Solution Manual for Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 6th Edition

Solution Manual for Research Methods for the

Behavioral Sciences 6th Edition

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 CHAPTER 7
THE EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH STRATEGY

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CHAPTER OUTLINE
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7.1 CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS

Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy
Causation and the Third-Variable Problem
Causation and the Directionality Problem
Controlling Nature

7.2 DISTINGUISHING ELEMENTS OF AN EXPERIMENT

Manipulation
Manipulation and the directionality problem
Manipulation and the third-variable problem
Control
Control and the third-variable problem
Extraneous Variables and Confounding Variables

7.3 CONTROLLING EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES

Control by Holding Constant or Matching
Holding a variable constant
Matching values across treatment conditions
Control by Randomization
Comparing Methods of Control
Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods

7.4 CONTROL CONDITIONS AND MANIPULATION CHECKS

Control Conditions
No-treatment control conditions
Placebo control conditions
Manipulation Checks

7.5 INCREASING EXTERNAL VALIDITY: SIMULATION AND FIELD STUDIES

Simulation
Field Studies

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies

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KEY WORDS
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experimental research dependent variable no-treatment control

strategy extraneous variables condition
experiment, or true manipulation placebo effect
experiment randomization placebo control condition
independent variable random assignment manipulation check
treatment condition experimental condition simulation
levels control condition field study

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
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1. Describe the general purpose of an experimental research study, differentiate experiments

from other types of research, and identify examples of experiments.

The goal of the experimental research strategy is to establish the existence of a cause-
and-effect relationship between two variables. To rule out the possibility of a coincidental
relationship, an experiment, often called a true experiment, must demonstrate that
changes in one variable are directly responsible for causing changes in the second
variable.

2. Define independent, dependent, and extraneous variables and identify examples of each in an
experiment.

In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher is called the

independent variable. Typically, the independent variable is manipulated by creating a set
of treatment conditions. The specific conditions that are used in the experiment are called
the levels of the independent variable. The variable that is measured in each of the
treatment conditions is called the dependent variable. All other variables in the study are
extraneous variables.

3. Describe the third-variable problem and the directionality problem, identify these problems
when they appear in a research study, and explain why they must be eliminated before an
experiment can demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Although a study may establish that two variables are related, it does not necessarily
mean that there is a direct (causal) relationship between the two variables. It is always
possible that a third (unidentified) variable is controlling the two variables and is
responsible for producing the observed relation. Although a research study may establish
a relationship between two variables, the existence of a relationship does not always
explain the direction of the relationship. The remaining problem is to determine which
variable is the cause and which is the effect.

4. Explain why manipulation of an independent variable is a critical component of an

experiment.

A distinguishing characteristic of the experimental strategy is that the researcher

manipulates one of the variables under study. Manipulation is accomplished by first
deciding which specific values of the independent variable you would like to examine.
Then you create a series of treatment conditions corresponding to those specific values.
As a result, the independent variable changes from one treatment condition to another.

5. Explain why control of extraneous variables is a critical component of an experiment.

In general, the purpose of an experiment is to show that the manipulated variable is

responsible for the changes observed in the dependent variable. To accomplish this, an
experiment must rule out any other possible explanation for the observed changes; that is,
eliminate all confounding variables.

6. Explain how an extraneous variable can become a confounding variable and identify
confounding variables when they appear in a research study.

First, an extraneous variable becomes a confounding variable only if it influences the

dependent variable. Second, a confounding variable must vary systematically with the
independent variable. A variable that changes randomly, with no relation to the
independent variable, is not a threat.

7. Describe the three primary techniques for controlling extraneous variables (holding constant,
matching, and randomization), explain how each one works, and identify these techniques when
they appear in a research report.

By standardizing the environment and procedures, most environmental variables can be

held constant. Control over an extraneous variable can also be exercised by matching the
levels of the variable across treatment conditions. Because it is essentially impossible to
actively control the thousands of extraneous variables that can intrude on an experiment,
researchers usually rely on a simpler, more passive control technique known as
randomization. The principle underlying randomization is the disruption of any

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 systematic relation between extraneous variables and the independent variable, thereby
preventing the extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables.

8. Describe the purpose for control conditions in experimental research, define the two basic
types of control conditions (no-treatment and placebo), and identify control groups when they
appear in research reports.

In experimental terminology, the treatment condition is called the experimental condition,

and the no-treatment condition is called the control condition. As the name implies, a no-
treatment control group is simply a treatment condition in which the participants do not
receive the treatment being evaluated. A placebo control condition is a condition in which
participants receive a placebo instead of the actual treatment.

9. Explain when a manipulation check is needed, describe what it is intended to accomplish, and
identify a manipulation check when one appears in a research report.

