Mechanical Engineering

Energetic project report

Diesel characterization, air flow and combustion

simulation in ICE chamber

Created by:

E2: JALALI Mehdi, MOUKRIM Badr & MOUKRIM Oussama

C2: LAAGUIR Brahim, LOUMANI Mohssine & MOUFAKKIR Ziad

Supervised by:

Mr. IMARIOUANE Mohammed

June 2023

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 Thank

THIS HUMBLE WORK IS DEDICATED

To Allah
The one and only Almighty,

To our dear parents,

To Mr. IMARIOUANE Mohammed

The success of this project can only be the fruit of seven weeks' hard work and your unfailing
support. Your expertise and advice have undoubtedly greatly enriched our work, and we are
extremely grateful to be able to count on your collaboration. Thank you again for your support and
help, which was essential in achieving the objectives set to produce a solid and complete work. In
the end, it wouldn't have been possible without you.

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 Abstract

This project is a mix of verification and design study in which we have tried to verify
experimentally the chemical and physical properties diesel, study the behavior of the air-diesel flow
and combustion inside a combustion chamber that have designed its shape. The determination of
diesel properties is based on simple experimental techniques usually used in physics laboratories.
This study enabled us to discover and verify density and viscosity of diesel. After this, we have made
an optimal design with the computational aided drawing software “CATIA V5” of the combustion
chamber where the piston shape allows the air-diesel mixture to flow in turbulent mode, so we could
obtain a homogeneous mixture and a perfect combustion at the end. With the computational fluid
dynamics software “ANSYS Fluent”, we have tried to verify that the shape of the piston verified the
requested results for the flow and the combustion the we have preceded it by a theorical study to
elaborate the necessary parameters such as mass fractions. After obtaining the results of the
simulation, we added the last section where we calculated the necessary mass flow of water needed
in the cooling process.

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 Table of contents

Chapter I. Diesel characteristics...................................................................................................... 8

I.1 The physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel: ................................................................ 8
I.2 Methods of identifying properties: ............................................................................................ 9
I.2.1 Fuel density:....................................................................................................................... 9
I.2.2 Viscosity measurement: ................................................................................................... 12
I.2.3 Methods for determining diesel components – SPECTROMETER: .............................. 14
I.3 The air diesel mix:................................................................................................................... 17
I.3.1 Essential notions: ............................................................................................................. 17
I.3.2 Cause of a lean mixture of air and diesel:........................................................................ 17
I.3.3 Air/fuel ratio formula:...................................................................................................... 18
Chapter II. Combustion chamber design ........................................................................................ 19
II.1 Material selection: ................................................................................................................... 19
II.2 Sealing ..................................................................................................................................... 20
II.3 Valves...................................................................................................................................... 20
II.4 Chamber Design:..................................................................................................................... 21
Chapter III. Simulation of, Diesel and air, flow, and Combustion .................................................. 23
III.1 simulation of diesel and air flow ............................................................................................. 23
III.1.1 Flow parameters ........................................................................................................... 23
III.1.2 Result analysis: ............................................................................................................ 25
III.2 Combustion report................................................................................................................... 26
III.1.1 Combustion pressure .................................................................................................... 27
III.1.2 Combustion reaction .................................................................................................... 28
III.1.2.1 Species involved in the combustion reaction........................................................ 28
III.1.2.2 Chemical Formulation .......................................................................................... 28
III.1.2.3 Mass fractions ....................................................................................................... 28
III.1.3 Simulation sur ANSYS Fluent ..................................................................................... 30
Chapter IV. Cooling calculation ...................................................................................................... 32
IV.1 The heat of combustion ........................................................................................................... 32
IV.2 Mass flow calculation ............................................................................................................. 32

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 Table of figures

Figure 1: An image of a 50 ml pycnometer ..................................................................................................... 10

Figure 2: An image of a thermostatic bath ...................................................................................................... 11
Figure 3: An image of an electrical balance .................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4: An image of a falling ball viscometer .............................................................................................. 12
Figure 5: Liquid-phase sample introduction system commonly used in ICP spectrometry instrumentation. . 15
Figure 6: Diagram of the set up ....................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 7: Air diesel mix in combustion chamber ............................................................................................ 17
Figure 8: Piston material specification ............................................................................................................ 19
Figure 9: 2D drawing of the combustion chamber .......................................................................................... 21
Figure 10: 2D engine representation ............................................................................................................... 24
Figure 11: simulation of the velocity profile of air and diesel intake .............................................................. 25
Figure 12: Colored map of the static pressure ................................................................................................. 26
Figure 13: The four strokes of diesel engine ................................................................................................... 27
Figure 14: Plot representing the temperature of combustion chamber as function of iterations. .................... 30
Figure 15:Plot representing the pressure of combustion chamber as function of iterations. ........................... 31

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 List of tables

Table 1: diesel properties................................................................................................................................... 9

Table 2: fuel formula ....................................................................................................................................... 18

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 General Introduction:

The use of diesel fuel in combustion engines is a widely used technology that has a significant
impact on our daily lives. From powering vehicles to generating electricity in power plants, the
properties of diesel and the way it combusts are of great importance to many industries.

