Note 20 Superposition

Sections Covered in the Text: Chapter 21, except 21.8

In Note 18 we saw that a wave has the attributes of The “interfering” pulses move independently, and do
displacement, amplitude, frequency, wavelength and not affect one another, or physically change one
speed. We can now consider the effects that occur another, in any way.
when waves come together at the same point in space,
that is, when waves undergo the phenomena of super-
position and interference. We shall see that such studies
shed light on, among other things, the production of
sound by musical instruments.

The Principle of Superposition

It is possible for two or more waves to coexist at the
same point in space. When this happens it is import-
ant to know what the total wave amplitude is at that
point. This question is answered by the Principle of
Superposition. The principle may be stated in these
words:

When two or more waves are simultaneously present

at a single point in space, the displacement of the med-
ium at that point is the sum of the displacements due
to each individual wave.

This simple, almost intuitive, principle can be shown

to apply to all common waves, be they mechanical,
sound or electromagnetic. A consequence is that the
various waves excited on a stretched string, for
example, are independent of one another. Two pulses
traveling in opposite directions on the string can pass
through one another and reappear on the other side
without being altered in any way. Figure 20-1. Illustration of the principle of superposition us-
This idea is illustrated in Figure 20-1 with graph- ing mathematical constructions of wave pulses on a line.
ically-constructed “wave pulses” of triangular and
rectangular shape. A triangular wave pulse is shown
moving to the right, a rectangular wave pulse moving Wave pulses are complicated entities to describe
to the left, both at the speed of 1 m.s–1. Their positions mathematically (and to produce experimentally). It is
are shown in 5 frames—at the clocktimes of 0s, 1s, 2s, simpler to deal with sinusoidal waves, which we do in
3s and 4s. You can see that frames 3 and 4 show the the next section.
pulses in the process of passing through one another.
Frame 5 shows the pulses of frame 1 having passed
through one another without changing one another. Standing Waves
Let us focus on frames 3 and 4. When the amplitudes
One could, at least in principle, induce two sinusoidal
of the two pulses have the same sign, the resultant
waves to move in opposite directions and to pass
amplitude or displacement of the medium increases
through one another by moving both ends of a very
as the two pulses pass through one another. This is
long string up and down continuously. We begin by
called constructive interference. What the figure doesn’t
considering the wave in qualitative terms. Then we
show is that when the amplitudes have opposite signs
shall apply mathematics to the wave.
the resultant amplitude decreases as the two pulses
The transverse displacement of the string at any
pass through one another. This is called destructive
point along the string would appear as shown in
interference. Notice that the meaning of the word
Figure 20-2. This wave is called a standing wave
interference used here differs from its everyday usage.

