SOCSCIE (ETHICS)
MORAL JUDGMENT – is the evaluation of a certain behavior as good
or bad, or right or wrong.
➢ usually agreed that the validity of the moral judgments of any
individual is independent of his own feelings
➢ OPINIONS must be discovered by some more objective
standard.
OBJECTIVE – variable facts, there are more moral standard
➢ based on facts and observation.
➢ neutral, true, or real statement
➢ can checked and verified.
➢ can be found in science book, encyclopedias.
SUBJECTIVE – opinions or biases.
➢ based on belief, view, or opinion
➢ described as a series of opinions
➢ can be found in news articles, blogs, and comments.
A PRIORI – something can be known without experience or sense data.
THERE ARE MORAL INTUITIONS OF GOOD, RIGHT AND BETTER.
➢ Animals Do not have intuitions
➢ Infants Do not have intuitions
➢ Children Gradually acquire intuitions
➢ All adult men have intuitions.
HENRY SIDGWICK THOUGHT THAT HE DISCOVER THREE
AXIOMS (ACCEPTED TRUTH) OF THE GOOD
JUSTICE – Is the ethical and philosophical idea that people deserve to
be treated fairly, properly and reasonably by the law.
PRUDENCE – Is the ability to be cautious in making decisions.
BENEVOLENCE – Is the desire to do good to others; an act of kindness.
UTILITARIAN METHOD – Identify the good with pleasure and
measure it quantitatively.
KANT’S CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE
➢ IMMANUEL KANT – acts are wrong because they are in
contradiction with human welfare.
➢ UTILITARIAN – The rightness or wrongness of an depends
upon the consequences. The END justifies the MEANS
➢ KANTIAN ETHICS –The rightness of wrongness of an act
depends upon universal laws of action. The END NEVER justifies
the MEANS.
➢ ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT (Period to Period) – Line of ethical
development that proceeds from age to age. Focuses on the
emergence, change, and understanding of morality from early
childhood through adulthood. Morality is cultivated over a lifetime.
➢ NATIVE INSTINCTS (Social Organization) – Comparatively
permanent native inheritance of mankind (INSTINCTS).
Relatively enduring type of social organization (CITIZENSHIP).
THE PLURARITY OF MORAL STANDARDS
Moral judgments operates under three different standards:
➢ SELF–RESPECT STANDARD – Articulates one’s moral
expectations concerning one’s behavior and attitudes.
• SELF-RESPECT – is an inner quality that each individual
must take time to develop.
• SELF-ESTEEM – is how we value and perceive ourselves.
➢ THE ASPIRATIONAL STANDARD – A much higher standard
which arises whenever we are dissatisfied with our own self –
 respect standards. One that contains our desire for moral
progress.
➢ THE INSPIRATIONAL STANDARD – Standard of moral
perfection by means of which we rank all other standards.
WHAT ARE MORAL STANDARDS?
➢ It is wider than a moral rule since it is composed of rules.
➢ The concept of a moral standards suggests a scale of standards.
➢ Moral standards concerned with policies, dispositions, and
actions.
➢ Moral rules – are meant to enforce.
➢ MORAL STANDARDS – relate with moral judgments; how
actions are evaluated based on the rules.
TWO FUNDAMENTAL ASPECT OF MORALITY
➢ OBLIGATIONAL ASPECT THE ASPIRATIONAL – moral
requirement to follow a certain course of action, that is, to do, or
refrain from doing, certain things.
➢ THE ASPIRATIONAL – INSPIRATIONAL ASPECT – Require
a standard to check the processes of moral deterioration and
which inspires us to make moral effort.
THE ASPIRATIONAL STANDARD
➢ Stimulates us to be morally healthy so that we grow morally.
➢ Tool for moral progress.
➢ Learning to control our moral satisfaction.
WHY ARE THESE STANDARDS IMPORTANT?
➢ to inspire us through its direction.
➢ To approximate moral perfection.