In this project, we aim to experimentally study the properties of diesel and its combustion
behavior inside a specially designed chamber. Through this investigation, we hope to gain a deeper
understanding of the fundamental properties of diesel and its combustion behavior, and ultimately,
improve the efficiency and sustainability of diesel-based technologies.

To achieve this goal, we will design and build a combustion chamber that allows us to simulate
the flow and combustion of the air-diesel mixture under controlled conditions. We will use advanced
simulation tools to model the behavior of the mixture and optimize our design for maximum
efficiency.

Finally, we will perform an analytical study of the cooling system used to maintain the optimal
operating temperature of the combustion chamber. This will include an analysis of the heat transfer
properties of the chamber walls and the cooling system, as well as the potential for thermal stress and
deformation.

Overall, through this project, we hope to contribute to the development of more efficient and
sustainable diesel-based technologies, while also gaining a deeper understanding of the properties
and behavior of this important fuel source.

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 Chapter I. Diesel characteristics
___________________________________________________________________

The combustion of diesel fuel has been a topic of interest for scientists and engineers for decades.
Diesel engines are known for their efficiency, durability, and power, making them a popular choice
for heavy-duty applications such as transportation, construction, and agriculture.

Diesel is a type of fuel that is commonly used in diesel engines. It is a liquid fuel that is derived
from crude oil through a refining process. Diesel fuel is composed of a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, including paraffins, olefins, and aromatics, as well as small amounts of impurities such
as sulfur.

Chemically, diesel fuel is characterized by its carbon-hydrogen ratio, which is typically higher
than that of gasoline. Diesel fuel has a higher energy density than gasoline, meaning it contains more
energy per unit volume. This is one of the reasons why diesel engines are known for their efficiency
and power.

Physically, diesel fuel is a clear or slightly yellowish liquid with a characteristic diesel-like odor.
It has a higher boiling point than gasoline, which means it does not evaporate as easily. Diesel fuel
also has a higher flash point than gasoline, which means it requires a higher temperature to ignite.
This is why diesel engines use compression ignition, where the fuel is injected into compressed air in
the engine's cylinders, rather than using spark plugs like gasoline engines.

The physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel can vary depending on the refining process
and the source of the crude oil used. The properties of diesel fuel can be characterized through a
number of tests, including measurements of density, viscosity, flash point, and cetane number.
These properties are important to understand to ensure proper engine performance and to meet
regulatory standards for emissions.

I.1 The physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel:

Mixture, usually consisting of about 86% carbon and 14% hydrogen, with a minor fraction of
sulfur. The physical and chemical properties of diesel fuel can vary depending on the source of the
crude oil and the refining process. Diesel fuel is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons, typically
consisting of around 86% carbon and 14% hydrogen, with a minor fraction of Sulphur. The calorific
value of diesel fuel is approximately 42.6 MJ/kg and the density ranges from 0.82 to 0.86 kg/L]. The
kinematic viscosity of diesel fuel at 40°C is typically between 1.9 and 5 mm2/s. Other diesel fuel

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properties include a minimum cetane number of 40, a cloud point of -34°C (maximum) and a water
and sediment content of 0.02% (volume maximum). Diesel fuel can also contain microbiological
contaminants, such as bacteria, which can cause corrosion and sludge development. The actual
composition of diesel fuel can vary depending on the source of the crude oil and the refining process
and can contain hundreds of hydrocarbons as well as numerous additives.

Table 1: diesel properties

Crude source
Properties Kuwait crude Forties crude Nigerian crude
Density (kg/l at 15 °C) 0.8517 0.8558 0.8785
Viscosity (cSt at 40 °C) 4.5 4.6 4.5
Cloud point (°C) 4 6 -8
Cold filter plugging point -4 1 -11
(°C)
ATM distillation 50% 304 294 283
distilled at °C
Sulphur (% wt) 1.40 0.19 0.13
Cetane number (ASTM 54.1 52.2 40.9
D613)
[1]

I.2 Methods of identifying properties:

Fluids and hydrostatics present an extensive range experiments and demonstrations that facilitate
the understanding of the basic principles of the hydrostatic. Properties such as density, viscosity and
surface tension can be determined as well as the basic principles such as Pascal's law and Archimedes'
law in our situation.

I.2.1 Fuel density:

Fuel density is a measure of how much mass a fuel has per unit volume. It is typically expressed
in units of kilograms per liter (kg/L). A number of factors, including the composition of the fuel, its
temperature, and the atmospheric pressure at the location where the measurement is taken, can affect
fuel density.

Diesel fuel has a higher density than gasoline due to its higher carbon content and energy density.
The density of diesel fuel can vary depending on its specific gravity, which is the ratio of the fuel's

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density to that of water at a standard temperature and pressure. The specific gravity of diesel fuel is
typically in the range of 0.83 to 0.90, which corresponds to a density of 830 to 900 kg/m3.

To experimentally calculate the density of diesel, a manipulation is carried out which makes it
possible to find the mass of a certain volume of fuel (Diesel).

This manipulation allows us to calculate the fuel density by measuring the mass of a specific
volume of this fuel at a given temperature using equation (1):

𝜌 𝑚
𝑑=𝜌 = 𝑣×𝜌 (1)
𝑒𝑎𝑢 𝑒𝑎𝑢

In our case, we measure the mass of 50 ml of fuel at a temperature of 20°C.