20-1
Note 20
because the crests and troughs “stand in place” as the
string oscillates. There are points on the string that do
not move. These points, spaced λ/2 apart, are called
nodes. Halfway between the nodes are points where
the string particles oscillate with maximum displace-
ment. These points are called antinodes. The nodes of a
standing wave are points of destructive interference
where the waves are out of phase (phase difference is
π); antinodes are points of constructive interference
where the waves are in phase (phase difference is 0).
€ of the two waves is€
€
Figure 20-2. A graphical representation of a standing wave
on a string being vibrated at both ends. Shown are two
snapshots of the wave at two instants of clocktime.
€ D(x,t) = A(x)cosωt
Recall from Note 18 that the intensity I of a wave is
proportional to the square of the wave amplitude (I =
CA2). A graph of I(x) for the wave in Figure 20-2 is
shown in Figure 20-3. I(x) is a maximum at positions
of antinodes, a minimum at positions of nodes.
Figure 20-3. A graphical representation of a standing wave
showing also the intensity I as a function of x.
20-2
Now that we understand some qualitative aspects of a
standing wave, let us apply mathematics to the wave.
The Mathematics of a Standing Wave
Consider two waves that are identical in all respects
(same amplitude a and angular frequency ω) traveling
in opposite directions (right and left) on a line. From
what we know about the form of a traveling wave
(Note 18) we can write the wave disturbances as 1
DR = asin( kx − ωt ) and DL = asin( kx + ωt ) .
…[20-1]
Applying the principle of superposition the resultant
D(x,t) = DR + DL = 2asin kx cos ωt . …[20-2]
You should be able to show that eq[20-2] follows
using the trigonometric identity
sin(α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cosα sin β .
It is instructive to write eq[20-2] in the form
…[20-3]
where A(x) = 2asin kx . …[20-4]
A(x)€is the amplitude of the sinusoidal function.
Notice that eq[20-2] does not contain either of the
factors€(kx–ωt) or (kx+ωt) that characterize the travel-
ing waves of eq[20-1]. Eq[20-2] does not therefore
represent a traveling wave; it represents a standing
wave. The wave is “standing” in the sense of moving
neither to the right nor left. The “cosωt” factor shows
that every point x of the medium vibrates in simple
harmonic motion with frequency f = ω /2 π and with
the amplitude A(x). Several snapshots of the wave are
shown in Figure 20-4.
The nodes of the standing wave are the points at
which the amplitude is zero. They are located at
positions xm for which
A(x m ) = 2asin kx m = 0 , …[20-5]
or for which
1 €
We consider here a general, hypothetical line and use the letter
D to stand for a wave displacement that includes both transverse
and longitudinal displacements in any medium. Later, we shall
restrict our attention to transverse waves on a string or longitudinal
sound waves.
 Note 20

Transverse Standing Waves

The procedure of setting up a standing wave on a
long string by moving both ends of it up and down
continuously is not a practical one. At least one end of
the string must be held fixed. To understand how a
standing wave might arise in this case it is necessary
to understand what happens when a traveling wave
encounters a boundary or a discontinuity between
two media.
The media in question might be the two strings of
Figure 20-4. The net displacement resulting from two sinu- different linear density (mass per unit length) joined
soidal waves moving in opposite directions. together as shown in Figure 20-5a. On the left of the
figure is shown a string with a larger linear density,
while on the right is one with a smaller linear density.
2πx m The junction between the strings is the discontinuity.
kx m = = mπ m = 0,1,2 …[20-6] The tension in both strings is the same, so according
λ to eq[18-25] the wave speed is slower in the left
medium, faster in the right.
Thus the position x m of the mth node is

€ λ
xm = m m = 0,1,2… …[20-7]
2
where m is an integer.
By the same token, the antinodes of the standing
wave€are the points at which the amplitude is a
maximum. A(x) has the maximum value of Amax = 2a
at points xm where sinkx m = 1, or points xm such that

2πx m  1
kx m = =  m + π m = 0,1,2 …[20-8] Figure 20-5a. A wave pulse is reflected and transmitted at a
λ  2 discontinuity where the wave speed increases.

Thus the position x m of the mth antinode is

When a traveling wave (pulse) encounters the
€  1 λ junction from the left, some of the wave’s energy is
xm = m +  m = 0,1,2… …[20-9]
 2 2 transmitted into the right medium, and some is ref-
lected back into the left medium. The larger fraction of
the energy is transmitted (indicated by the pulse of
It is clear that antinodes lay halfway between nodes.
greater amplitude). However, neither the transmitted
The intensity of the wave is proportional to the
nor the reflected pulse has the same amplitude as the
square€ of the wave amplitude, that is, incident pulse.
2 In Figure 20-5b, an incident wave pulse encounters a
I(x) = [ A(x)] = 4a 2 sin 2 kx discontinuity at which the wave speed decreases. As
before, some of the wave’s energy is transmitted and
= Imax sin 2 kx . …[20-10] some is reflected. But this time the reflected pulse is
inverted. By this is meant a displacement D on the
€ function I(x) is consistent with the graph of
The incident wave becomes displacement –D on the reflec-
intensity vs x in Figure 20-3. The intensity is a maxi- ted wave. Because sin(φ + π) = – sinφ, the reflected
mum at € values of x for which eq[20-9] holds, that is, at wave has a phase change of π upon reflection.
the positions of the antinodes. As we have seen, the The wave in Figure 20-5c reflects from a boundary,
intensity is a minimum at the positions of the nodes. not a discontinuity. The medium to the right of the
boundary can be thought of as a string medium of
infinite linear density. The reflected wave is again