EVIDENT TRUISMS – Moral potentialities are inestimable since moral
progress can be achieved between birth and death.
MORAL CONFLICTS AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM
➢ MORAL THEORY – is to demonstrate how to resolve moral
dilemmas.
➢ MORAL UNIVERSE – is more complicated than many theories
acknowledged.
➢ MORAL CONFLICT – is a moral datum that a theory must
accommodate.
MORAL THEORY AND MORAL CONFLICT
➢ NON – RELATIVISTIC THEORIES – in ethics imply that moral
dilemmas are in principle resolvable.
➢ IRRESOLVABLE MORAL CONFLICTS – lead to some form of
relativism.
➢ IMMANUEL KANT – duty and obligation express the objective
practical necessity of certain actions.
➢ KURT BAIER – one form from which such conflicts can be
settled.
➢ THOMAS NAGEL – Ethics always has to deal with the conflict
between the personal standpoint of the individual and some
requirement of impartiality.
➢ MORAL THEORY is to SYSTEMATIZE moral thought and
ultimately provide principles or rules for overcoming irreducible
conflicts.
➢ Advocates of this position have been called REDUCTIONISTS
OR SYSTEMATIZERS.
TWO KINDS OF CONFLICTS:
➢ SINGLE-AGENT DILEMMAS – A person ought to do each of two CARDINAL VIRTUES
acts but cannot do both.
➢ Ideal moral person should accumulate a range of virtues.
➢ INTERPERSONAL MORAL CONFLICTS – Those where each of
➢ These virtues means “main virtues”
two or more agents has a moral requirement the successful
completion of which prevents the other agent from discharging his Based from Plato he offered the short list dubbed as CARDINAL VIRTURES,
or her obligation. and these virtues are:
HAMPSHIRE ON CONFLICTS 1. Wisdom (karunungan)
2. Temperance (pagtitimpi)
➢ Believes that a morally competent and clear-headed person need not
3. Courage (lakas ng loob)
encounter irresoluble moral dilemmas.
4. Justice (hustisya)
TWO TYPES OF CONFLICTS related to SINGLE-AGENT
THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
DILEMMA:
➢ These virtues associated in Christian theology and philosophy with
➢ NATURE – Abstract and timeless ideals which are natural and
salvation resulting from the grace of God.
universal and generate duties we think we cannot neglect as human
➢ Virtues are traits or qualities which dispose one to conduct oneself in a
beings.
morally good manner.
➢ CONVENTION – Local ideals from tradition and convention giving
rise to diversity of moral requirements that vary, duties that are List given in the New Testament by Paul:
alterable and transient.
1. Faith (pananampalataya)
VIRTUE – The quality of being morally good. Excellence in a 2. Hope (pag-asa)
character of a person. 3. Charity (kawanggawa)
VIRTUE ETHICS THE NATURE OF VIRTUE ETHICS
➢ Morality involves producing excellent persons, who act well out of ➢ It is important not only to do the right thing but also to have proper
spontaneous goodness and serve as examples to inspire others. dispositions, motivations and emotions in being good and doing right.
➢ Morally good persons because of their good character ENABLES them ➢ It is important that normally we are NOT EVEN TEMPTED to steal, lie
to spontaneously do the right thing. or cheat and we enjoy doing good because we are good.
➢ TELEOLOGICAL ASPECT – which means that there is a morality ➢ It is not only about action but about emotions, character, and moral
that come from duty or obligation and ends to achieved what is good habit. It calls us to aspire to be an ideal person.
and desirable.
 TWO TYPES OF VIRTUES ➢ Teleology comes from two Greek words: TELOS meaning “end,
purpose or goal”, and LOGOS meaning “explanation or reason”
MORAL VIRTUES
➢ WE ARE INTENDED TO BE RATIONAL – our greatest capacity is our
• Honesty intelligence.
