ENGR. RENATO C.

ONG, MSManE

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS

 Although all fluids are to some degree compressible, compressibility is sufficiently great
to affect flow under normal conditions only for a gas.
 When pressure changes in gases occur which are greater than about 10%, it will be considered
compressible flow of fluids is occurring.
 Furthermore, if the pressure of the gas does not change by more than about 10 per cent,
it is usually satisfactory to treat the gas as an incompressible fluid with a density equal
to that at the mean pressure.
 The solution of the energy balance is more complicated because of the variation of the density or
specific volume with changes in pressure. The field of compressible flow is very large and covers
a very wide range of variations in geometry, pressure, velocity, and temperature.
 Initially, we will restrict our discussion to isothermal and adiabatic flow in uniform, straight pipes
and do not cover flow in nozzles
 When compressibility is taken into account, the equations of flow become very much more
complex than they are for an incompressible fluid, even if the simplest possible equation
of state (the ideal gas law) is used to describe their behaviour.
 Topics were confined to consideration of the flow of ideal gases.
 The physical property of a gas which varies, but which is constant for an incompressible
𝟏
fluid, is the density (𝜌) or specific volume, 𝐕 = 𝛒.
 Density is a function of both temperature and pressure and it is necessary therefore to take
account of the effects of both of these variables. The relation between the pressure and the
density will be affected by the heat transfer to the gas as it passes through the system.
 Isothermal conditions can be maintained only if there is very good heat transfer to the
surroundings and normally exist only at low flowrates in small equipment.
 At the opposite extreme, in large installations with high flowrates, conditions are much
more nearly adiabatic.
 It should be noted that, except for isothermal flow, the relation between pressure and
density is influenced by the way in which the change is caused (for example, the degree of
reversibility).
 Topic limitation and consideration for flows that involve significant changes in density.
Such flows are called compressible flows, and they are frequently encountered in devices
that involve the flow of gases at very high speeds.
 In this topic, consideration is given to the flow of gases through orifices and nozzles, and
to flow in pipelines. It is found that, in all these cases, the flow may reach a limiting
maximum value which is independent of the downstream pressure; this is a phenomenon
which does not arise with incompressible fluids.
 Compressible flow combines fluid dynamics and thermodynamics in that both are
absolutely necessary to the development of the required theoretical background.
 Equations will be based on general relations associated with compressible flows for an
ideal gas with constant specific heats.
 The relationships between the “static” and “stagnation” fluid properties are developed for
isentropic flows of ideal gases, and they are expressed as functions of specific heat ratios
and the Mach number.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

 The effects of area changes for one dimensional isentropic subsonic and supersonic flows
are discussed. These effects are illustrated by considering the isentropic flow through
converging and converging–diverging nozzles.
 The concept of shock waves and the variation of flow properties across normal and
oblique shock waves are discussed.
 Finally, considerations will be given to the effects of friction and heat transfer on
compressible flows and develop relations for property changes.

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT:
𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳 + ) = − ∑ 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦
𝐠 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
𝐹𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒, ∆𝐳 = 𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = 𝟎 (𝒏𝒐 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌)
𝐠𝐜 𝐝𝐦

𝐏 𝛖𝟐
∆ ( + ) + ∑ 𝐅𝐡 = 𝟎
𝛒 𝟐

𝐏 𝛖𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
∆( + ) + =𝟎
𝛒 𝟐 𝑫

𝐏 𝛖𝟐 𝟐𝒇𝑳𝝊𝟐
∆( + ) + =𝟎
𝛒 𝟐 𝑫

For Isothermal Compressible Flow:

𝟒𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝟐𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − 𝐏𝐋 𝟐 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝐌 𝐌 𝐏𝐋

𝟐𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐆𝟐 𝐏𝐨
𝐨𝐫 𝐏𝐨 − 𝐏𝐋 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝛒𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝛒𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐏𝐋

𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐨𝐟 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐨𝐟 𝐆𝐚𝐬:

𝑴(𝑷𝑳 )𝟐
𝑮𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √
𝑹𝑻

 Maximum velocity of compressible gas at isothermal condition or Velocity of

sound in the fluid at the conditions for isothermal flow:
𝑹𝑻
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝝊𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √ = √𝑷𝑳 𝒒𝟐
𝑴
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Example:
Natural gas (𝐂𝐇𝟒 ), is being pumped through a 1.016-m inside diameter pipeline for a distance of
𝐤𝐠 𝐦𝐨𝐥
𝟏. 𝟔𝟎𝟗𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝐦 at a rate of 2.077 𝐬𝐞𝐜 . It can be assumed that the line is isothermal at 288.8 K. The
pressure 𝐏𝟐 at the discharge end of the line is 𝟏𝟕𝟎. 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 Pa absolute. The viscosity of methane at
288.8K is 1. 𝟎𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐏𝐚 ∙ 𝐬𝐞𝐜. Calculate:
a. The pressure 𝐏𝟏 at the inlet of the line
b. Actual velocity at the exit pressure, 𝐏𝟐
c. Maximum velocity that can be obtained or velocity of sound at these conditions

Given: Methane Gas

D= 1.016 m
L = 1.609x105 m ; T = 288.8K
kg mol
Molar rate = 2.077 sec ; μ = 1.04 x 10−5 Pa ∙ sec
P2 = 170.3 x 103 Pa absolute
N∙m
R = 8314.34
kgmol ∙ K
Required: P1 =?
Solution:
πD2 π(1.016m)2
A= = = 0.8107 𝑚2
4 4
kgmol kg 1 kg
G = 2.077 (16 )( 2
) = 41
sec kgmol 0.8107m sec ∙ m2
kg
DG 1.016 m (41 sec ∙ m2 )
Therefore, R e = = = 4.005 x 106
μ −5 kg
1.04 x 10
m ∙ sec

For Commercial Steel and Wrought Iron, 𝜺 =0.046mm

𝜀 0.000046 𝑚
= = 0.0000453
𝐷 1.016 m

From ChE HB (8th Edition p. 6-11)

Colebrook Equation:
𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝑹𝒆√𝒇

𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟔
= −𝟒 𝒍𝒐𝒈 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇 𝟑. 𝟕 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔 √𝒇

𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖

 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Using Churchill Equation:

𝟏 𝛆 𝟕 𝟎.𝟗𝟎
= −𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕 ( ) + ( ) ] 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝐟 𝐃 𝐑𝐞
𝟎.𝟗𝟎
𝟏 𝟕
= −𝟒 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [𝟎. 𝟐𝟕(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑) + ( ) ] 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝐟 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟔

𝟏
= −𝟒𝒍𝒐𝒈 (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟖𝟏𝟏𝟑) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗𝟎𝟐𝟑𝟐
√𝒇
𝑓 = 0.00279

Using Colebrook-White Equation, (𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒚′ 𝒔 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇𝑴 ):

 Did a large number of experiments on commercial pipes and they also brought together some important
theoretical work by von Karman and Prandtl.
 It is applicable to the whole of the turbulent region for commercial pipes and uses an effective roughness value
(𝜀 ⁄𝐷) obtained experimentally for all commercial pipes.