A manipulation check is an additional measure to assess how the participants perceived

and interpreted the manipulation and/or to assess the direct effect of the manipulation.

10. Define field studies and simulation, explain why they are used as alternatives to laboratory
experiments, and identify these techniques when they appear in a research report.

A simulation is the creation of conditions within an experiment that simulate or closely

duplicate the natural environment in which the behaviors being examined would
normally occur. A field study is research conducted in a place that the participant or
subject perceives as a natural environment. Simulations and field studies are done to
increase external validity by exploring a research question in the real world (or a situation
that is as close to the real world as possible).

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OTHER LECTURE SUGGESTIONS
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1. Although it is mentioned repeatedly in the book, it pays to remind students that not all
research studies are experiments. To qualify as an experiment, the research study must
involve manipulation of an independent variable and must prevent confounding by
controlling extraneous variables.

2. The primary challenges for an experiment are the directionality problem and the third-
variable problem. The primary solutions for these problems are manipulation and control.
Manipulation deals with the directionality problem by demonstrating that changes in the
independent variable (produced by manipulation) are followed by changes in the dependent

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 variable. Control of extraneous variables ensures that there is no third-variable that changes
systematically with the independent variable.

3. A confusing point for many students is the distinction between the control of extraneous
variables and a control group. The control of extraneous variables is a required component of
all experimental research. A control group, on the other hand, is not required and exists only
when a researcher wants to establish a baseline for evaluating the effectiveness of one
treatment.

4. Using the terminology from Chapter 6, the primary goal of an experiment is to ensure
internal validity. That is, the experiment should allow only one explanation for the result:
Changes in the independent variable are responsible for causing changes in the dependent
variable. To accomplish this goal, however, an experiment involves a level of rigor and
control that can create an unnatural or artificial environment. In the terminology of Chapter
6, the structure of an experiment can be a threat to external validity. That is, the behaviors
observed in the artificial environment of an experiment may not generalize to the natural
environment of the real world. Simulations and field studies are attempts to minimize this
threat.

5. In addition to the activities presented at the end of the chapter, the following can be used as
an in-class activity for this chapter:

It can be useful to present students with a general research question and have them, as a
group, develop an experimental study that addresses the question. Lead them into a
between-subjects design if you want to avoid the issue of counterbalancing at this time.
Have them identify the independent variable and determine how the variable will be
manipulated and exactly what levels will be used as treatment conditions. Also identify
the dependent variable and determine how it will be operationalized. Next, identify which
variables pose the greatest threat to confound the study and determine how those
variables will be controlled. Finally, assume that the predicted result is obtained and be
certain there is no alternative explanation for the result other than the fact that changes in
the independent variable caused changes in the dependent variable.

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NOTES ON END-OF-CHAPTER EXERCISES
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1. In addition to the key words, you should also be able to define the following terms:

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Third-variable problem: The possibility that two variables appear to be related when, in
fact, they are both influenced by a third variable that causes them to vary together.

Directionality problem: Demonstrating that changes in one variable tend to be

accompanied by changes in another variable simply establishes that the two variables are
related. The remaining problem is to determine which variable is the cause and which is
the effect.

Confounding variable: An extraneous variable (usually unmonitored) that is allowed to

change systematically along with the two variables being studied. In the context of an
experiment, an extraneous variable that changes systematically along with the
independent variable and has the potential to influence the dependent variable. A
confounding variable provides an alternative explanation for the observed relationship
and, therefore, is a threat to internal validity.

Random process: A procedure that produces one outcome from a set of possible
outcomes. The outcome must be unpredictable each time, and the process must guarantee
that each of the possible outcomes is equally likely to occur.

Placebo: An ineffective, inert substitute for a treatment or medication.

Mundane realism: In simulation research, the extent to which the superficial, usually
physical, characteristics of the research environment duplicate the real-world
environment that is being simulated.

Experimental realism: In simulation research, the extent to which the psychological

aspects of the research environment duplicate the real-world environment that is being
simulated.

2. (LO1) Dr. Jones conducted a study examining the relationship between the amount of sugar in
a child’s diet and the activity level of the child. A sample of thirty four-year-old children from a
local preschool was used in the study. Sugar consumption was measured by interviewing the
parents about each child’s diet. Based on the result of the interview, each child was then placed
into one of two groups: high sugar consumption and low sugar consumption. Activity level was
measured by observing the children during a regular preschool afternoon. Finally, Dr. Jones
compared the activity level for the high-sugar group with the activity level for the low-sugar
group. Explain why Dr. Jones’ study is not an example of the experimental research strategy.