• Benevolence ➢ ACTING ETHICALLY – is to engage our capacity to reason as we
• Non-malevolence develop good character (highest form of happiness)
• Fairness ➢ GOOD PERSON – one whose actions are based on excellent reasoning
• Kindness and spend a great amount of time thinking.
• Conscientiousness ➢ TELEOLOGY – an EXPLANATION of something that refers to its end,
• Gratitude purpose or goal.

NON-NORMAL VIRTUES ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE:

• Courage ➢ Every action and purpose maybe said to AIM at some SUPREME GOOD.
• Optimism
ARISTOTLE’S HUMAN EXCELLENCE
• Rationality
• Self-control ➢ A good person used reason to control desire.
• Patience ➢ We must allow reason to guide our actions, and only then will these moral
• Endurance virtues become habit.
• Industry
ARISTOTLE’S PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS
• Musical
• Talent ➢ Happiness is long-lasting condition that results when one lives or acts
• Cleanliness well.
• Wit ➢ Pleasure is momentary.
➢ Aristotle believed that finding happiness of a person was found in
VIRTUE ETHICS teaches:
COMMUNITY. Ethics aims to discover what is good for us human beings.
➢ An action is only right if it is an action that a virtuous person would
KANTIAN ETHICS
carry out in the same circumstances.
➢ A person acts virtuously if they "possess and live the virtues" IMMANUEL KANT
➢ A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs to live well.
➢ Born and raised in Prussia, Germany
TELEOLOGICAL ETHICS ➢ Grew up in poverty – stricken, but very religious Protestant Family
➢ Lived near home all his life (never went beyond 100 km of his birthplace.)
➢ He became a university professor of logic and metaphysics.
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
➢ DEONTOLOGY comes from a Greek word “deon” which means DUTY
and “logos” which means to study.
➢ DEONTOLOGY – is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right
from wrong.
IMMANUEL KANT’S THEORETICAL REASON
➢ THEORETICAL REASONING – asked the big questions and help us
understand the laws of nature and cause and effect that govern human
behavior.
IMMANUEL KANT’S PRACTICAL REASON
➢ The moral dimension that guides human behavior.
➢ Humans act out of impulse (our nature) and conscious choice (on
principle).
➢ Kant introduced us to the idea of MORAL DUTY.
➢ THEORETICAL REASONING tells us what people actually do, while
PRACTICAL REASONING tell us what we should do.
➢ GOOD WILL – doing our duty, because it is our duty.
➢ According to Kant, you are the king of your castle – your decision (and
according to your will).
HINDU PHILOSOPHY
➢ Has no founding figure and covers a diversity of views of the people
of India dating back as far as 3,500BC.
➢ The term “hindu” comes from the Persian word “hind”, the
name given to the Indus River region of northern India.
➢ HINDUISM – means the religion of the Indus River region.
➢ Their sacred text is a large work called the Vedas, means “bodies
of knowledge”.
➢ HINDUISM – The main religion of India which includes the
worship of many Gods and the belief that after you die you return
to life in a different form.
➢ The Hindu worldview is grounded in the doctrines of SAMSARA
(the cycle of rebirth) and KARMA (the universal law of cause
and effect)
BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY
➢ Refers to the philosophical investigation and systems of inquiry that
developed among various Buddhist schools in India following the
death of the Buddha and later spread throughout Asia.
➢ BUDDHISM – Is a philosophy that explains the meaning of life and
the world we live in it is away to cultivate one’s mind.
GOALS OF BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY

CLASSICAL EASTERN PHILOSOPHY 1. To follow the moral values of Buddhist religion.

2. To achieve the final goal of nirvana.
➢ At the time that ancient Greek philosophy was blossoming, a different set
3. To give up caste system.
of philosophical traditions emerged within the Eastern Asian regions of
4. To emphasize the progress and development of the society rather
India and China.
than the individual.
➢ Eastern philosophies were intimately tied to their respective traditions of
5. To provide education through the new system started by Buddha.
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism and Daoism.