𝟏 𝜺⁄𝑫 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + ) 𝑹𝒆 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇𝑴 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 𝑹𝒆√𝒇𝑴

*𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒗𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝒎𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 < 𝑹𝒆 < 𝟏𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝜺⁄𝑫) < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏

𝟏 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟑 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏
= −𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 ( + ) 𝐑𝐞 > 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
√𝒇𝑴 𝟑. 𝟕𝟏 6
(4.005 x 10 ) √𝒇𝑴
𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑴𝒐𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇𝑴 ) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒇𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒇) = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖
𝟒

For Isothermal Compressible Flow:

𝟒𝐟𝐋𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝟐𝐆𝟐 𝐑𝐓 𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − 𝐏𝐋 𝟐 = + 𝐥𝐧
𝐃𝐌 𝐌 𝐏𝐋
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − (170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2
2
𝑘𝑔 N∙m
4(0.00278)(1.609x105 𝑚) (41 2 ) (8314.34 )(288.8K)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑚 kgmol ∙ K
=
kg
(1.016m) (16 )
kgmol
2
𝑘𝑔 N∙m
2 (41 2 ) (8314.34 )(288.8K) 𝐏𝐨
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝑚 kgmol ∙ K
+ ln
kg 170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠
(16 )
kgmol

𝐏𝐨
𝐏𝐨 𝟐 − (170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2 = 4.4426𝑥1011 + 5.0455x108 ln
170.3x103 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠

𝑩𝒚 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 ∶ 𝑷𝑶 = 𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑷𝒂𝒂𝒃𝒔

𝟑 𝟐 3
(𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝒙𝟏𝟎 ) − (170.3x10 𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑠 )2 = 4.4426𝑥1011 + 𝟕. 𝟎𝟒𝟒𝟕𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝟏𝟏 11
𝟒. 𝟒𝟒𝟑𝒙𝟏𝟎 ≈ 4.45𝑥10
𝐚. 𝐏𝟏 = 𝐏𝐨 = 𝟔𝟖𝟖 𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐏𝐚𝐚𝐛𝐬
𝐛. 𝐀𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐭 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐞𝐧𝐝 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐏𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝐱𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝐏𝐚

PM G GRT
Since: G = υρ and ρ = → υ= =
RT ρ PM
kg N∙m
GRT (41 sec ∙ m2 ) (8314.34 kgmol ∙ K) (288.8K) m
υ2 = = = 36.13
P2 M kg sec
170.3x103 Paabs (16 )
kgmol
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝒄. 𝐌𝐚𝐱. 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐫 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐬𝐨𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰:
N∙m
𝑹𝑻 (𝟖𝟑𝟏𝟒.𝟑𝟒 )(288.8 𝐾) 𝒎
kgmol∙K
𝝊𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √ =√ 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟑𝟖𝟕. 𝟒𝟎
𝑴 𝟏𝟔 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒐𝒍

Adiabatic Compressible Flow:

 For negligible heat transfer through the pipe wall, the flow of compressible gas in a
straight pipe at constant cross section is adiabatic.
 For very short pipes and very large pressure drops, the adiabatic flow rate is greater
than the isothermal flow rate, with a maximum possible difference of about 20%
 For pipe length about 1000 diameters or longer, the difference is generally less than
5%
𝜸𝑹𝑻 𝑪𝒑
𝝊𝑴𝒂𝒙 = √ 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆: 𝜸 = (𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒊𝒓, 𝜸 = 𝟏. 𝟒)
𝑴 𝑪𝒗

For compressible gas equation,

Mach Number (Ma):
 Ratio of the speed of the fluid in the conduit (𝝊) to the speed of sound
(𝝊𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) in the fluid at the actual flow condition.
 Ratio of the actual velocity (𝝊) of the fluid (or object in still fluid) to the
speed of sound (𝒄) in the same fluid at the same state
𝝊 𝝊
𝑴𝒂 = =
𝝊𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒄

𝐌𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐍𝐨. (𝐌𝐚) Type of flow

<1.0 Subsonic
1.0 Sonic
>1.0 Supersonic
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Flow of Compressible Fluids

Stagnation pressure:
 The static pressure at stagnation point in a fluid flow.
 At a stagnation point, the fluid velocity is zero and all kinetic energy has been converted into
pressure energy (isentropically).
 At stagnation point is a point in a flow field where the local velocity of the fluid is zero.
 Stagnation points exist at the surface of objects in the flow field, where the fluid is brought to rest
by the object.

CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS:

When analyzing control volumes:
 It very convenient to combine the internal energy and the flow energy of a fluid into a single term,
known as “enthalphy per unit mass”.
 Whenever the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid are negligible, as is often the case, the
enthalpy represents the total energy of a fluid.
 For high-speed flows, such as those encountered in jet engines, the potential energy of the fluid is
still negligible, but the kinetic energy is not.
 In such cases, it is convenient to combine the enthalpy and the kinetic energy of the fluid into a
single term called “stagnation (or total) enthalpy, ℎ𝑜 ” ,defined per unit mass as:
𝝊𝟐 𝒌𝑱
𝒉𝒐 = 𝒉 + (𝒊𝒏 )
𝟐 𝒌𝒈
Where:
𝒉𝒐 = 𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚
𝒉 = 𝑶𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚
𝝊 = 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒉𝒐 = 𝒉 𝒊𝒇 𝐤𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐞𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐥𝐮𝐢𝐝 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐞𝐠𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
*Note:
When the potential energy of the fluid is negligible, the “stagnation enthalpy” represents the total
energy of a flowing fluid stream per unit mass.

 Consider the steady flow of a fluid through a duct such as a nozzle, diffuser, or some other flow
passage where the flow takes place adiabatically and with no shaft or electrical work.
 Assuming the fluid experiences little or no change in its elevation and its potential energy, the
energy balance relation (Ein = Eout ), for this single-stream steady-flow device reduces to:
𝝊𝟏 𝟐 𝝊𝟐 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
𝒉𝒐𝟏 = 𝒉𝒐𝟐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

 That is, in the absence of any heat and work interactions and any changes in potential energy, the
stagnation enthalpy of a fluid remains constant during a steady-flow process.
 Flows through “nozzles” and “diffusers” usually satisfy these conditions, and any increase in fluid
velocity in these devices creates an equivalent decrease in the static enthalpy of the fluid.
 If the fluid were brought to a complete stop, then the velocity at state 2 would be zero i.e.,
𝝊𝟏 𝟐
𝒉𝟏 + = 𝒉𝟐 = 𝒉𝒐𝟐
𝟐
 Thus the “stagnation enthalpy” represents the “enthalpy of a fluid when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.”
 During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is converted to enthalpy (internal energy
+ flow energy), which results in an increase in the fluid temperature and pressure.
 Assuming the fluid experiences little or no change in its elevation, no work is done by or on the
system, the steady-flow total energy equation, omitting the terms for potential energy and shaft
work, and therefore ℎ𝑜1 ≠ ℎ𝑜2 , the heat added to the fluid is given by:
𝜐1 2 𝜐2 2
ℎ𝑂1 + = ℎ𝑂2 +
2 2
Heat added to the fluid,
𝑸 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒉𝑶𝟐 − 𝒉𝑶𝟏 + −
𝒎 𝟐 𝟐

STAGNATION PROPERTIES OF COMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS:

Remember:
In thermodynamics, an “isentropic process” is an idealized thermodynamic process that is adiabatic
and in which the work transfers of the system are frictionless; there is no transfer of heat or matter
and the process is reversible.