For this manipulation, we use several components:

- A Pycnometer: a laboratory instrument used to measure, at a specific temperature, the volumic

mass and density of a liquid, paste, or solid product.

Figure 1: An image of a 50 ml pycnometer

- Thermostatic bath: Figure 1 .It consists of a stainless-steel tank, and the temperature is
regulated using a thermostat.

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 Figure 2: An image of a thermostatic bath

Electric Balance: Weighing is performed using a teaching and laboratory balance with a precision of 10-4.
The operating principle of these balances is based on the variations of the electrical characteristics of certain
materials when they are subjected to mechanical compressions. These electrical variations are measured and
sent to a dial, which provides an indication of the mass of the unknown load that has compressed the material.

Figure 3: An image of an electrical balance

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Result:

For a volume of 50 ml of Diesel, and using this manipulation we found the mass:

m=68,8062 – 26.7032 = 42.103 g

So, using the formula of the volume mass we found =842.06 kg/m

I.2.2 Viscosity measurement:

Viscosity is a physical property that characterizes the state of a fluid whose molecules are
hindered in their movement by interactions, collisions or molecular associations. To speak in non-
physical and rather informal terms, we can use the concept of "thickness" and describe viscosity as
one of the aspects of the behavior of a fluid (gas or liquid) in motion. More specifically, the viscosity
of a fluid defines its flow behavior, i.e., its ability to flow uniformly and without turbulence. The
viscosity of a fluid is influenced by various factors, including temperature. Generally, it is designated
by the Greek letter µ. We can also – more rarely however – find it indicated by the Greek letter η.

To calculate viscosity, we usually use FALLING BALL VISCOMETER.

Figure 4: An image of a falling ball viscometer

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• Technical characteristic description: The falling ball viscometer allows precise measurement of the
viscosity of transparent Newtonian liquids and gases. It meets the requirements specified by DIN 53
015 and has been calibrated by a certified body, the Federal Institute of Physics and Metrology (PTP).
• Measuring principle: The ball is dropped without initial velocity in the vertical tube. The ball
then moves under the action of gravity. To measure the viscosity, we time the time taken by
the ball to pass from a first marker to a second and we deduce its speed of fall.
• Thermal regulation: Since the viscosity is highly temperature dependent, precise control of
the sample temperature is provided. The sample is tempered e.g. with the circulation
thermostat. Temperature control is ensured by a thermometer integrated in the viscometer.
(Standard -1 ... + 26 °C, graduated in 0.1 K).
• Viscosity calculation: Stokes' law gives the drag force T [N] exerted on a fluid in the case of
a laminar regime in the equation 2 :

𝑇 = 6 𝜋 × η × r × v∞ (2)
where:

- η [Pa s] is the viscosity of the fluid

- r [m] is a ball radius;
- 𝑣∞ [m/s] is the velocity of the ball relative to the lab;

Knowing that the forces acting on the ball are the drag force, gravity and Archimedes' thrust,
assuming that the ball does not accelerate (or at least that this acceleration is negligible), we
to:

𝑚 × 𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 + 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣∞ + 𝜌𝑉𝑔 (3)

Therefore, the viscosity expression is:

𝑔 4
𝜂= × (𝑚 − 𝜋𝑟 3 𝜌) (4)
6𝜋𝑟𝑣∞ 3

• The limits of this method: From the point of view of implementation, this technique is simple
and fast but its precision is limited. This is notably because Stokes' law is only valid when the
Reynolds number of the system does not exceed 0.5 (the flow is then laminar) 5. This therefore
constrains in particular not to measure parameters where the speed of the ball remains
relatively low. When this number is of the order of 100, the approximations given by this tool
diverge greatly from the reality of the fact that the flow is then turbulent.

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 I.2.3 Methods for determining diesel components – SPECTROMETER:

Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) sources can be coupled either with an atomic emission
spectrometer (ICP-AES) or with a mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). In both cases, the excitation process
is the same, using an argon plasma flame with internal regions at temperatures above 10 000 K. These
instruments are based on the ionizing properties of an argon plasma, which allows:

- with ICP-AES, the measurement of the ionic and atomic emissions of the elements present in
the sample, with very low background noise intensities.
- with ICP-MS, the separation of ions corresponding to the elements present in the sample with
a mass spectrometer, with high resolution power.

The first ICP sources coupled with atomic emission spectrometers appeared in the early 1970s. ICP
sources were particularly well suited for the extreme excitation provided to the sample. The coupling
with a mass spectrometer arrived in the 1980s with the appearance of the first commercial devices in
1983. These techniques experienced rapid development under the impetus of manufacturers due to
the broad potential market of the analysis, with a wide range of applications (Jarvis et al., 1992). ICP-
MS, in particular, has emerged in the past fifteen years as a preferred method for elemental analysis.
When combined with experimental protocols derived from isotopic dilution, it has even become the
"definitive" method for determining the characteristics of geochemical standards (SRMs) at the
National Institute for Standards and Technologies (USA) for certification purposes (Kane et al.,
1995). Applications in archaeometry are still limited, given the number of published studies (Gratuze
et al., 1993a; Tykot and Young, 1996; Young et al., 1997), but many laboratories already use them,
suggesting an explosion of applications in this field as well.

