ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS

The world of electronics is divided into two broad areas—analog and digital—because they are so
different. Analog circuits consist mainly of amplifiers for voltage or current variations that are smooth
and continuous. Transistors and IC chips are generally used for the amplification. Digital circuits
provide electronic switching of voltage pulses. A pulse has abrupt changes between two extreme
amplitude levels. Diodes and transistors in digital IC chips are generally used. Just to indicate the
division between the digital and analog areas, the manufacturers of IC chips have separate catalogs
or handbooks for their digital and analog products. The analog form is generally called a linear type
of IC unit because analog information deals with proportional values.

What do we mean by the signal? In general, the signal variations for electronic circuits are changes
in voltage and current that correspond to the desired information. In an analog signal, the electrical
variations have a direct relation to the changes that represent the information. Analog examples
include audio signal for sound and video signal for the picture in television. As another practical
example, a radio or television broadcast station transmits radio-frequency variations in an
electromagnetic field that forms an RF signal. All analog signals have continuous variations, with
smooth changes between many different values. For the opposite case, the pulses in a digital signal
have abrupt changes between two levels, representing only two values It is the combinations of
pulses that provide the desired information.

A.

B.

C.

Fig. 29.1 Examples of analog signals (A) Sine wave (B) More amplitude (C) Higher frequency
 As specific example of analog signals, Fig. 29-1 shows in sine-wave variations in voltage or
current. In Fig. 29-1a, note that the amplitude variations are smooth and continuous. without
any abrupt transitions in amplitude. The sine wave is shown with higher amplitude in Fig. 29-
1b, representing a stronger value of the corresponding voltage and current. In Fig. 29-1c, more
cycles for the sine waves show a higher frequency. In all cases, these waveforms are analog
signals, as the variations in the electrical values are like the changes in the desired information.
A digital signal consists of a train of pulses for the voltage or current, as illustrated in Fig. 29-2.
The pulses all have the same amplitude with abrupt changes between the maximum level at 5
V here and the minimum level at 0 V. The voltages between the two extremes have no meaning
in terms of information for the signal. The reason is that the pulses operate with a switching
circuit, which is turned either on or off.

High High High High

5V

0V Low Low Low Low

Fig 1 Fig 2
Fig 1

High High High High

Low Low Low Low

1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
Fig 3
Fig 4

Fig 29.2 Pulses of digital signals, HIGH voltage level considered as binary 1 with zero level as 0.
Information is the combination of 1 and 0.
Since the digital signal in Fig. 29-2 has only two significant levels, either HIGH or LOW, it is
useful to represent the pulses in a binary number system with the digits 1 and 0. The high level is
generally indicated as binary 1 and the low level with 0. Then the binary numbers correspond to
the digital pulse signal. For instance, the binary number values in Fig. 29-2 represent the four pulses
in each signal as follows.
Reminder:
1010 = HIGH, LOW, HIGH, LOW (Fig 1)
The binary values are usually in groups of eight.
0101 = LOW, HIGH, LOW, HIGH (Fig 2)
Each pulse is a bit of information. The group of
1100 = HIGH, HIGH, LOW LOW (Fig 3) bits it is a word. The words can have 4,8,16,
or 32 bits. An 8-bit word is called a byte.
0011 = LOW, LOW, HIGH, HIGH (Fig 4)
 AMPLIFIER GAIN
The ability of an amplifier circuit to increase the amount of signal is measured by the gain, defined
as the ratio of output signal to input signal. For example, when the output is 50 times more than
the input, the gain of the amplifier equals 50.
General symbols for an amplifier circuit are shown in Fig. 29-3. The triangle is a general form that
just shows terminals 1 and 2 for input and output signals. The square block indicates that two pairs
of connections are needed. Note that one input terminal and one output terminal are tied together
for a return path to the common terminal 3. The ground connection here does not necessarily mean
earth ground but is just a common return. The block diagram is a simplified method of indicating
an amplifier circuit.

Amplifier

Amplifier
In Out

A B

Fig. 29.3 Block symbols for amplifier circuit. (A) Triangle as general symbol with input and output
terminals. (B) Square block with details for two pairs of connections. Note common return for low
side of input and output circuits.

Voltage Gain In terms of signal voltage, the gain with the symbol Av is
Av = output signal voltage
input signal voltage

The output and input signal voltages can be in any units, but they must be the same for the ratio.
Peak-to-peak (p—p) values are usually best, in case the signal waveform is not symmetrical. Typical
values of voltage gain for transistor amplifier circuits are about 10 to 2000.
An example for a voltage gain of 40 is illustrated in Fig. 29-4. Here the input signal equals 0.1 V,
p—p. This signal is amplified to the value of 4 V p—p in the output. To calculate the voltage gain
Av= 4V
0.1 V
= 40
 There are no units for Ay because it is a ratio of the same units, which cancel.
To do this problem on a calculator, just punch in 4 on the numerical keyband, press the
division key ÷ at the side, enter the .1, and press the (=) key for the answer of 40.