 The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are called “stagnation properties” (stagnation
temperature, stagnation pressure, stagnation density, etc.). The stagnation state and the stagnation
properties are indicated by the subscript “o”.
 The stagnation state is called the “isentropic stagnation state” when the stagnation process is
reversible as well as adiabatic (i.e., isentropic).
 The entropy of a fluid remains constant during an isentropic stagnation process. The actual
(irreversible) and isentropic stagnation processes are shown on an h-s diagram below:
 Notice that the stagnation enthalpy of the fluid (and the stagnation temperature if the fluid
is an ideal gas) is the same for both cases.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

 However, the actual stagnation pressure is lower than the isentropic stagnation pressure
since entropy increases during the actual stagnation process as a result of fluid friction.
 The stagnation processes are often approximated to be isentropic, and isentropic stagnation
properties are simply referred to as stagnation properties.

The actual state, actual stagnation state, and isentropic stagnation

state of a fluid on an “h-s” diagram.
Stagnation Temperature/ Total Temperature (𝑻𝒐 ):
 The temperature a fluid attains when brought to rest isentropically

For an ideal gas with constant specific heats, its enthalpy (𝒉), can be replaced by the term, 𝑪𝒑 𝑻.
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒚 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏,
𝝊𝟐 𝒌𝑱
𝒉𝑶 = 𝒉 + 𝟐
(𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈
),
𝝊𝟐
𝑪𝒑 𝑻𝒐 = 𝑪𝒑 𝑻 +
𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒔:

𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒐 = 𝑻 +
𝟐𝑪 𝒑
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐,
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦
𝜐2
= "𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆" 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
2𝐶𝑝
Also, the head added to the fluid or the steady flow total energy equation can be re-written as:
𝑸 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
= 𝒉𝑶𝟐 − 𝒉𝑶𝟏 + −
𝒎 𝟐 𝟐
𝑸
= 𝒉𝑶𝟐 − 𝒉𝑶𝟏 = (𝑻𝑶𝟐 − 𝑻𝑶𝟏 )𝑪𝒑
𝒎

Where:
𝒉𝑶𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝑶𝟏 = 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚
𝑻𝑶𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝑶𝟏 = 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒔 𝟐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟏 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒚
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

At adiabatic process,
𝑸=𝟎

𝑸
= 𝒉𝑶𝟐 − 𝒉𝑶𝟏 = (𝑻𝑶𝟐 − 𝑻𝑶𝟏 )𝑪𝒑 = 𝟎
𝒎

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

𝑻𝑶𝟐 = 𝑻𝑶𝟏

Example:
𝑚
The dynamic temperature of air flowing at 100 𝑠𝑒𝑐 is :
kJ newton∙m 𝑚2
For air, constant pressure specific heat of air, Cp = 1.005 or 1,005 ≈ 1005
kg∙K kg∙K 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙𝐾
𝑚 2
𝜐2 (100 𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
= =5𝐾
2𝐶𝑝 𝑚2
2 (1,005 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 ∙ 𝐾
 Therefore, when air at 300 K and 100 m/s is brought to rest adiabatically, at the tip of
a temperature probe, its temperature rises to the stagnation value of 305 K
 Note that for low-speed flows, the stagnation and static (or ordinary) temperatures are
practically the same.

Stagnation Pressure/ Total Pressure, (𝑷𝒐 ) :

 The pressure a fluid attains when brought to rest isentropically
For ideal gases with constant specific heats, 𝑷𝒐 is related to the static pressure of the fluid by:

(𝒌−𝟏)
𝑻𝒐 𝑷𝒐 𝒌 𝑻 𝑻𝒐
=( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝟏
= 𝟏
(𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 & 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝑻 𝑷 (𝟏− ) (𝟏− )
𝑷 𝒌 𝑷𝒐 𝒌
1
 Since specific volume is ρ = v 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 "𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏", 𝑃v k = Po vo k
𝟏
𝝆𝒐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏) 𝑷 𝑷𝒐
=( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝒌
= 𝒌
𝝆 𝑻 𝝆 𝝆𝒐

Using stagnation enthalpies(ℎ𝑜 ) expression instead of Kinetic energy expressions in energy balance
equation (Bernoulli’s) :
𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑔 𝑔
𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛 + (ℎ𝑜1 + 𝑍1 ) = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + (ℎ𝑜2 + 𝑍2 )
𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑠
where: ho1 and ho2 = stagnation enthalpies at state 1 and 2 respectively

When the fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats,

𝑔
(𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇𝑜1 ) + (𝑍 − 𝑍1 )
𝑔𝑠 2
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝑔
or ∶ Δ𝑄 + Δ𝑊 = 𝐶𝑝 (Δ𝑇𝑜 ) +(Δ𝑍)
𝑔𝑠
where: To1 and To2 = stagnation temperatures at state 1 and 2 respectively

*Note that kinetic energy terms do not explicitly appear instead the stagnation enthalpy
terms account for their contribution

Sample problem:
An aircraft is flying at a cruising speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 5000 m where the atmospheric pressure
is 54.05 kPa and the ambient air temperature is 255.7 K. The ambient air is first decelerated in a diffuser
before it enters the compressor. Assuming both the diffuser and the compressor to be isentropic, determine:
(a) the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet
(b) the required compressor work per unit mass if the stagnation pressure ratio of the compressor is 8.

Given:

Required:
a. Po2
b. ΔW

Solution:
Assumptions:
 Both the diffuser and the compressor are isentropic.
 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
Air properties:
kJ newton ∙ m m2
Constant pressure specific heat of air, Cp = 1.005 or 1,005 or 1,005
kg ∙ K kg ∙ K sec 2 ∙ K
kg∙m
* note: newton =
sec2
Cp
Air Specific heat ratio at room temperature , = k = 1.4
Cv
a. Under isentropic conditions, the stagnation pressure at the compressor inlet (diffuser exit),
𝐤
𝐏𝟎𝟏 𝐓𝐨 (𝐤−𝟏)
= ( 𝟏)
𝐏𝟏 𝐓𝟏

m 2
υ1 2 (250 sec)
To1 = T1 + = 255.7K + = 286.8K
2 Cp m2
2 (1,005 2 )
sec ∙ K

𝐤
𝐏𝟎𝟏 𝐓𝐨 (𝐤−𝟏)
𝐓𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐞, = ( 𝟏)
𝐏𝟏 𝐓𝟏
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝐤 1.4
𝐓𝐨 (𝐤−𝟏) 286.8K 1.4−1
𝐏𝟎𝟏 = 𝐏𝟏 ( 𝟏 ) = 54.05 kPa ( ) = 80.77kPa
𝐓𝟏 255.7 K

(That is, the temperature of air would increase by 31.1°C( and the pressure by 26.72 kPa as air is decelerated from 250 m/s to
zero velocity. These increases in the temperature and pressure of air are due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into
enthalpy.)
b.) To determine the compressor work,
𝑔
(𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + (𝑊𝑖𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜2 − 𝑇𝑜1 ) + (𝑍 − 𝑍1 )
𝑔𝑠 2
𝑔
or ∶ Δ𝑄 + Δ𝑊 = 𝐶𝑝 (Δ𝑇𝑜 ) + (Δ𝑍)
𝑔𝑠

𝐏𝐨𝟐
Since, stagnation pressure ratio, = 8 (given) and isentropic compression,
𝐏𝐨𝟏