• Sampling and Sample Introduction: For ICP analysis, all samples must be introduced into the
central channel of the argon stream in the form of gas, vapor, or an aerosol of fine droplets or
solid particles. The transition from a solid sample to a sample transported by a gas stream to
the ICP torch can be done in different ways.

The most commonly used system in ICP-MS, which is the only one used for ICP-AES, is the
dissolution of the solid sample. This is achieved by attacks and dissolutions with acids that
are chosen to break down the solid structure of the samples, keep them in solution while
avoiding introducing disturbances in the measurement of the concentrations.

A peristaltic pump sends the solution to a nebulizer through a flexible capillary tube. The
majority of equipment uses a pneumatic nebulizer where high-speed gas streams disperse the
solution into fine droplets.
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 tailflame

Fire ball

Induction coil Spectrometer

Radiofrequency
generator

Coolant gas Torch

Auxiliary gas
Sample
capilliary nebuliser

Peristatic
pump
Spray chamber

Sample solution to drain

Figure 5: Liquid-phase sample introduction system commonly used in ICP

spectrometry instrumentation.

Atomic Emission Spectrometry: Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry

(ICP-AES):

Quantification of element abundances by ICP-AES is based on the ability to separate a complex

emission spectrum into its various wavelengths. This must be done with sufficient sensitivity and
resolution to accurately measure the light intensity of each characteristic wavelength of each element.
The passage of the sample through the plasma mainly excites the electrons in the outer layers. The
radiation resulting from rearrangements and transitions between outer layers is typically between
ultraviolet (170 nm) and the visible limit (780 nm). Different experimental setups exist, using more
or less complex optical arrangements of slits, mirrors, gratings, and photomultipliers.
Monochromator, polychromator, or even mixed configurations seek to optimize experimental
precision, analysis time, and initial equipment cost. The chosen solutions take these different factors
into account. The setup in Figure 7 is a polychromator. A first fixed grating allows the analysis of the
first-order diffracted lines (typically between 175 and 500 nm) by a set of fixed photomultipliers. An
additional setup with another fixed grating using the light reflected by the first one allows the analysis
of other wavelength ranges (between ~500 and 800 nm) with another set of fixed photomultipliers.
The use of fixed elements predetermined by their positions determines the lines and thus the elements

15
analyzed. Such a system allows the detection and simultaneous measurement of all desired elements
in counting times of less than two minutes.

The limitations are essentially related to spectral interference phenomena, that is, the overlap of
atomic emission from different elements. Spectrometers are designed to provide the greatest possible
separation of wavelengths, but interference on certain lines cannot be resolved, so it is necessary to
analyze for a chemical element the emission lines that are least sensitive to possible interferences.

• Experimental setup: The measurements were carried out at the Dolomieu Institute using a
Jobin Yvon JY 24 ICP-AES instrument. This setup employs the sample introduction and
excitation principles described previously and operates in sequential radiation analysis mode,
as it is equipped with a monochromator-based spectrometer. A nitrogen generator is used to
create a nitrogen atmosphere within the spectrometer, allowing for low absorption of optical
radiation, particularly in the infrared range. This permits the use of a wide range of
wavelengths and weak signals for the determination of certain elements, such as phosphorus.

• Mass Spectrometry: Inductively Coupled Plasma -Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)

The principles of ICP-MS are quite simple. For almost all elements present in a sample, ions
can be generated by an appropriate ionization source, such as an ICP. The ions are physically
extracted from the plasma to a mass spectrometer and measured by an ion detector. This
process of mass selection is rapid, and the instrument is capable of obtaining spectra for all
elements from 7Li to 238U in approximately one minute.

A general diagram of the setup is presented in Figure 6.

Quadrupole power unit Lens

supplies
RF matching unit

RF power
Discriminator pulse
supply
Rate
amp meter
Vacuum pumps
Multichannel scalar
Drain

System controller Sample

Computer Gas control

Figure 6: Diagram of the set up

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I.3 The air diesel mix:

I.3.1 Essential notions:

The point of a good air-diesel mixture is to ensure efficient combustion in a diesel engine. Diesel
engines require a high compression ratio to achieve self-ignition of the fuel-air mixture, as there is no
spark plug to ignite the mixture. A good air-diesel mixture ensures that the fuel is evenly distributed
in the combustion chamber, allowing complete combustion and maximum power. A good air-diesel
mixture also helps reduce emissions and improve fuel efficiency. The compression ratio of a diesel
engine is higher than that of a gasoline engine, resulting in a more efficient combustion process and
higher thermal efficiency.

Figure 7: Air diesel mix in combustion chamber

I.3.2 Cause of a lean mixture of air and diesel:

A lean air-diesel mixture occurs when there is too much air and not enough fuel in the combustion
chamber of a diesel engine. This can be caused by a variety of factors, including a clogged fuel filter,
a faulty fuel injector, or a vacuum leak in the engine. A lean air-diesel mixture can cause several
problems, including reduced power output, increased emissions, and engine damage from
overheating. When the air-fuel mixture is too lean, the fuel may not burn completely, leading to
incomplete combustion and the formation of harmful pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Additionally, a lean air-diesel mixture can cause the engine to run hotter than normal, which can lead
to engine damage over time.
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 I.3.3 Air/fuel ratio formula:

The air-fuel ratio is defined as the air-fuel ratio of a mixture prepared for combustion. For
example, if we have a mixture of methane and air which has an air/fuel ratio of 17.5, this means that
in the mixture we have 17.5 kg of air and 1 kg of methane.

