Exploring Ethical

Theories: A
Comprehensive
Examination of
Approaches and
Applications
 Introduction
Normative ethical theories guide
individuals in moral thinking and
reasoning, providing justification for
actions. Popular, not all-inclusive theories
include Western and Eastern Ethics
 Religion and Western
Ethics
Western ethics systems often include monotheistic
religious traditions like Judaism, Christianity, and
Islam, which rely on sacred texts for morality.
Historical figures like Augustine and Aquinas and
Maimonides have influenced these systems. The
ancient Greeks provided the most developed ethics in
the Western world until the Middle Ages, when
religious doctrine became the primary focus. The
Enlightenment period saw secular ethics overtake
religious systems, blurring the lines between sacred
and secular ethics. Ethics now falls under philosophy
rather than religion.
Religion and Western
Ethics
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the
person making the ethical decision. Aristotle is a
prominent philosopher in this field.

Watch your thoughts; they become words.

Watch your words; they become actions.
Watch your actions; they become habits.
Watch your habits; they become character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny.
—Various attributions
but author unknown
Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics emphasizes the excellence of one's
character and the ideal person one wants to be.
Virtues, or arête in Greek, refer to excellences in
people or objects, even inanimate objects. For
humans, virtues are habitual, intentional traits
developed throughout one's life. Virtues are lasting
features, active, and develop through selective
response to circumstances. They persist through
challenges and difficulties, and can be strengthened
or weakened by responses. A person of virtue is an
excellent friend, thinker, and citizen. Aristotle's
approach to virtue ethics is grounded in two
categories: intellectual virtues and character virtues.
Intellectual virtues arise from teaching and
experience, while character virtues result from
habituation.
Virtue Ethics
Virtues are human character traits admired by most
people and considered useful to others, oneself, or
both. Plato identified four primary virtues: virtue,
fortitude, temperance, and justice. Other
philosophers and ethicists, such as David Hume and
Friedrich Nietzsche, have proposed different views
on virtue ethics. Hume believed virtues stem from a
natural human tendency to be sympathetic or
benevolent towards others, while Nietzsche
believed the best character for people to cultivate is
grounded in a will to power. He praised strength as
virtuous, while feminine virtues like caring and
kindness were considered signs of weakness.
Nietzsche's philosophy is believed to have been
adopted by Adolf Hitler, but his approach to virtue
ethics has little place in nursing ethics.
Virtue Ethics
Natural Law
Theory
There is in fact a true law—namely, right reason
— which is in accordance with nature, applies to
all men, and is unchangeable and eternal. By its
commands this law summons men to the
performance of their duties; by its prohibitions
it restrains them from doing wrong.

—Marcus Tullius Cicero, The Republic (51 BCE)

Natural Law Theory

Natural law theory, dating back to ancient

Greeks, is a complex concept based on the laws
of nature rather than human law. Aristotle's
conception posits a universal justice grounded
in nature, while modern versions are rooted in
Saint Thomas Aquinas' religious philosophy.

Natural law theory asserts that morality is

inherent in nature, not revealed through
customs. It is the basis for religious prohibitions
against unnatural acts. Natural law theory and
divine command theory differ fundamentally.
 Deontological Ethics
Deontological ethics focuses on the duty
to do what is right, regardless of the
consequences. Immanuel Kant is a
prominent philosopher in this field.
 Deontological Ethics
Deontology is an ethics approach that focuses
on duties and rules. Immanuel Kant, a prominent
philosopher, defined a person as a rational,
autonomous being with the ability to know
universal moral laws and the freedom to act
morally. Kant believed that individuals are
ethically bound to act only from a sense of duty,
with consequences of actions considered
irrelevant. He believed that rational choice is
superior to emotion and that people should be
treated with dignity and respect. Kant believed
that using others for personal ends could harm
people.
 Consequentiali
sm
Utilitarianism is the ethical theory that
the best action is the one that
maximizes overall happiness or
pleasure. Jeremy Bentham and John
Stuart Mill are key figures in this field.
Consequentialism
Consequentialists, unlike deontologists,
consider consequences to indicate moral
value in actions. Utilitarianism is a well-
known consequentialist theory,
evaluating actions based on their utility.
Utilitarians aim to promote the greatest
good and minimize harm, believing it is
beneficial for society to achieve the
greatest good for the most affected
individuals.
 Consequentialism
Utilitarianism is divided into two main types:
rule utilitarianism and act utilitarianism. Rule
utilitarians believe certain rules create the best
consequences for the most people, while act
utilitarians prioritize actions based on their
likely good consequences. Act utilitarians
allow actions to cause more suffering than
happiness to avoid violating generalized rules,
while rule utilitarians would uphold promises
if they cause more happiness than suffering.
Both types of utilitarianism aim to achieve the
most happiness for the most people.
Prima Facie Rights