6. To leave yajna and sacrifice for achieving knowledge.
FOUR NOBLE TRUTH 5. We should adopt a right livelihood that brings no harm or danger
to living things.
1. Suffering
6. We should put forth the right effort in self-training and self-
2. Cause of Suffering – Desire
control.
3. End of Suffering – Extinguishing our desire
7. We should have right mindfulness insofar as we are fully aware
4. Path that leads to the end of suffering.
of the present moment and not preoccupied with hopes or worries.
SUFFERING – Birth is attended with pain, decay is painful, disease is 8. We should engage in right concentration, which involves proper
painful, and death is painful. meditation that leads to the nirvana experience.

➢ Suffering is sometimes translated as anxiety or frustration, but CONFUCIAN PHILOSOPHY

a good description is dislocation.
➢ Major system of thought in China.
DESIRE – It is that thirst or craving which causes the renewal of ➢ Developed from the teachings of Confucius and his disciples:
existence, accompanied by sensual delight, and the seeking of satisfaction Mencius and Hzun Tzu
first here, then there. ➢ Also known as Ruism, CONFUCIANISM – can be regarded as a
religion, tradition, teaching or an ideology.
THE END OF SUFFERING – EXTINGUISHING DESIRE – is achieved
by extinguishing our desire; this is the state of NIRVANA, a term that CONFUCIUS
literally means “to extinguish.”
➢ Is the Latinized name for Kong-Tzu or K’ung Fu-Tzu
➢ NIRVANA – means no passion remains.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONFUCIANISM
PATH THAT LEADS TO THE END OF SUFFERING – It is the noble
➢ Characterized as a system of social and ethical philosophy rather
eightfold path.
than a religion.
Briefly, these are the eight recommendations. ➢ Cultivation of conscience and character.
➢ Conformity and acceptance of social roles.
1. We should adopt right views that are free from superstition or
delusion. CONFUCIANISM FIVE MAIN VIRTUES
2. We should have right aims that are high and worthy of the
• REN – HUMANENESS (Compassion and benevolence)
intelligent and earnest person.
• LI – RITUAL PROPRIETY (Proper customs in rituals.
3. We should practice right speech, which is kindly, open, and
• YI – RIGHTEOUSNESS (Justice and morally right)
truthful.
• ZHI – KNOWLEDGE (Understanding with truths)
4. We should perform right conduct that is peaceful, honest, and
• XIN – INTEGRITY (Honesty)
pure.
CONFUCIANISM FIVE CONSTANTS
• HUSBAND – WIFE = love and loyalty
• FATHER – CHILD = kindness and obedience
• ELDER – YOUNGER BROTHER = nobility and respect
• FRIEND – FRIEND = humaneness and deference
• RULER – SUBJECT = benevolence and sincerity
ECOFEMINISM – The social movement that regards the oppression of
women and nature as interconnected. It is one of the few movements and
analyses that actually connects two movements.
ECOTHEOLOGY – A form of constructive theology that focuses on the
interrelationships of religion and nature, particularly in the light of
environmental concerns.

DAOIST PHILOSOPHY
➢ Emerged during China’s Warring States period.
➢ Daoism is credited to a figure named Lao-tzu (Laozi), literally
meaning “Master Lao”.
➢ The notion of “Dao” is the central concept in Daoism. Literally the
term means “way” or “path”
➢ It is the ultimate reality of the cosmos which translates the word
“Dao” as “God”.
➢ The process of reality itself, the way things come together, while
still transforming.
➢ Chinese belief that CHANGE is the most basic character of things.
ENVIRONMENTAL PHILOSOPHY – is a branch of philosophy that is
concerned with the natural environment and humans’ place within it.
➢ This includes environmental ethics, environmental
aesthetics, ecofeminism and environmental theology .
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS – considers extending the traditional
boundaries of ethics from solely including humans to including the non-
human world.