The ideal (theoretical) air/fuel ratio, for complete combustion, is called the stoichiometric
air/fuel ratio. For a gasoline (petrol) engine, the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio is approximately 14.7:1.
This means that to completely burn 1 kg of fuel, we need 14.7 kg of air. Combustion is possible even
if the AFR is different from stoichiometric. For the combustion process to take place in a gasoline
engine, the minimum AFR is around 6:1 and the maximum can be up to 20:1.

When the air-fuel ratio is higher than the stoichiometric ratio, the air-fuel mixture is said to be lean.
When the air-fuel ratio is lower than the stoichiometric ratio, the air-fuel mixture is said to be rich.
For example, for a gasoline engine, an AFR of 16.5:1 is lean and 13.7:1 is rich.

Table 2: fuel formula

fuel Chimical formula RFA

Méthanol CH3OH 6.47 :1
Ethanol C2H5OH 9 :1
Butanol C4H9OH 11.2 :1
Diesel C12H23 14.5 :1
Essence C8H18 14.7 :1
Propane C3H8 15.67 :1
Méthane CH4 17.19 :1
Hydrogène H2 34.3 :1

For example, to completely burn 1 kg of Ethanol, we need 9 kg of air and to burn 1 kg of diesel fuel
we need 14.5 kg of air.[2]

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 Chapter II. Combustion chamber design
_______________________________________________________________________________

II.1 Material selection:

The design of the combustion chamber is a critical aspect in achieving efficient and effective
combustion processes. This involves meticulous engineering and careful consideration of various
factors to create an optimal environment for fuel combustion. In the academic context, the
conception of a combustion chamber entails a comprehensive approach that encompasses the
selection of appropriate geometrical configurations, the implementation of advanced
computational tools for simulation and analysis, and the integration of advanced technologies to
enhance combustion efficiency and reduce pollutant emissions. The primary objective is to create
a chamber that promotes proper mixing of fuel and air, facilitates efficient heat transfer,
minimizes combustion instability, and ensures robust and reliable operation. Additionally, the
design process involves iteratively refining the chamber design through theoretical modeling,
numerical simulations, and experimental validation to achieve the desired performance and meet
the specific requirements of the combustion system under investigation.
The alloys used for pistons:
A wide range of aluminum alloys is utilized in the manufacturing of cast aluminum pistons,
including Al Si13Cu3NiMg, Al Si12CuNiMgFe, Al Si22CuNiCo, Al Si11Cu5Ni2Mg, and more.
The inclusion of high copper content (3-5%), as well as the addition of nickel or other alloying
elements like cobalt, zirconium, and vanadium, contributes to improved high-temperature
resistance. The high silicon content (22%) in the hyper-siliceous alloy Al Si22CuNiCo enhances
wear resistance. Conversely, forged pistons are commonly produced using the Al Cu2MgNi alloy.

Figure 8: Piston material specification

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In the case of forged steel pistons for automotive applications, alloys containing chromium,
molybdenum, and often nickel are employed, notably ASI 4140 (chrome- molybdenum) and A732
(series 8600 nickel-chrome-molybdenum). Cast iron pistons are typically made from ferrito-pearlitic
ductile iron (FGS), which exhibits spherical graphite morphology.

II.2 Sealing
A piston in an internal combustion engine must maintain a high level of sealing to prevent fuel
and air from escaping the combustion chamber. This sealing function is achieved through the
utilization of annular piston rings, which are housed within grooves on the piston wall. If these rings
become damaged or if contaminants enter the engine, it can lead to premature wear of both the engine
and the rings. Maintaining optimal sealing integrity is crucial for the efficient operation and longevity
of the engine, as it ensures proper compression, combustion, and overall performance. Therefore,
regular inspection, maintenance, and prompt repair or replacement of damaged rings or other sealing
components are necessary to prevent potential detrimental effects on engine performance and
longevity.

Piston rings serve as essential components that ensure sealing during the processes of intake,
compression, combustion, and exhaust that occur between the engine block and the combustion
chamber. These rings can be manufactured using various materials, including cast iron. The number
of rings installed on the piston may vary depending on the engine type, speed, and power
requirements. Common configurations include engines equipped with 3, 4, or 5 rings.

A metal-plastic gasket, commonly known as a cylinder head gasket, is responsible for maintaining
sealing between the engine block and the combustion chamber. Regarding the materials used in piston
manufacturing, ductile and forgeable copper-aluminum alloys (containing 2 to 10% Cu) are often
mentioned. These alloys exhibit significant mechanical characteristics at lower temperatures but tend
to degrade rapidly under high-temperature conditions.

The proper functioning of piston rings and the cylinder head gasket is essential for achieving
effective sealing throughout the engine's operating cycles. Ensuring the selection of suitable materials
and regular inspection, maintenance, and replacement of damaged components are critical practices
to maintain optimal sealing performance and prevent potential issues associated with leakage and
engine wear.

