
by research on this topic helps emphasize that other
genres such as the commentary and argument can
be considered research papers as well. Calling the
201
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
paper a “commentary” helps them remember the
paper should include their commentary and respond
to the ongoing, current conversation surrounding
the issue. Situating their research papers in this way
may help them avoid simply providing contextual
regurgitation of facts or writing a book report,
common ineffective moves students make in
research papers.
2. Pitching their ideas to you is a great way to help them
make decisions about their research paper projects.
You might also modify this assignment a bit to have
the pitch include their topic idea, research method,
and timeline for completing various parts of their
papers. This way, you can give them feedback on
narrowing their topics and conducting research.
Chris Mooney, “Rapture Ready:
The Science of Self Delusion”
This research paper opens with the Seekers case
study to set the stage for exploring the complexities
of human psychology throughout the remainder of the
paper. Mooney uses a variety of sources to illustrate
how humans form and cling to their beliefs, even when
evidence proves those beliefs false.
A Closer Look
1-2. Questions 1 and 2 help students realize how Mooney
uses research to illustrate how and why different
groups form and defend their beliefs. You might
connect Mooney’s article with Aristotle’s notion of
using a combination of appeals, ethos, pathos, and
logos to persuade the intended audience. Mooney’s
findings highlight the importance of tailoring
rhetorical strategies to suit the context. Chapter
22 provides some basic information on using
Aristotelian proofs.
3. Have students connect Mooney’s suggestions with
what Writing Today discusses in Chapters 3 about
readers, contexts, and rhetorical situations.
Ideas for Writing
1. This prompt asks students to situate their argument
in the context of a larger conversation surrounding
this issue. Framing their papers as commentaries
gives them a clearer motivating occasion and context
for writing.
2. A key memoir move is reflecting on how a specific
event taught the writer something. After writing
 Part III: Chapter-by-Chapter Teaching Strategies
their memoirs, ask students to reflect on how this
failure to persuade might influence how they appeal
to others in future situations. How might they
transfer this rhetorical knowledge?
3. Prior to framing the argument in an appealing
manner, students will need to analyze the targeted
audience’s beliefs and values. Ask students to create
a rhetorical situation for this paper and conduct an
audience analysis. Chapter 3 provides some helpful
guidelines for profiling readers.
Henry M. Morris, “Insufficient Design”
Morris’s paper discusses Intelligent Design proponents’
dubious position in their attempt to distance themselves
from religion. In doing so, religious leaders nor scientists
support this narrative. Morris uses a combination of
scientific journals, Intelligent Design scholarship, and
Biblical passages to support his argument.
A Closer Look
1. Morris’s research paper illustrates how effective
writers approach a topic with an interesting angle. He
neither promotes Intelligent Design or Darwinism.
Considering how he does this emphasizes the notion
of “angle” discussed in Chapter 2.
2–3.You might even take these questions a step further
and ask students to not only analyze Morris’s use
of evidence but also how his evidence appeals to a
specific reader. For whom do students think Morris’s
book is written? Why would emotional appeal be
effective?
Ideas for Writing
1. Writing this rebuttal will help them realize that
a research paper is simply a sustained argument
supported by evidence. To help students write the
rebuttal, assign Chapter 10 on writing arguments.
2. Prior to having them write an explainer, ask students
to locate an appropriate place for its publication,
then analyze the targeted readers’ values. How
might these factors influence the types of evidence
they use and how they explain the issue?
202
Copyright © 2016, 2013, 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tim M. Berra, “Charles Darwin’s Paradigm Shift”
Berra’s research paper represents a clear expository
research paper example. Even though the author doesn’t
necessarily reveal anything novel about Darwin’s life
and influence, he does carefully select which facts and
details about his life and influence to include and exclude.
Berra’s paper presents an angle and goes beyond a mere
encyclopedia entry.
A Closer Look
1. Looking at how historical issues still influence this
issue currently illustrates how research papers
move beyond simply providing historical accounts.
Effective papers emphasize the topic’s current
significance. They explain why readers should care
about the topic.
2. This question helps students think about how
good writers carefully select historical evidence to
support and develop their main ideas.
3. Review argumentative strategies as discussed in
Chapters 11 and 22 with students prior to their
responding to this question.
Ideas for Writing
1. Writing pieces that summarize key concepts, like
a brief, help students better own and understand
information necessary to effectively write about
complex issues. Assigning students to write
annotated bibliographies as discussed in Chapter
14 also helps them better understand and articulate
related concepts and arguments connected to their
research paper topics. They need space and time to
digest and reflect on what they have read prior to
writing the research paper.
2. This exercise asks students to share and compare
their research. Have them discuss how the same
resource might be used for different rhetorical
purposes within one or more of their research
papers.