ENVIRONMENTAL AESTHETICS – Originated as a reaction to an
emphasis on mere aesthetics, pursuing instead the investigation of the
aesthetic appreciation of natural environments.
SED 2103 (FUNDAMENTAL OF SPECIAL AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION) ➢ SCHEMAS – refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
KOHLBERG'S SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
➢ ASSIMILATION – process of fitting a new experience into an
LEVEL 1. PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema.
➢ ACCOMODATION – process of creating new schema.
➢ STAGE 1. OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION.
➢ ORGANIZATION – concept of grouping isolated behavior into a
Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought.
higher-order more smoothly functioning cognitive system the
➢ STAGE 2. INDIVIDUALISM AND EXCHANGE. This stage children
grouping of items into categories.
recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down
➢ EQUILIBRATION – achieving proper balance between
by the authorities.
assimilation and accommodation.
LEVEL II. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY ➢ DISEQUILIBRIUM – Is a discrepancy between what is
perceived and what is understood.
➢ STAGE 3. GOOD INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS. At this
• SENSORI-MOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO AGE 2)
stage children--who are by now usually entering their teens--see
• PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE (AGE 2-7 YEARS OLD)
morality as more than simple deals.
➢ SYMBOLIC FUNCTION – This is the ability to represent
➢ STAGE 4. MAINTAINING THE SOCIAL ORDER. At stage 4, in
objects and events.
contrast, the respondent becomes more broadly concerned with
➢ EGOCENTRISM – is the tendency of the child to only see
society as a whole.
is point of view and to assume that everyone also has his
LEVEL III. POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY same point of view.
➢ CENTRATION – This refers to the tendency of the child to
➢ STAGE 5. SOCIAL CONTRACT AND INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS. At
only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude
stage 5, people begin to ask, "What makes for a good society?" They
other aspects.
begin to think about society in a very theoretical way, stepping back
➢ REVERSIBILITY – has the inability to reverse their
from their own society and considering the rights and values that a
thinking.
society ought to uphold.
➢ ANIMISM – is the tendency of children to attribute human
➢ STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES. Kohlberg believes that there
like traits or characteristics to inanimate object.
must be a higher stage--stage 6--which defines the principles by
➢ TRANSDUCTIVE REASONING – refers to the pre-
which we achieve justice.
operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORIES inductive nor deductive.
• CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (AGE 7-11 YEARS OLD)
PIAGET’S THEORY
 ➢ DECENTERING – This refers to the ability of the child to
perceive the different features of objects and situations.
➢ REVERSIBILITY – During the stage of concrete
operations, the child can now follow the certain operations
can be done in reverse.
➢ CONSERVATION – is the ability to know that certain
properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area
do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
➢ SERIATION – refers to the ability to order or arrange
things in a series based on one dimension such as weight,
volume or size.
• FORMAL OPERATIONAL (12 TO 15 YEARS OLD)
➢ HYPOTHETICAL REASONING – is the ability to come up
with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather
and weight data in order to make a final decision or
judgment.
➢ ANALOGICAL REASONING – is the ability to perceive
the relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in another
similar situation or problem.
➢ DEDUCTIVE REASONING – is the ability to think logically
by applying a general rule to a particular instance or
situation.
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
➢ Proposed three distinct levels of moral reasoning: Pre-
conventional, Conventional, Post-conventional.
LEV VYGOTSKY
➢ SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY – results from the dynamic
interaction between a person and the surrounding social and
cultural forces.
THREE CLAIMS VYGOTSKY:
➢ Fundamentally shaped by cultural tools.
➢ Functioning emerges out of social processes.
➢ Developmental Methods (Zone of Proximal Development)
STRATEGIES TO UTILIZE THE BENEFITS OF ZPD (ZONE OF
PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT)
➢ SCAFFOLDING – requires demonstration, while controlling the
environment so that one can take things step by step.