II.3 Valves
Valves are an important part of an engine's operation. Engine valves are an essential part of the
engine, as without them it would not be possible to obtain the energy needed to start a vehicle. A
20
valve is a mechanical part of the valve train of a four-stroke internal combustion engine that allows
fresh gases to enter and burned gases to exit. Valves fall into three main categories: stem valves - also
known as tulip valves -, rotary valves and sleeve valves.

Variable valve actuation technologies simultaneously reduce nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon
dioxide (CO2). These technologies have been shown to be effective in meeting future global
emissions requirements for commercial diesel vehicles. During the evaluation, the standard diesel
engine valvetrain was replaced with the Eaton Variable Valve Actuation System, which is capable of
performing either ADC or LIVC functions. The engine was placed on a dynamometer and tested in
standard engine mode and in various ADC and LIVC modes to establish the optimal thermal
management effects and fuel savings.

II.4 Chamber Design:

Based on the above characteristics of the combustion chamber of an internal combustion engine,
we have tried to make approximative model of this chamber using the CAD software “CATIA”:

Figure 9: 2D drawing of the combustion chamber

21
The Figure 9 shows the representation of 2D drawing of our combustion chamber.

22
 Chapter III. Simulation of, Diesel and air, flow,
and Combustion
__________________________________________________________________________________

III.1 simulation of diesel and air flow

The simulation of diesel and air flow is an approach used to study and understand the behavior of
diesel engines. It allows modeling and predicting various aspects of fuel and airflow inside the
combustion chamber.

Flow simulation utilizes computer-modeling techniques, such as Computational Fluid Dynamics

(CFD), to solve the fundamental equations of mass conservation, momentum, and energy in an engine
system.

In the specific case of diesel engines, flow simulation can consider parameters such as combustion
chamber geometry, fuel injectors, injection nozzles, velocity profiles, turbulence, heat transfer, and
chemical reactions.

By employing sophisticated mathematical models, flow simulation predicts how diesel fuel is injected
into the combustion chamber, how it mixes with air, how it vaporizes and blends, and how it burns
during combustion.

The results of flow simulation can provide valuable insights into the performance and characteristics
of diesel engines, such as air-fuel mixture distribution, local temperatures and pressures, combustion
phenomena, pollutant emissions, and even energy efficiency.

III.1.1 Flow parameters

Simulating the flow of air and diesel in a diesel engine requires considering several parameters to
obtain accurate and reliable results. Here are some of the essential parameters:

23
 • Engine geometry:

Diesel intake

Air intake

Figure 10: 2D engine representation

It is necessary to model the detailed geometry of the combustion chamber (Figure 10), including
dimensions, shape of intake and exhaust ducts, as well as the position and shape of fuel injectors. The
piston geometry is a crucial element in the design and operation of an internal combustion engine.
The piston plays a vital role in the process of compressing the air-fuel mixture before ignition. The
shape and profile of the piston determine the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston is
at top dead center (TDC). Proper geometry allows for optimal compression of the mixture, thereby
promoting combustion that is more efficient and better overall engine performance.

• Fuel and injection: The characteristics of diesel fuel, such as density, viscosity, and chemical
properties, need to be specified. Details of the injection, such as injection pressure, flow rate,
injection angle, and spray duration, are also required. A diesel pressure of 100000000 Pa and
velocity of 15 m/s are chosen.
• Combustion models: Appropriate combustion models need to be selected to represent the
combustion of diesel fuel. This may include single or multi-step combustion models,
considering turbulence, chemical reactions, and mixing phenomena.
• Boundary conditions: Boundary conditions, such as temperatures and concentrations of
chemical species at the inlet and outlet of the system, need to be defined. This may include
intake air temperature, exhaust pressure, oxygen concentration, etc.
• Velocity profiles: Inlet conditions, including the velocity and direction of incoming air, need
to be defined. This may include information about turbulence and vortices present in the intake
duct.

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• During the compression phase in the combustion chamber, the air is compressed and reaches
value of 20 to 40 MPa. In our case, let's assume that the air enters with a pressure of 30 MPa
and a velocity of 25 m/s.
• Turbulence models: Turbulence models are used to account for the effects of air and fuel
turbulence in the combustion chamber. Different turbulence models, such as the k-epsilon
model or large eddy simulation (LES), can be used depending on the complexity of the flow.
In our simulation we use a k-epsilon model.

III.1.2 Result analysis:

After properly setting up the software, we conducted the simulation.

• Velocity profile:

Figure 11: simulation of the velocity profile of air and diesel intake

In our velocity profile (Figure 11), we observed turbulence generated within the combustion
chamber. This turbulence is primarily attributed to the geometry profile of the piston, which helps
create more turbulence and enhance the mixing between air and diesel, thereby improving
combustion.

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 • Pressure:

Figure 12: Colored map of the static pressure

The distribution of pressure within the combustion chamber (Figure 12) is crucial for the optimal
operation of an internal combustion engine. Ideally, the pressure should be distributed uniformly and
controlled to ensure efficient combustion and reduce harmful emissions.

The air enters with a pressure of 300 KPa, while the diesel enters with a pressure of 100 MPa.

Figure 9 provides us with the average pressure values at each point of our geometry.

The piston compresses the air-fuel mixture within the combustion chamber. The distribution of
pressure during this compression phase should be uniform to achieve a homogeneous mixture and
consistent combustion.