𝒌
𝑷𝒐𝟐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏)
= ( 𝟐)
𝑷𝒐𝟏 𝑻𝒐𝟏

(k−1)
Po k 1.4−1
To2 = To1 ( 2 ) = (286.8K)(8) 1.4 = 519.523 K
Po1

Disregarding potential energy changes and heat transfer, the compressor work per unit mass of air,
g
ΔQ + ΔW = Cp (ΔTo ) + (ΔZ)
gs
g
where: ΔQ and (ΔZ) = 0 (adiabatic and horizontal)
gs
ΔW = Cp (ΔTo )
kJ kJ
ΔW = Cp (ΔTo ) = 1.005 (519.523 K − 286.8K) = 233.89
kg ∙ K kg
𝒌𝑱
o Therefore, the work supplied to the compressor is 𝟐𝟑𝟑. 𝟖𝟗 𝒌𝒈
(*Notice that using stagnation properties automatically accounts for any changes in the kinetic energy of a fluid stream)
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER

Sonic velocity /Speed of sound (c):
 Also known as “sonic speed, which is the speed at which an “infinitesimally” small pressure
wave travels through a medium.
 The pressure wave may be caused by a small disturbance, which creates a slight rise in local
pressure.

The speed of sound changes with temperature and varies with the fluid

Pressure Propagation Analysis

To obtain a relation for the speed of sound in a medium, consider a duct that is filled with a fluid at rest:


 A piston fitted in the duct is now moved to the right with a constant incremental velocity
,𝒅𝝊,creating a sonic wave.
 The wave front moves to the right through the fluid at the speed of sound “c” and separates the
moving fluid adjacent to the piston from the fluid still at rest.
 The fluid to the left of the wave front experiences an incremental change in its thermodynamic
properties, while the fluid on the right of the wave front maintains its original thermodynamic
properties.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Control Volume Analysis

On the other hand, consider a control volume that encloses the wave front and moves with it.

 To an observer traveling with the wave front, the fluid to the right will appear to be moving toward
the wave front with a speed of “c”.
 The fluid to the left to be moving away from the wave front with a speed of 𝒄 − 𝒅𝝊.
 The observer will think the control volume that encloses the wave front (and herself or himself) is
stationary, and the observer will be witnessing a steady-flow process.

 Mass balance:
𝑚̇𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝜌𝐴𝑐 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)𝐴(𝑐 − 𝑑𝜐)

 Cancelling cross sectional flow (A),

𝜌𝑐 = (𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌)(𝑐 − 𝑑𝜐)
𝑐𝑑𝜌 − 𝜌𝑑𝜐 = 0

 At steady flow process, no heat (Q) or work (W) crosses the boundaries of the control volume and
the potential energy change (Δ𝑍) can be neglected :
𝐏 𝐠 𝛖𝟐 −𝐝𝐖𝐬
∆( + 𝐳+ ) = − ∑ 𝐅𝐡
𝛒 𝐠𝐜 𝟐 𝐝𝐦

g g
Q in + Win + (ho1 + Z1 ) = Q out + Wout + (ho2 + Z2 )
gs gs
g
where ∶ ΔZ = 0 ; ΔW = 0; ΔQ = 0
gs

(ℎ𝑜1 ) = (ℎ𝑜2 )
υ2
But stagnation enthalpy ho = h +
2
𝒄𝟐 (𝒄 − 𝒅𝝊)𝟐
𝒉 + = (𝒉 + 𝒅𝒉) +
𝟐 𝟐

 Simplifying the equation, neglecting the 2nd order term 𝒅𝝊𝟐 since amplitude of the ordinary sonic
wave is very small and does not cause any appreciable change in the pressure and temperature of
the fluid. Therefore, the propagation of a sonic wave is not only adiabatic but also very nearly
isentropic.
𝒅𝒉 − 𝒄𝒅𝝊 = 𝟎

𝐝𝑷 𝐝𝑷
𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝚫𝒔 = 𝒅𝒉 − 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝚫𝒔 = 𝟎 → 𝒅𝒉 = = 𝑽𝒅𝑷
𝝆 𝝆
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝒅𝑷 𝝏𝑷
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝒄𝟐 = (𝒂𝒕 𝒔 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕) 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝟐 = ( )
𝒅𝝆 𝝏𝝆 𝒔

𝝏𝑷
𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒌 ( )
𝝏𝝆 𝑻

𝝏𝑷 𝝏(𝝆𝑹𝑻)
𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝒄𝟐 = 𝒌 ( ) = 𝒌 [ ] = 𝒌𝑹𝑻
𝝏𝝆 𝑻 𝝏𝝆 𝑻

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 (𝒄) = √𝒌𝑹𝑻

o Equations for propagation of sound wave of flowing ideal gas:

8th ed. ChE HB equation (6-113) p. 6-22 :

𝒌𝑹𝑻
𝒄=√ = 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅
𝑴𝒐𝒍.𝒘𝒕.
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
𝑚
𝑐=
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐶𝑃
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜,
𝐶𝑉
𝐽
𝑅 = 8314
𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑇 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝐾

Mach Number (Ma): Ratio of the actual velocity of the fluid (or object in still fluid) to the speed of sound
in the same fluid at the same state
𝝊
𝑴𝒂 =
𝒄
Note:
1. Mach number depends on the speed of sound, which depends on the state of the fluid.

2. The Mach number of an aircraft cruising at constant velocity in still air may be different at
different locations.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Sample Problem:
m
Air enters a diffuser shown in the figure with a velocity of 200 . Determine the.
sec
(a) speed of sound
(b) Mach number at the diffuser inlet when the air temperature is 30°C.

Given:

Required: a. Speed of sound , c b. Ma

Solution:
Assume air at specified conditions behaves as an ideal gas
J 1𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 ∙ 𝑚 𝑚2
Ideal gas constant of air (R) = 8,314 ( ) ≈ 287 ≈ 287
kgmole ∙ K 29 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾
Specific heat ratio (k) = 1.40
a. Air at T = 30 + 273.15= 303.15K,
J
𝑘𝑅𝑇 (1.4) (8,314 ) (303.15𝐾) 𝑚
√ kgmole ∙ K
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 (𝒄) = √ = = 349
𝑀𝑜𝑙. 𝑤𝑡. 29 𝑠𝑒𝑐
b. Mach Number (Ma):
𝑚
𝜐 200 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.573
𝑐 349 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 The flow at the diffuser inlet is subsonic since Ma < 1.0
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

GENERAL CONCEPT (IDEAL GAS)

COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH A NOZZLE OR ORIFICE
 A conduit suitable for isentropic flow is called a “Nozzle”
 One of the simplest applications of the flow of a compressible fluid and it can be used to
illustrate many of the features of the process.

1. An isentropic expansion. In this process the cross-sectional area of the conduit must
change, and the process is described as one of variable area. Because the process is
adiabatic, the stagnation temperature does not change in the conduit. Such a process is
shown diagrammatically in above Fig. (a).
2. Adiabatic frictional flow through a conduit of constant cross section. This process is
irreversible, and the entropy of the gas increases. For adiabatic process, Q =0, the
stagnation temperature is constant throughout the conduit. This process is shown in Fig.
(b)
3. Isothermal frictional flow through a conduit of constant cross-sectional area,
accompanied by a flow of heat through the conduit wall sufficient to keep the temperature
constant. This process is non-adiabatic and non-isentropic; the stagnation temperature
changes during the process, since T is constant, and by the stagnation temperature equation,
𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒐 = 𝑻 + 𝟐𝑪 , T changes with . The process is shown in Fig. (c).
𝒑
 In practical terms, it is highly relevant to the design of relief valves or bursting discs which
are often incorporated into pressurized systems in order to protect the equipment and
personnel from dangers which may arise if the equipment is subjected to pressures in
excess of design values.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

 In many cases it is necessary to vent gases evolved in a chemical reaction.