➢ RECIPROCAL TEACHING – open dialog between student and
teacher which goes beyond simple question and answer session.
CULTURAL INFLUENCES
➢ IMITATIVE LEARNING
➢ INSTRUCTED LEARNING
➢ COLLABORATIVE LEARNING
DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEM THEORY
➢ the belief that development is cannot be explained by a single
concept.
URIE BROFENBRENNER (ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY)
➢ holds that we encounter different environments throughout our
lifespan that may influence our behavior in varying degrees.
FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEM deliberately lying. Whilst human beings are great deceivers of
others, they are even more adept at self-deception. Our
➢ MICROSYSTEM rationalizations of our conduct are therefore disguising the real
➢ MESOSYSTEM reasons.
➢ EXOSYSTEM ➢ PSYCHOANALYSIS – is often known as the talking cure.
➢ MACROSYSTEM Typically Freud would encourage his patients to talk freely (on his
➢ CHRONOSYSTEM famous couch) regarding their symptoms, and to describe exactly
what was on their mind.
OUTLINEOF 20TH CENTURY THEORIES

➢ PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORIES THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND

• PSYCHOSEXUAL: Sigmund Freud
• PSYCHOSOCIAL: Erik Erikson
➢ COGNITIVE THEORIES
• COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: Jean Piaget
• SOCIO-CULTURAL: Lev Vygotsky
➢ SYSTEMS THEORIES
• ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS: Urie Bronfenbrenner
PERSONALITY THEORY
SIGMUND FREUD
➢ Freud’s lexicon has become embedded within the vocabulary of
western society. Words he introduced through his theories are
now used by everyday people, such as anal (personality), libido,
denial, repression, cathartic, Freudian slip, and neurotic.
➢ Freud was the founding father of psychoanalysis – a method for
treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human
behavior.
➢ Freud believed that when we explain our own behavior to
ourselves or others (conscious mental activity) we rarely give a
true account of our motivation. This is not because we are
➢ Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of
the mind, whereby he described the features of the mind’s
structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to
describe the three levels of the mind.
➢ CONSCIOUSNESS – which consists of those thoughts that are
the focus of our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the
iceberg.
➢ PRECONSCIOUS – consists of all which can be retrieved from
memory.
➢ Third and most significant region is the UNCONSCIOUS. Here
lie the processes that are the real cause of most behavior.
➢ UNCONSCIOUS MIND – acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’
of primitive wishes and impulse kept at bay and mediated by
the preconscious area.
➢ SIGMUND FREUD emphasized the importance of the
unconscious mind, and a primary assumption of Freudian
theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a
greater degree than people suspect.
➢ The goal of psychoanalysis is to make the unconscious
conscious.
THE PSYCHE
 ➢ Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of
the mind comprising the entities id, ego and superego (what
Freud called “the psychic apparatus”).
➢ Freud assumed the ID operated at an unconscious level
according to the pleasure principle (gratification from satisfying
basic instincts). The ID comprises two kinds of biological
instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.
➢ EROS, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs
life-sustaining activities such as respiration, eating and sex
(Freud, 1925).
➢ The energy created by the life instincts is known as libido.
➢ EGO – develops from the id during infancy.
➢ SUPEREGO – develops during early childhood (when the
child identifies with the same sex parent)
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
➢ REPRESSION – is an unconscious mechanism employed by the
ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming
conscious.
➢ DENIAL – involves blocking external events from awareness.
➢ PROJECTION – this involves individuals attributing their own
unacceptable thoughts, feeling and motives to another person.
➢ DISPLACEMENT – satisfying an impulse with a substitute object.
➢ REGRESSION – is a movement back in psychological time when
one is faced with stress.
➢ SUBMILITION – satisfying an impulse with a substitute in a
socially acceptable way.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
➢ Freud sought to understand the nature and variety of these
illnesses by retracing the sexual history of his patients.