Prima facie ethics, as defined by philosopher

Sir William David Ross, is based on the first
impression or appearance of things. It suggests
certain actions are prima facie good, such as
keeping promises, repaying kindnesses, helping
others, and preventing distress. However, when
these actions conflict, one must decide where
their actual duty lies. Ross's approach to ethics
is relevant for nurses who must prioritize
actions that can cause distress while helping
others. His belief in imperfect human
knowledge is crucial in ethical decision-making.
Principlism

Principles are rule-based criteria for conduct,

derived from identifying obligations and duties.
Deontology is a precursor to principlism, often
reducing to concepts like beneficence or
autonomy respect.

Often, principles are used as the basis for

ethically related documents, such as documents
reflecting positions about human rights.
Examples of principle-based documents include
the American Hospital Association’s (2003) The
Patient Care Partnership and the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, formulated in
1948 by the United Nations.
Casuistry

Casuistry is an ethical approach rooted in

Judeo-Christian history, where individuals make
decisions based on individual cases rather than
absolute rules. This bottom-up approach helps
individuals understand the relevance of sacred
laws in specific situations. Casuistry is also
evident in Catholic history, where individuals
confess their sins to priests for absolution,
receiving a personal penance based on the
specific circumstances surrounding the
occasion.
Today, casuistry is often the method used
by healthcare ethics committees to analyze
the ethical issues surrounding specific patient
cases
Narrative Ethics
Narrative ethics is a story-based approach that
shares similarities with casuistry and virtue ethics.
According to Alasdair MacIntyre, humans are
"essentially a story-telling animal" and are
influenced by stories like novels and literary works.
Nurses who use narrative ethics are sensitive to
how personal and community stories evolve and
can be changed. They recognize that people's moral
character and actions fit within the larger stories of
their culture and are situated within their personal
life narratives.
Nurses who use narrative ethics recognize that
individual human stories are constantly constructed
in relation to a greater community. They care for
patients and understand that their actions influence
their unfolding stories in both large and small ways.
Critical Theory

Critical theory is a broad term addressing the

oppression of powerful groups by promoting
human emancipation. It focuses on three core
assumptions: that open Western democracies
are unequal societies with economic inequality,
racism, and class discrimination, that dominant
ideology reproduces these realities, and that
critical theory attempts to understand these
conditions as a necessary prelude to change.
Nurses often use a feminist approach to ethics,
such as the ethic of care, originating from the
Gilligan-Kohlberg debate.
 Feminist Ethics
Feminist ethics is the ethical theory that
emphasizes the role of gender, power, and
oppression in ethical decision-making.
Carol Gilligan is a key figure in this field.

Tong (1997) highlights that feminist ethics is

primarily influenced by gender, focusing on
evaluating ethical situations affecting
women and addressing patterns of
women's oppression by dominant social
groups, particularly men.
Care Ethics

Care ethics is the ethical theory that

emphasizes the importance of relationships
and compassion in ethical decision-making.
Nel Noddings is a key figure in this field.

An ethic of care, rooted in feminist ethics and

women's moral experiences, emerged from the
Gilligan-Kohlberg debate. It emphasizes
feminine traits like love, compassion, and
concern for human wellbeing, acknowledging
natural partiality. Emotions are seen as a
natural complement to rational thinking,
distinguishing it from ethics of justice and
duty-based ethics that prioritize reason.
Applications of Ethical
Theories
Ethical theories can be applied to a
wide range of fields, such as business,
medicine, and politics. They provide a
framework for making ethical
decisions.
Critiques of Ethical
Theories
Ethical theories have been criticized for
being too abstract or not applicable to
real-life situations. Some argue that
they do not take into account cultural
or individual differences.
 Conclusion
In conclusion, ethical theories provide a foundation
for ethical decision-making. While they have their
limitations, they can be useful in navigating complex
ethical dilemmas.
Thanks
!
Do you have any
questions?