Discharge through an orifice

Based on the above figure,
 The gas flow rate at an aperture through which it discharges from a vessel maintained at a constant
pressure P1 to surroundings at a pressure P2 .

𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

𝒈 𝟏
𝐯𝒅𝑷 + 𝒅𝒛 +𝝊𝒅𝝊 + 𝒅𝑾𝒔 + 𝒅𝑭𝒉 = 𝟎 (𝑪𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝒊𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒔𝒐𝒏)
𝒈𝒄 𝜶
𝛼 = 1 (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠)
𝑑𝐹ℎ = 0 (𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑑𝑊𝑠 = 0 (𝑛𝑜 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑)
𝑔
𝑑𝑧 = 0 (𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙)
𝑔𝑐

𝒅𝑷 𝝊𝟐
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, + 𝒅( ) = 𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
If the velocity in the vessel at which the gas approaches the outlet is negligible (𝜐1 = 0),

For ideal gases with constant specific heats, 𝑷𝒐 is related to the static pressure of the fluid by:
𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏)
=( )
𝑷 𝑻
1
 Since specific volume is ρ = v 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃v k = Po vo k
𝟏
𝝆𝒐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏)
=( )
𝝆 𝑻

𝜐2 2 𝑃2
= − ∫ v𝑑𝑃
2 𝑃1
*The value of the integral depends on the pressure-volume relation.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

A. Isothermal Flow
𝑃2
𝑃2 𝑃1
− ∫ v𝑑𝑃 = −𝑃1 v1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃1 v1 𝑙𝑛
𝑃1 𝑃1 𝑃2

𝜐2 2 𝑃2
𝑃1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , = − ∫ v𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃1 v1 𝑙𝑛
2 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑃1
𝜐2 = √2𝑃1 v1 𝑙𝑛
𝑃2

1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑞 = v = 𝜐𝑆 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 =
v

𝑷𝟏 𝑺𝟐
𝒎̇ = 𝒒𝝆 = 𝝊𝑺𝝆 = 𝝊𝟐 𝑺𝟐 𝝆 = (√𝟐𝑷𝟏 𝐯𝟏 𝒍𝒏 )( )
𝑷𝟐 𝐯𝟐

ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW

 During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers, and turbine blade passages,
flow quantities vary primarily in the flow direction only.
 The flow can be approximated as one-dimensional isentropic flow with good accuracy.

Simple Case/ Sample Problem

Gas Flow through a Converging–Diverging Duct
CO2 flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a nozzle shown in figure below at a
kg
mass flow rate of 3 sec. The CO2 enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with a low velocity,
and it expands in the nozzle to a pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow can be
approximated as isentropic. Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location
along the duct that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

Given:

Required:
At each location and at a pressure drop corresponds to 200 kPa,
a. Density
b. Velocity
c. Flow area,
d. Mach number
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Solution:
Assumptions:
 Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
 Flow through the duct is steady, one-dimensional and isentropic.
𝑘𝐽 𝑚2
𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 = 0.846 𝑜𝑟 846 ; 𝑘 = 1.289 ;
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾
kJ J J 𝑚2
𝑅 = 8.314 = 8314 = 188.954 = 188.954
kgmole ∙ K kgmole ∙ K kg ∙ K 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 ∙ K

 We note that the inlet temperature is nearly equal to the stagnation temperature since the inlet
velocity is small. The flow is isentropic, and thus the stagnation temperature and pressure
throughout the duct remain constant.
𝑇𝑜 ≅ 𝑇1 = (200℃ + 273.15) = 473.15𝐾
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜 ≅ 𝑃1 = 1400𝑘𝑃𝑎
For a pressure drop of 200kPa,
At a location where pressure drop 200 kPa, P = (1400kPa-200 kPa) = 1200 kPa

𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏)
=( )
𝑷 𝑻
(𝒌−𝟏)
𝑻𝒐 𝑷𝒐 𝒌 𝑻 𝑻𝒐
=( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝟏
= 𝟏
(𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 & 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝑻 𝑷 (𝟏− ) (𝟏− )
𝑷 𝒌 𝑷𝒐 𝒌

𝑇𝑜 473.15𝐾
𝑇= (𝒌−𝟏)
= 1.289−1 = 457.08 𝐾
𝑷𝒐 𝒌 1400 1.289
(𝑷) ( )
1200
2
𝜐
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 +
2 𝐶𝑝

𝜐 2 = 2𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇)
𝑚2 𝑚
𝜐 = √2𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇) = √2 (846 2 ) (473.15𝐾 − 457.08 𝐾) = 164.9
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠,

𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑀 1200000 (44) 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = 𝑚2 = 13.90 3
𝑅𝑇 (8314 newton ∙ m 𝑚
kgmole ∙ K
) (457.08𝐾)
𝑞 = 𝜐𝑆
𝑘𝑔
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚̇ ( )
( ) 𝑘𝑔
𝑞 𝜌 13.89 3
𝑆= = = 𝑚 = 0.00131𝑚2 (13.10 𝑐𝑚2 )
𝜐 𝜐 𝑚
164.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝑚2 𝑚
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑐) = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √(1.289) (188.954 2
) (457.08𝐾) = 333.657
𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Mach Number (Ma):
𝑚
𝜐 164.90 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.494
𝑐 333.657 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐

At different locations with corresponding pressure :

𝒎 𝒌𝒈 𝒎 𝑺, 𝒄𝒎𝟐 Ma
𝝊, 𝝆, 𝒄,
P, kPa T, K 𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒎𝟑 𝒔𝒆𝒄
1400 473 0 15.7 339.4 ∞ 0
1200 457 164.9 13.9 333.6 13.1 0.494
1000 439 240.7 12.1 326.9 10.3 0.736
800 417 306.6 10.1 318.8 9.64 0.962
767 414 317.2 9.82 317.2 9.63 1.000
600 391 371.4 8.12 308.7 10.0 1.203
400 357 441.9 5.93 295.0 11.5 1.498
200 306 530.9 3.46 272.9 16.3 1.946

ADIABATIC FRICTIONLESS NOZZLE FLOW

 Relationships among the pressure, temperature, density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number for
one-dimensional isentropic flow.

Type of Isentropic Flow Mach Number

𝑑𝑆
Subsonic Flow Ma < 1.0 <0
𝑑𝜐
𝑑𝑆
Supersonic Flow Ma > 1.0 >0
𝑑𝜐
𝑑𝑆
Sonic Flow Ma = 1.0 =0
𝑑𝜐

 Supersonic velocities cannot be attained by attaching a converging section to a converging

nozzle. Doing so will only move the sonic cross section farther downstream and decrease
the mass flow rate.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

 Variations of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles and diffusers.