III.2 Combustion report

After simulating the flow of air and diesel in the combustion chamber, we have verified that
turbulence plays its part in the agitation to obtain a well-mixed fuel. Now it's time to simulate
combustion in the chamber after the compression phase, when the piston rises to top dead center
(TDC).

To run the simulation, several parameters need to be specified. The first thing to identify is
the compression pressure reached when the mixture is compressed. Secondly, the equation that the
combustion reaction must follow must be imposed; and then the mass fractions of the reactants and
products involved in the reaction equation must be output. Finally, we need to enter these parameters
into the calculation software, which in our case is ANSYS Fluent.

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 III.1.1 Combustion pressure

The compression stroke of a diesel engine is one of the four strokes in the engine cycle (Figure
13). During this stroke, the piston moves up the cylinder, compressing the air that has been drawn

Figure 13: The four strokes of diesel engine

into the cylinder.

The air is compressed to a high pressure and temperature, which allows for efficient combustion
of the diesel fuel. The high compression ratio of diesel engines also contributes to their efficiency
and power output.

The compression pressure in a diesel internal combustion engine can vary depending on
several factors, such as engine type and compression ratio. Here is the information found in the
search results:

- Diesel engines are usually at a pressure value of 30 to 55 bar. [3]

- Typical diesel compression can range from 19 bar (275 psi) to 34 bar (495 psi). [4]

The compression pressure must be measured with a compressiometer, a pressure gauge

specially designed for this purpose and equipped with a non-return valve.

In our simulation we are going to choose 30 bar as pressure of mixture in the compression
phase as it is a usual pressure in diesel engines.

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 III.1.2 Combustion reaction

III.1.2.1 Species involved in the combustion reaction

Before combustion, the combustion chamber contains the air-diesel mixture, so the reagents in our
reaction are the fuel, which is the diesel, and the oxidizer, which is the dioxygen contained in the air.

After combustion, the results are carbon dioxide and water.

So, the reaction is governed by the equation:

𝐷𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙 + 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 → 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 (1)

III.1.2.2 Chemical Formulation

Diesel fuel is typically a complex mixture of various hydrocarbon compounds, including

alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. The specific composition of diesel fuel can also
depend on factors such as the source of crude oil and the refining process employed. However,
diesel fuel is primarily a mixture of hydrocarbons, which are compounds composed of carbon (C)
and hydrogen (H) atoms.

The used chemical formula integrated in Fluent database is 𝐶10 𝐻22

- Dioxygen: 𝑂2
- Water: 𝐻2 𝑂
- Carbon Dioxide: 𝐶𝑂2

Then, the equation (1) will be:

𝐶10 𝐻22 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 O (2)

The balanced version is:

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𝐶10 𝐻22 + 𝑂2 → 10𝐶𝑂2 + 11𝐻2 O (3)
2

III.1.2.3 Mass fractions

To determine the mass fractions, we'll need the molar masses of the compounds involved:

𝐶10 𝐻22 : 10 × (12.01 g/mol) + 22 × (1.008 g/mol) = 142.29 g/mol

𝑂2: 2 × (16.00 g/mol) = 32.00 g/mol

𝐶𝑂2: 1 × (12.01 g/mol) + 2 × (16.00 g/mol) = 44.01 g/mol

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𝐻2 𝑂: 2 × (1.008 g/mol) + 16.00 g/mol = 18.02 g/mol

Now, assuming we have 100 grams of the reactant 𝐶10 𝐻22 , we can calculate the moles of each
compound:

- Mass of 𝐶10 𝐻22 : 100 g

- Moles of 𝐶10 𝐻22 : 100 g / 142.29 g/mol = 0.702 mol
- Moles of 𝑂2: (31/2) × 0.702 mol = 10.363 mol
- Mass of 𝑂2: 10.363 mol × 32.00 g/mol = 331.38 g
- Moles of 𝐶𝑂2: 10 × 0.702 mol = 7.02 mol
- Mass of 𝐶𝑂2: 7.02 mol × 44.01 g/mol = 308.47 g
- Moles of 𝐻2 𝑂: 11 × 0.702 mol = 7.722 mol
- Mass of 𝐻2 𝑂: 7.722 mol × 18.02 g/mol = 139.12 g

Now, let's calculate the mass fractions of our case:

Mass fraction of 𝐶10 𝐻22 : (mass of 𝐶10 𝐻22 ) / (total mass of all species) = 100 g / (100 g + 308.47 g +
139.12 g + 331.38 g) ≈ 0.139

Mass fraction of 𝑂2: (mass of 𝑂2) / (total mass of all species) = 331.38 g / (100 g + 308.47 g +
139.12 g + 331.38 g) ≈ 0.357

Mass fraction of 𝐶𝑂2: (mass of 𝐶𝑂2) / (total mass of all species) = 308.47 g / (100 g + 308.47 g +
139.12 g + 331.38 g) ≈ 0.301

Mass fraction of 𝐻2 𝑂: (mass of 𝐻2 𝑂) / (total mass of all species) = 139.12 g / (100 g + 308.47 g +
139.12 g + 331.38 g) ≈ 0.201

Therefore, the corrected mass fractions of the species in the given reaction are:

𝐶10 𝐻22 : 0.139 (13.9%)

𝑂2: 0.357 (35.7%)

𝐶𝑂2: 0.301 (30.1%)

𝐻2 𝑂: 0.201 (20.1%)

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 III.1.3 Simulation on ANSYS Fluent

After entering the parameters required for combustion simulation, i.e. the fluid material (air-
diesel mixture) and the solid material (steel), the initial pressure (30 bar) and the mass fractions of
the elements in the reaction equation. Activate the energy mode and select the transient analysis
mode to follow the evolution of combustion. Create plots to monitor temperature and pressure as a
function of iterations. Set the calculations at 120 iterations and run the simulation.