➢ It was this that led to the most controversial part of Freud’s work
– his theory of psychosexual development and of
the Oedipus complex
➢ Freud believed that children are born with a LIBIDO – a sexual
(pleasure) urge.
There are a number of stages of childhood, during which the
child seeks pleasure from a different ‘object’.
➢ ORAL – the mouth
➢ ANAL – the anus
➢ PHALLIC – the penis or clitoris – masturbation
➢ LATENT – little or no sexual motivation present
➢ GENITAL –
JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980) – was a biologist who originally studied
mollusks, but moved into the study of the development of children’s
understanding, through observing them, talking, and listening to them
while they worked on exercises he set.
PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
➢ is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of
human intelligence.
➢ Piaget's theory is mainly known as a developmental stage
theory.
➢ COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT was a progressive reorganization
of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and
environmental experience.
PIAGET'S THEORY DIFFERS FROM OTHERS IN SEVERAL WAYS:
 ➢ It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
➢ It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does
not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
There Are Three Basic Components To Piaget's Cognitive
Theory:
➢ SCHEMAS – (building blocks of knowledge).
➢ Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to
another (equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation).
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:
➢ SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH-2 YRS) – The main
achievement during this stage is object permanence -
knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It
requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e. a
schema) of the object
➢ PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (2-7 YEARS) – During this
stage, young children are able to think about things
symbolically.
➢ CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (7-11 YEARS) –
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in
the child's cognitive development, because it marks the
beginning of logical or operational thought.
➢ FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (11 YEARS AND OVER)
– The formal operational stage begins at approximately age
eleven and lasts into adulthood.
• ASSIMILATION – Which is using an existing schema to deal with
a new object or situation.
• ACCOMMODATION – This happens when the existing schema
(knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with
a new object or situation.
• EQUILIBRATION – This is the force which moves development
along. Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress
at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
LEV VYGOTSKY (1896-1934)
➢ children construct their knowledge.
➢ The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of
much research and theory in cognitive development over the past
several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social
Development Theory.
EFFECTS OF CULTURE: - TOOLS OF INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION
➢ Attention
➢ Sensation
➢ Perception
➢ Memory
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT
➢ is an important concept that relates to the difference between
what a child can achieve independently and what a child can
achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
➢ Lev Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896.
➢ Russian psychologist
➢ He died of tuberculosis at the age of 38.
 ➢ He died at the young age of 37 from tuberculosis.
AREAS WERE SOCIAL INTERACTION CAN INFLUENCE
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
➢ Engagement between the teacher and student
➢ Physical space and arrangement in learning environment
➢ Meaningful instruction in small or whole groups
➢ Scaffolding/Reciprocal teaching strategies
➢ Zone of Proximal Development
WHAT IS THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT?
➢ The ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT – is the area of
learning that a more knowledgeable other (MKO) assists the
student in developing a higher level of learning.
LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT
➢ What I can’t do
➢ What I can do with help
➢ What I can do
➢ Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the “role of teachers
and others in supporting the learners development and providing
support structures to get to that next stage or level”
➢ RECIPROCAL TEACHING – is used to improve a students
ability to learn from text through the practice of four skills:
summarizing, clarifying, questioning, and predicting.
➢ BIOLOGICAL & CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT – Simplified:
community plays a central role in the process of “making
meaning”
➢ LANGUAGE – plays a central role in mental development.
Language is the main means by which adults transmit
information to children
SCAFFOLDING STRATEGIES
➢ Motivate the child’s interest in the task.
➢ Break the task down into manageable steps.
➢ Provide some direction to keep the child focused
➢ Reduce the factors that cause frustration.
➢ Model and define the expectations of the activity.
GUIDED PARTICIPATION – Explained things that are taught rather
than discovered (reading, writing etc.)
ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD) – distance between
where a learner is at developmentally on their own & where a learner
could be with the help of a more knowledgeable other.
MOTIVATION – view emphasizes how people’s identities are formed
by their participation in a group.