ISENTROPIC FRICTIONLESS FLOW OF IDEAL GASES

Mass balance at steady state flow:
𝑚̇ = 𝑞𝜌 = 𝜐𝑆𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Conservation of energy:
At steady flow process, no heat (Q) or work (W) crosses the boundaries of the control volume and the
potential energy change (Δ𝑍) can be neglected :
𝑷 𝒈 𝝊𝟐 −𝒅𝑾𝒔
∆( + 𝒛+ ) = − ∑ 𝑭𝒉
𝝆 𝒈𝒄 𝟐 𝒅𝒎

𝑔 𝑔
𝑄𝑖𝑛 + 𝑊𝑖𝑛 + (ℎ𝑜1 + 𝑍1 ) = 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 + (ℎ𝑜2 + 𝑍2 )
𝑔𝑠 𝑔𝑠
𝑔
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ Δ𝑍 = 0 ; Δ𝑊 = 0; Δ𝑄 = 0
𝑔𝑠
(𝒉𝒐𝟏 ) = (𝒉𝒐𝟐 )
υ2
But stagnation enthalpy ho = h +
2

𝛖𝟏 𝟐 𝛖𝟐 𝟐
𝐡𝟏 + = 𝐡𝟐 +
𝟐 𝟐
or
𝛖𝟐
𝐡+ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝛖𝟐
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∶ 𝒅𝒉 + 𝒅 ( )=𝟎
𝟐

𝐝𝑷 𝐝𝑷
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐, 𝑻𝚫𝒔 = 𝒅𝒉 − 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝚫𝒔 = 𝟎 (𝑰𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒊𝒄) → 𝒅𝒉 = = 𝐕𝒅𝑷
𝝆 𝝆

𝐝𝑷 𝛖𝟐
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒: + 𝒅( ) = 𝟎
𝝆 𝟐
𝟏
𝑷 𝑷𝒐 𝝆𝒐 𝑷 𝒌
𝒃𝒖𝒕 ∶ = → 𝝆= 𝟏
𝝆𝒌 𝝆𝒐 𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝒌
𝐝𝑷 𝛖𝟐
𝟏
+ 𝒅( ) = 𝟎
𝟐
𝝆 𝑷𝒌
( 𝒐 𝟏)
𝑷𝒐 𝒌

𝟏
𝑷𝒐 𝒌 𝑷 𝒅𝑷 𝝊
𝛖𝟐
∫ + ∫ 𝒅( ) = 𝟎
𝝆𝒐 𝑷𝒐 𝟏𝒌 𝟎 𝟐
𝑷
𝟏
𝟐
𝟐𝒌𝑷𝒐 𝑷 𝟏−𝒌
∗∗∗ 𝝊 = [𝟏 − ( ) ] (𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 & 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
(𝒌 − 𝟏)𝝆𝒐 𝑷𝒐

In terms of Mach Number form (solve explicitly):

𝟏
𝟐
𝟐 𝑷𝒐 𝟏−𝒌
𝑴𝒂 = [( ) − 𝟏] (𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝒌−𝟏 𝑷

In terms of pressure ratio,

𝑷 𝟏
= 𝒌
(𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝑷𝑶
𝟐 𝒌 − 𝟏 (𝒌−𝟏)
[𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂 ( 𝟐 )]

𝒐𝒓
𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝒌 − 𝟏 (𝒌−𝟏)
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )] (𝑪𝒉. 𝑬 𝑯𝑩 𝟖𝒕𝒉 𝑬𝒅. 𝒑. 𝟔 − 𝟐𝟑)
𝑷 𝟐

𝑷∗
Critical Pressure Ratio (𝒓𝒄 𝒐𝒓 ) , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 ∶ 𝑷 = 𝑷∗ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟎,
𝑷𝑶

𝒌
𝑷∗ 𝟐 (𝒌−𝟏)
=( )
𝑷𝒐 𝒌+𝟏
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

In terms of Temperature,

𝑻 𝒌 − 𝟏 −𝟏
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )]
𝑻𝒐 𝟐

In terms of Density,
−𝟏
𝝆 𝒌 − 𝟏 (𝒌−𝟏)
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )]
𝝆𝒐 𝟐

The properties of a fluid at a location where the Mach number is unity (the throat) are called
critical properties

Critical Ratios Properties where Ma = 1.0

𝑇∗ 2
Critical Temperature Ratio =
𝑇𝑜 𝑘 + 1
𝑘
Critical Pressure Ratio 𝑃∗ 2 (𝑘−1)
=( )
𝑃𝑜 𝑘+1
1
Critical Density Ratio 𝜌∗ 2 (𝑘−1)
=( )
𝜌𝑜 𝑘+1
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Fluid Mass Velocity (G) at the nozzle exit :

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒎̇ 𝑲𝒈

𝑮= = 𝝊𝝆 = (𝐢𝐧 )
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑺 𝒎𝟐 ∙ 𝒔𝒆𝒄

𝟏 𝟏
𝟐𝒌𝝆𝒐 𝑷𝒐 𝑷 𝒌 √ 𝑷 𝟏−𝒌
𝑮= √ ( ) 𝟏−( ) (𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝒌−𝟏 𝑷𝒐 𝑷𝒐
𝒐𝒓
𝒌 (𝒎𝒐𝒍. 𝒘𝒕. ) 𝑴𝒂
𝑮 = 𝑷𝒐 √ 𝒌+𝟏
(𝑪𝒉. 𝑬 𝑯𝑩 𝟖𝒕𝒉 𝑬𝒅. 𝒑. 𝟔 − 𝟐𝟑)
𝑹𝑻𝒐
𝒌−𝟏 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
[𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( 𝟐 )]

Also,

Maximum Fluid Mass Velocity (𝑮∗ ) at the throat (Ma = 1.0) :

𝒌+𝟏
𝒌 𝑷𝑶 𝟐 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
𝑮∗ = √ ( )[ ]
𝑹 √𝑻𝒐 𝒌 + 𝟏

Sample Problem
CO2 flows steadily through a varying cross-sectional area duct such as a nozzle shown in figure below at a
kg
mass flow rate of 3 . The CO2 enters the duct at a pressure of 1400 kPa and 200°C with a low velocity,
sec
and it expands in the nozzle to a pressure of 200 kPa. The duct is designed so that the flow can be
approximated as isentropic. Determine the density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at each location
along the duct that corresponds to a pressure drop of 200 kPa.

Given:

Required:
At a pressure drop corresponds to 200 kPa, determine density, velocity, flow area, and Mach number at
each location
Solution:
Assumptions:
 Carbon dioxide is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature.
 Flow through the duct is steady, one-dimensional and isentropic.
𝑘𝐽 𝑚2
𝐶𝑝𝐶𝑂2 = 0.846 𝑜𝑟 846 ; 𝑘 = 1.289 ;
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

kJ J J 𝑚2
𝑅 = 8.314 = 8314 = 188.954 = 188.954
kgmole ∙ K kgmole ∙ K kg ∙ K 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 ∙ K

 We note that the inlet temperature is nearly equal to the stagnation temperature since the inlet
velocity is small. The flow is isentropic, and thus the stagnation temperature and pressure
throughout the duct remain constant.
𝑇𝑜 ≅ 𝑇1 = (200℃ + 273.15) = 473.15𝐾
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜 ≅ 𝑃1 = 1400𝑘𝑃𝑎
For a pressure drop of 200kPa,
At a location where pressure drop 200 kPa, P = (1400kPa-200 kPa) = 1200 kPa

𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝑻𝒐 (𝒌−𝟏)
=( )
𝑷 𝑻
(𝒌−𝟏)
𝑻𝒐 𝑷𝒐 𝒌 𝑻 𝑻𝒐
=( ) 𝒐𝒓 𝟏
= 𝟏
(𝑴𝒄𝑪𝒂𝒃𝒆 & 𝑺𝒎𝒊𝒕𝒉)
𝑻 𝑷 (𝟏− ) (𝟏− )
𝑷 𝒌 𝑷𝒐 𝒌

𝑇𝑜 473.15𝐾
𝑇= (𝒌−𝟏)
= 1.289−1 = 457.08 𝐾
𝑷 𝒌 1400 1.289
( 𝒐) (1200)
𝑷
𝜐2
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 +
2 𝐶𝑝

𝜐 2 = 2𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇)
𝑚2 𝑚
𝜐 = √2𝐶𝑝 (𝑇𝑜 − 𝑇) = √2 (846 ) (473.15𝐾 − 457.08 𝐾) = 164.9
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑠,

𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝑀 1200000 (44) 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = 𝑚2 = 13.90 3
𝑅𝑇 (8314 newton ∙ m 𝑚
kgmole ∙ K
) (457.08𝐾)
𝑞 = 𝜐𝑆
𝑘𝑔
3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚̇ ( )
( ) 𝑘𝑔
𝑞 𝜌 13.89
𝑆= = = 𝑚3 = 0.00131𝑚2 (13.10 𝑐𝑚2 )
𝜐 𝜐 𝑚
164.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚2 𝑚
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑐) = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √(1.289) (188.954 ) (457.08𝐾) = 333.657
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Mach Number (Ma):
𝑚
𝜐 164.90 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑀𝑎 = = = 0.494
𝑐 333.657 𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Calculate the critical pressure and temperature:

Critical Temperature Ratio:

𝑇∗ 2 2
= = = 0.87337 → 𝑇 ∗ = 𝑇𝑜 (0.87337) = 473.15𝐾(0.87337) = 413 𝐾
𝑇𝑜 𝑘 + 1 1.289 + 1

Critical Pressure Ratio:

𝑘 1.289
𝑃∗ 2 (𝑘−1) 2 1.289−1
=( ) =( ) = 0.5477 → 𝑇 ∗ = 𝑃𝑜 (0.5477) = 1400𝑘𝑃𝑎(0.5477) = 767 𝐾𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑜 𝑘+1 1.289 + 1

Sample Problem
Effect of Back Pressure on Mass Flow Rate
Air at 1 MPa and 600°C enters a converging nozzle, shown in figure below with a velocity of 150 m/s.
Determine the mass flow rate through the nozzle for a nozzle throat area of 50cm2 when the back pressure:
(a) 0.7 MPa

Given:

Required: 𝑚̇ = ?
Solution:
Assumption:
 Air is an ideal gas with constant specific heats at room temperature
 Flow through the nozzle is steady, one-dimensional, and isentropic
𝑘𝐽 𝑚2
𝐶𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1.005 𝑜𝑟 1005 ; 𝑘 = 1.4 ;
𝑘𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ∙ 𝐾
kJ J
 𝑅 = 8.314 kgmole∙K = 8314 kgmole∙K

𝑚 2
𝜐2 (150 𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇 + = (600 + 273.15)𝐾 + = 884𝐾
2 𝐶𝑝 𝑚2
2 (1005 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐2 ∙ 𝐾

k
Po To (k−1)
=( )
P T
k 1.4
To (k−1) 884K 1.4−1
Po = P ( ) = (1MPa) ( ) = 1.045MPa
T 873 K

𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 0.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = = 0.67
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1.045 𝑀𝑃𝑎
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝑃∗
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = 0.5283
𝑃𝑜

𝑷𝒃 𝑷∗
> , 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒌𝒆𝒅, 𝑷𝒃 = 𝑷𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒂𝒕
𝑷𝒐 𝑷𝒐
𝒌
𝑷𝒐 𝒌 − 𝟏 (𝒌−𝟏)
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )]
𝑷 𝟐
𝟏.𝟒
𝟏 𝟏. 𝟒 − 𝟏 (𝟏.𝟒−𝟏)
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )] → 𝑴𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖
𝟎. 𝟔𝟕 𝟐

𝑻 𝒌 − 𝟏 −𝟏
= [𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( )]
𝑻𝒐 𝟐

𝑻 𝟏. 𝟒 − 𝟏 −𝟏 𝑻
= [𝟏 + (𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖)𝟐 ( )] → = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟐
𝑻𝒐 𝟐 𝑻𝒐

𝑇 = 𝑇𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 0.892(884𝐾) = 788.53𝐾

𝑃𝑀 700,000𝑃𝑎(29) 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = = J
= 3.096 3
𝑅𝑇 (8314 ) (788.53𝐾) 𝑚
kgmole ∙ K
J
8314 kgmole ∙ K 𝑚
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑐) = √𝑘𝑅𝑇 = √(1.4) ( ) (788.53𝐾) = 561.606
29.1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜐 𝑚 𝑚
𝑀𝑎 = → 𝜐𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎 (𝑐) = 0.778 (561.606 ) = 437
𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
𝑚̇ = 𝜐𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝜌𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 = 437 (0.005𝑚2 ) (3.096 ) = 6.76
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

For:
𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 0.4𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = = 0.383
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1.045 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑃𝑏 𝑃𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 0.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = = = 0.67
𝑃𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1.045 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑃∗
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐) = 0.5283
𝑃𝑜

𝑷𝒃 𝑷∗
< , 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒉𝒐𝒌𝒆𝒅, (𝑺𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑴𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟎
𝑷𝒐 𝑷𝒐

𝒌 (𝒎𝒐𝒍. 𝒘𝒕. ) 𝑴𝒂
𝑮 = 𝑷𝒐 √ 𝒌+𝟏
(𝑪𝒉. 𝑬 𝑯𝑩 𝟖𝒕𝒉 𝑬𝒅. 𝒑. 𝟔 − 𝟐𝟑)
𝑹𝑻𝒐
𝒌 − 𝟏 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
[𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( 𝟐 )]

𝒌 (𝒎𝒐𝒍. 𝒘𝒕. ) 𝑴𝒂 𝒌𝒈
𝒎̇ = (𝑺)𝑷𝒐 √ 𝒌+𝟏
= 𝟕. 𝟏𝟎
𝑹𝑻𝒐 𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒌−𝟏 𝟐(𝒌−𝟏)
[𝟏 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐 ( 𝟐 )]

*These stagnation temperature and pressure values remain constant throughout the nozzle since the flow is assumed
to be isentropic.
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

ADIABATIC FRICTION FLOW

 Flow through pipes of constant cross section is adiabatic when heat transfer through pipe wall is
negligible.
 In the case of a long pipe into which gas enters at a given pressure and temperature and flows at a
rate determined by the length and diameter of the pipe and the pressure maintained at the outlet.
 In an attempt to maintain a constant discharge pressure and lengthening the pipe, to force the gas
to change from subsonic to supersonic flow or vice versa, the mass flow rate will decrease to
prevent such a change. This will result to “Choking” effect.
 Choking effect could result to adiabatic friction flow and this can be measure by a friction
parameter:
𝒇𝑳
𝒓𝑯
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆:
𝑳 = 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒓𝑯 = 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒊. 𝒆. 𝑫 = 𝟒𝒓𝑯
𝒇 = 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
∗ 𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆:
1
𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑓) 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐
2
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Equations for adiabatic friction flow:

𝒌−𝟏
𝒇̅ 𝑳 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌+𝟏 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟐 {𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐 }
= [ − −( ) 𝒍𝒏 ]
𝒓𝑯 𝒌 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝒌−𝟏 𝟐
𝑴𝒂𝟏 {𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟐 }
Where:
𝒇𝟏 + 𝒇𝟐
𝒇̅ = 𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒔,
𝟐
𝑳 = 𝑳 𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏

Equations used for calculating the changes in pressure, temperature and density:

𝒌−𝟏 𝟐
𝑷𝟏 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟐
= √
𝑷𝟐 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
𝟏+( ) 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐
𝟐
𝒌−𝟏 𝟐
𝑻𝟏 𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟐
=
𝑻𝟐 𝒌−𝟏
𝟏+( ) 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐
𝟐

𝒌−𝟏 𝟐
𝝆𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟏
= = √
𝝆𝟐 𝑷𝟐 𝑻𝟏 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝒌−𝟏
𝟏+( ) 𝑴𝒂𝟐 𝟐
𝟐
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

Maximum Length of the pipe or conduit ,(𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) :

𝒌−𝟏
𝒇̅ 𝑳𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌+𝟏 𝟐 {𝟏 + ( 𝟐 ) 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐 }
= [ −𝟏−( ) 𝒍𝒏 ]
𝒓𝑯 𝒌 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐 𝟐 𝑴𝒂𝟏 𝟐 {𝒌 + 𝟏}

𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐆):

 Use to determine the Reynolds number for evaluating the friction factor (𝒇)

𝒌𝑻𝑹
𝑮 = 𝝆(𝑴𝒂)√ = 𝑴𝒂√𝝆𝒌𝑷
𝑴

***For Example Problem,

 Please refer to Example 6.2 page 143 ( Unit Op. of Chemical Eng’g by McCabe
and Smith, 6th Edition)

ISOTHERMAL FRICTION FLOW

 The temperature of the fluid in compressible flow through a conduit of constant
cross section is kept constant by a transfer of heat through the conduit wall
 Long, small, uninsulated pipes in contact with air transmit sufficient heat to keep
the flow isothermal

𝟐 𝟐 𝑮𝟐 𝑹𝑻 𝝆𝟏 𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = [𝟐𝒍𝒏 + ]
𝑴 𝝆𝟐 𝒓𝑯
Example:

Air at 1.7atm gauge and 15°C enters a horizontal 75-mm steel pipe that is 70 m long. The flow
𝑚3
rate of the entering air is 0.265 . Assuming isothermal flow, what is the pressure at the
𝑠𝑒𝑐
discharge end of the line?

Given:
𝑚3
𝑞 = 0.265
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐷 0.075
𝐷 = 0.075 𝑚; 𝑟𝐻 = = = 0.01875 𝑚
4 4
𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝑎𝑖𝑟 @ 15℃ = 0.0174 𝑐𝑃 = 1.74𝑥10−5
𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
29 (1.7 + 1)𝑎𝑡𝑚 273𝐾 𝑘𝑔
𝜌1 = 𝑥 𝑥 = 3.31 3
22.4 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 288𝐾 𝑚
Solution:
𝜋(0.075𝑚)2
𝐴= = 0.00442 𝑚2
4
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
𝑞𝜌1 0.265 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (3.31 3 ) 𝑘𝑔
𝑚
𝐺= = = 198.5
𝐴 0.00442 𝑚2 𝑚2 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝐺 198.5 2
𝑅𝑒 = = 0.075𝑚 ( 𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 ) = 8.56𝑥105
𝜇 𝑘𝑔
1.74𝑥10−5 𝑚 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Using Wrought iron pipe, 𝜀 = 0.00015 𝑓𝑡
1𝑚
𝜀 0.00015 𝑓𝑡 (3.28 𝑓𝑡)
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, = = 0.00061
𝐷 0.075 𝑚

Using Colebrook Equation:

1 𝜀 ⁄𝐷 1.256
= −4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + ) 𝑅𝑒 > 4000
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒√𝑓

1 0.00061 1.256
= −4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√𝑓 3.7 8.56𝑥105 √𝑓

If 𝑓 = 0.0044

1 0.00061 1.256
= −4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√0.0044 3.7 8.56𝑥105 √0.0044
15.0755 = −4𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.86985𝑥10−4 )
15.0755 = 14.913
If 𝑓 = 0.0045

1 0.00061 1.256
= −4 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( + )
√0.0045 3.7 8.56𝑥105 √0.0045
14.91 = −4𝑙𝑜𝑔(1.86738𝑥10−4 )
14.91 = 14.915
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑓 = 0.0045
For isothermal friction flow,

𝟐 𝟐 𝑮𝟐 𝑹𝑻 𝝆𝟏 𝒇(𝑳𝟐 − 𝑳𝟏 )
𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 = [𝟐𝒍𝒏 + ]
𝑴 𝝆𝟐 𝒓𝑯
𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝐿𝑒𝑡: 𝑃̅ =
2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜: 𝑃1 2 − 𝑃2 2 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )(𝑃1 + 𝑃2 )
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑷 𝟏 𝟐 − 𝑷 𝟐 𝟐 = 𝟐𝑷
̅ (𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝐺 2 𝑅𝑇 𝜌1 𝑓(𝐿2 −𝐿1 )
𝑃1 2 − 𝑃2 2 = [2𝑙𝑛 + ] = 𝟐𝑷̅ (𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )
𝑀 𝜌2 𝑟𝐻
2 𝜌
𝐺 𝑅𝑇 𝑓(𝐿 −𝐿 )
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = ̅ [2𝑙𝑛 1 + 2 1 ]
2𝑃𝑀 𝜌2 𝑟𝐻
 ENGR. RENATO C. ONG, MSManE

𝑮𝟐 𝑹𝑻 𝝆𝟏 𝒇(𝑳)
(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 ) = ̅
𝑷𝑴
[ 𝒍𝒏 𝝆𝟐
+ 𝟐𝒓𝑯
] (𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
Where:
𝑃1 = 2.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑀 = 29
𝐿 = 70 𝑚
𝑚3 ∙ 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑅 = 82.056 𝑥 10−3
𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∙ 𝐾
𝑇 = 15 + 273𝐾 = 288𝐾

𝐵𝑦 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝑃 +𝑃
 Assume value of 𝑃̅, compute 𝑃2 using the equation 𝑃̅ = 1 2 2
 Substitute the assumed value of 𝑃̅ and computed value of 𝑃2 to the equation for iteration
𝐺2 𝑅𝑇 𝜌1 𝑓(𝐿)
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = ̅
𝑃𝑀
[ 𝑙𝑛 𝜌2
+ 2𝑟𝐻
]
 By substitution of the assumed ̅𝑃 and computed value of 𝑃2 , the answers are:

𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐
̅ = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝒎 =
𝑷 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝟐

Heat Transfer in Isothermal Flow:

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐

𝑸 𝝊𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝊𝟏 𝟐
=
𝒎 𝟐

𝑸 𝑮𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑱𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, = ( 𝟐 − 𝟐) , 𝒊𝒏
𝒎 𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝝆𝟏 𝒌𝒈