The full report of the simulation is available at the following google-drive link:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/19Du4GVjRwpyF4QplyjG4Ugk7OBaIzGkK/view?usp=sharing

The following plots represent respectively the temperature (Figure 14) and the pressure (Figure
15) of a point in the middle of the combustion chamber as function of iterations:

Figure 14: Plot representing the temperature of combustion chamber as function of iterations.

We can see how the temperature increased into highly values “5000 K”; unfortunately, this
temperature won’t affect the chamber’s structure properties. This value can be reached at that single
point. Although if this maximum reaches the full chamber, that will cause no problems because it’s
an instantly shock of temperature.

30
 Figure 15:Plot representing the pressure of combustion chamber as function of iterations.

It is clear on the figure that the pressure diverges at the first instants of the explosion; that refers
to the fact that we have chosen a closed chamber for the simulation, so the pressure doesn’t find a
space to release.

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 Chapter IV. Cooling calculation
_________________________________________________________________________________

IV.1 The heat of combustion

Diesel is a type of fuel that is used in internal combustion engines, including diesel engines.
When diesel is burned, it releases heat energy, which is used to power the engine. The heat energy
released by the combustion of diesel is known as the calorific value or heat of combustion. The heat
of combustion of diesel is approximately 45.6 megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). This means that
for every kilogram of diesel that is burned, approximately 45.6 MJ of heat energy is released. [5]

To calculate the total heat energy released by the combustion, we have to determine the quantity
of diesel in the chamber.

According to the experimental part of defining Diesel properties, we found that the density of
diesel is approximately 𝑑 = 0.9 𝐾𝑔/𝐿. {8}

On the other hand, we have considered that the volume between the upper dead center and the
top of the chamber have a cylindric shape with a diameter of R = 40 mm and a h = 20 mm of height.
Then the total volume of that space is:

𝑉 = π × 𝑅 2 × ℎ = π × 0.82 × 0.2 = 0.4𝑑𝑚3 = 0.4𝐿

If we consider that the mentioned space is totally filled by Diesel, then the mass of diesel there
will be:

𝑚 = 𝑑 × 𝑉 = 0.9 × 0.4 = 0.36 𝐾𝑔

The total released heat then, is:

𝑄 = 45.5 × 𝑚 = 45.5 × 0.36 = 16.2 𝑀𝐽

IV.2 Mass flow calculation

Basing on the heat transfer equation:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑓 × Δ𝑇 × 𝐶𝑝

where:

Q is the amount of heat transferred,

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mf is the mass flow,

Cp is the mass heat capacity of water, and

ΔT is the temperature difference between water and the cylinder.

We can extract the mass flow:

𝑄
𝑚𝑓 =
Δ𝑇 × 𝐶𝑝

Δ𝑇 is the difference between the temperature of water (20°C) and the temperature of the first
transformation of the cast iron.

The softening temperature of the cast-iron is given by the formula 𝑇 = 0.4 × 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔

So, Δ𝑇 = 458 − 20 = 438°𝐶.

The mass heat capacity of water is (4.187 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔. 𝐾). [6]

Therefore, the mass flow of water is:

16200000
𝑚𝑓 = = 8.83𝐾𝑔/𝑠
4.187 × 103 × 438

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 Conclusion

In conclusion, the experimental study of diesel properties, coupled with the design and simulation
of the combustion chamber, has provided valuable insights into the behavior of air-diesel mixtures
under various conditions. The results of our experiments and simulations have shown that the design
of the combustion chamber plays a crucial role in optimizing the combustion process, leading to
improved efficiency, reduced emissions, and better performance.

Furthermore, our analytical study of cooling has highlighted the importance of proper cooling in
maintaining the longevity of the engine and preventing thermal damage. We have identified various
cooling techniques that can be used to manage the temperature of the engine, thereby improving its
overall efficiency and reliability.

Overall, this project has provided a comprehensive understanding of the behavior of diesel
engines and the factors that affect their performance. The knowledge gained from this project can be
used to optimize the design and operation of diesel engines, leading to improved efficiency, reduced
emissions, and better performance.

34
 Bibliography and Netography

[1]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/diesel-fuel [visited on 14.06.2023]

[2]: https://x-engineer.org/air-fuel-ratio/ [visited on 14.06.2023]

[3]: https://www.tuningblog.eu/fr/cat%C3%A9gories/tipps_tuev-dekra-u-co/compression-354314/
[visited on 14.06.2023]
[4]: https://www.picoauto.com/fr/library/automotive-guided-tests/compression-relative-diesel/
[visited on 26.05.2023]
[5]: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html [visited on
26.05.2023]
[6]: https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorific-values-d_169.html [visited on
14.06.2023]

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