Dr. Jones did not directly control or manipulate the amount of sugar consumption, so it is
therefore not a true independent, manipulated variable. There are many alternative
explanations for any differences between the groups, including errors in the parental
report.

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
3. (LO2) In an experiment examining human memory, two groups of participants are used. One
group is allowed 5 minutes to study a list of 40 words and the second group is given 10 minutes
of study time for the same list of words. Then, both groups are given a memory test, and the
researcher records the number of words correctly recalled by each participant. For this
experiment, identify the independent variable and the dependent variable.

The independent variable is the amount of time each group was given to study (5 and 10
minutes), and the dependent variable is the level of recall by each group.

4. (LO3) It has been demonstrated that students with high self-esteem tend to have higher grades
than students with low self-esteem. Does this relationship mean that higher self-esteem causes
better academic performance? Does it mean that better academic performance causes higher self-
esteem? Explain your answer, and identify the general problem that can preclude a cause-and-
effect explanation.

No, this does not mean that higher self-esteem causes better academic performance;
causality has not been established, because the variable “self-esteem” has not been
directly manipulated. In addition, there may be a third variable that causes both the higher
level of self-esteem and the higher level of academic performance. Finally, an existence
of a relationship between two variables does not necessarily explain the directionality of
the relationship.

5. (LO3) A researcher would like to compare two methods for teaching math to third-grade
students. Two third-grade classes are obtained for the study. Mr. Jones teaches one class using
method A, and Mrs. Smith teaches the other class using method B. At the end of the year, the
students from the method-B class have significantly higher scores on a mathematics achievement
test. Does this result indicate that method B causes higher scores than method A? Explain your
answer, and identify the general problem that precludes a cause-and-effect explanation.

No, the result does not indicate that method B causes higher scores than method A.
Students were not randomly assigned to the two classes. It could simply be that Mrs.
Smith is a better teacher, or it could be the time of day the math classes were taught.

6. (LO2 and 6) Define extraneous variable and explain how extraneous variables can become
confounding variables.

An extraneous variable is any variable that exists within a study other than the variables
being studied. In an experiment, any variable other than the independent and dependent
variables is an extraneous variable. There could be thousands of extraneous variables, but
they do not pose a problem unless they influence the dependent variable and vary
systematically with the independent variable, in which case they become confounding
variables that must be controlled.

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
7. (LO4 and 5) Identify the two characteristics needed for a research study to qualify as an
experiment.

The experimental research strategy establishes the existence of a cause-and-effect

relationship between two variables. To accomplish this goal, an experiment manipulates
one variable while a second variable is measured and other variables are controlled.
Therefore, manipulation of variables, and control of extraneous variables are the two
characteristics needed for a study to qualify as a true experiment.

8. (LO7) Identify the two active methods of preventing extraneous variables from becoming
confounding variables.

An extraneous variable can be eliminated completely by holding it constant. Control over

an extraneous variable can also be exercised by matching the levels of the variable across
treatment conditions.

9. (LO7) Explain how the process of randomly assigning participants to treatment conditions
should prevent a participant variable such as age or gender from becoming a confounding
variable.

Because the assignment of participants to treatments is based on a random process, it is

reasonable to assume that individual participant variables (such as age, gender, height,
IQ, and the like) are also distributed randomly across treatment conditions. Specifically,
the use of random assignment should ensure that the participant variables do not change
systematically from one treatment to another and, therefore, cannot be confounding
variables.

10. (LO8) Can a research study be an experiment without a control group? Can a study be an
experiment without controlling extraneous variables?

Control of extraneous variables is an essential component of all experiments, and is

required to prevent extraneous variables from becoming confounding variables and
threatening the internal validity of the study. However, a control group is an optional
component that is used in some experiments but certainly not all. In particular, a research
study does not need a control group to qualify as a true experiment.

11. (LO9) What is the general purpose of a manipulation check?

A manipulation check is an additional measure to assess how the participants perceived

and interpreted the manipulation and/or to assess the direct effect of the manipulation.

12. (LO10) What is the general purpose for using a simulation or a field study for experimental
research?

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Solution Manual for Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences 6th Edition

The general purpose for using a simulation or a field study for experimental research is to
extend external validity by removing the artificiality of a controlled laboratory
experiment.

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WEB RESOURCES
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Independent, Dependent, and Extraneous Variables from Simply Psychology:

http://www.simplypsychology.org/variables.html

Online Social Psychology Experiments:

http://www.socialpsychology.org/expts.htm

The roar of the crowd: Crowdsourcing is transforming the science of psychology; Magazine
Article from the Economist:
http://www.economist.com/node/21555876

Research Randomizer: Free Random Sampling and Random Assignment:

http://www.randomizer.org

© 2019 Cengage. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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