This example is for an audio circuit amplifying a signal with the audio frequency of 400 Hz,
as noted in the diagram in Fig. 29-4. Note that the frequency of the output signal voltage is the
same as the input signal. The 400 Hz is only one example. Almost any frequency can be amplified.

For the output signal voltage in Fig. 29-4, note that the phase is shown opposite from the
input signal, meaning a phase inversion of 180°. The amplifier can then be considered as an inverter
circuit also, because of the reversed polarity. The phase inversion does not affect the gain, however.
Many amplifiers can invert the polarity of the signal, depending on the type of output circuit.

0.1 V p – p 4Vp–p

Signal Amplified
Voltage
Amplifier Signal
Input Q1 Voltage
Output
400Hz 400Hz
Fig 29.4 Amplifier with voltage gain Av of 40.
Av= 4/0.1 = 40

Current Gain With transistor amplifiers, the gain in current for the output signal compared with
the input signal is probably more important than the voltage gain. The reason is that the amount of
ac signal voltage for the input circuit is limited to +/- 0.1 V, approximately, but the input current
can be in microamperes, milliamperes, or even as high as an ampere. This limitation applies to
junction transistors such as the PNP and NPN types.

The amount of current gain, with the symbol AI,

0.2mA p-p 6mA p-p
AI = output signal current Signal Amplified
input signal current Voltage Amplifier Signal Voltage
Input Output
Q1
400 Hz 400 Hz
AI= 6/0.2 = 30

Fig 29.5 Amplifier with current gain AI of 30.

For the example in Fig 29.5 the input signal current of 200 µA is equal to 0.2 mA. The output is 6
mA. Then

AI= output I
Input I Reminder: make sure it has the
same unit.
AI= 6 mA (if not just convert)
0.2 mA
= 30

There are no units for A, because it is a ratio of the same two units of current. Note that no phase
inversion occurs with the signal current. Only the amplified signal voltage can be inverted in the
output circuit. Typical values of current gain with transistors are about 1 to 500.

Power Gain This quantity, with the symbol Ap, is the product of the voltage gain times current gain
or Ap = Av x AI

For example of Av equal to 40 and AI of 30, the power gain is

Ap = 40 x 30 = 1200

There are still no units for Ap because it is the product of two gain values without any units.
A high value of power gain for an amplifier means it can drive a load that requires appreciable
current and voltage. It may be noted that discrete transistors generally have higher power ratings
than IC chips for applications that require appreciable power gain.

Overall Gain for Amplifiers in Cascade. Most applications require more than one amplifier
stage to provide enough gain. The reason is that the original signal to be amplified usually has low
amplitude and a strong signal is needed for the desired output. As an example, for audio signals,
the output from a record player or magnetic tape may be just a few millivolts. However, a
loudspeaker requires much more signal. Sufficient amplification is needed in order to hear the
sound.

It is practical to have almost any amount of gain with transistors and IC chips because these
semiconductor devices are so small. One IC chip can easily have two, three, or more transistor
amplifiers.
A specific example is shown in Fig. 29-6 for the two amplifier stages Q1 and Q2 connected in
cascade. Each amplifier circuit with one transistor is called a stage.
AI = 80 AI = 20
500 µA p - p 0.8 A p - p
40 mA p - p
Signal
Voltage
Amplifier Amplifier Amplified
Input Signal Voltage
Q1 Q2 Output

Cascaded AI = 80 x 20 = 1600

Fig. 29.6 Amplifiers in cascade to multiply the gain. Here AI = 80 x 20 = 1600

When the output terminal of one stage drives the input terminal of the next stage, the two stages
are connected in cascade. Just to indicate how the circuit might be different, it should be noted that
transistors can be connected in series or in parallel. When the amplifier stages are in cascade, the
total gain equals the product of the individual gains for each stage.

Figure 29-6 shows cascaded values of gain to illustrate a practical example with transistors such
as the PNP or NPN types. In the second amplifier Q2, this transistor needs signal input variations
with an amplitude of 40 mA p—p in order to provide output of 0.8 A p—p. This current gain of Q2
is 0.8 A or 800 mA divided by 40 mA, for A1 of 20. However, the variation of current in the original
signal has a magnitude of only 500 uA or 0.0005 A p—p. Therefore, this signal is fed into amplifier
Q1, with a current gain of 80, to provide enough signal current for the input to Q2.

The calculations for the current amplitudes in Fig. 29-6 are as follows:

I2 = 80 x I1 Note:
= 80 x 500 µA When we will have our quiz or
I2 = 40,000 µA or 40mA exam please follow this formula.

I3 = 20 x I2
= 20 x 40 mA
I3 = 800 mA or 0.8 A

The overall gain for the two stages in cascade in Fig. 29.6 is 80 x 20 = 1600 for the total AI.
This value can be calculated as the ratio of the 0.8 A output to the 500 µA input. Then converting
0.8 to 800,000 µA gives

AI = 800,000 µA
500 µA
= 1600

The multiplication of gain values for stages in cascade also applied to Av and Ap.