20-3
Note 20

inverted, but there is no transmitted wave at all. All and wavelength. Once reflected at the boundaries, the
the wave’s energy is reflected. And the wave speed traveling waves pass through one another and
does not change. produce a standing wave, as we have already seen.

Figure 20-5b. A wave pulse is reflected at a discontinuity

Figure 20-6. A way of setting up a standing wave on a
where the wave speed decreases.
stretched string tied at both ends.

The wave on the string is subject to boundary

conditions. Because the string is tied at both ends, the
displacements at x = 0 and x = L must be zero at all
times. In other words nodes must exist at these points.
Thus the boundary conditions are

D(x = 0,t) 
 = 0. …[20-11a, b]
D(x = L,t)

Recall that the displacement of a standing wave is

Figure 20-5c. A wave pulse is totally reflected at a bound-
D(x,t) = (2asinkx)cosωt. This equation already satisfies
ary. There is no transmitted wave. The wave speed does not
the first
€ boundary condition, eq[20-11a]. The second
change.
boundary condition, eq[20-11b] is satisfied at all times
if
2asin kL = 0 . …[20-12]
We are now ready to apply these observations to
understand the production of standing waves on a
This is true if sinkL = 0, which in turn requires
stretched string.
€ 2πL
kL = = mπ m=1,2,3… …[20-13]
Standing Waves on a Stretched String λ
The difference between a hypothetical line and a
stretched string is that a string must be supported. m = 0 is excluded because L cannot be zero. Eq[20-13]
Consider a string of length L rigidly tied at x = 0 and x can be satisfied only by values λm such that
= L (Figure 20-6). In principle, we can set up a €
standing wave on the string by “wiggling” or 2L
λm = m=1,2,3… …[20-14]
continuously plucking the string. Traveling sinusoidal m
waves are created which then travel in both
directions. They encounter the boundary at either end The natural frequencies of vibration f m of the string, in
and reflect. The speed of the reflected waves does not Hz, are
change and therefore the wavelength and frequency € v  vm 
of the reflected sinusoidal waves does not change. In fm = =   m = 1, 2, 3… …[20-15]
addition, the reflected waves are of equal amplitude λ  2L 

20-4
€

Using the result for the speed of waves on a stretched
string under tension T derived in Note 18: v = (T/µ)1/2 ,
where T is the tension and µ is the mass per unit
length, eq[20-15] becomes
m T
fm =   m = 1, 2, 3, … …[20-16]
 2L  µ
The fact that the values fm depend on integers m is the
same as saying that the frequencies are quantized. That
is to
€ say, the string can support only certain discrete
frequencies
f m = mf1 m = 1,2,3… …[20-17]
f1 is called the fundamental frequency. The frequencies
f2, f 3, etc are called overtones or harmonics. Figure 20-7
shows € the fundamental and three harmonics. Stand-
ing waves on a stretched string are a model of the
source of sound in all stringed musical instruments.
These include the piano, violin and cello amongst
others. 2
Figure 20-7. Standing mechanical waves on a stretched
string. Only the first 4 modes of vibration are shown here.
2
This is the first example of the idea of quantization we have
encountered in this course. The concept is at the heart of quantum
physics. It will be discussed in some detail in PHYA21H3S.
€ 20-5
Note 20
Let us consider a simple example.
Example Problem 20-1
A Standing Wave on a Stretched String
A string of length 2.50 m vibrates with a 100 Hz
standing wave. There are nodes 1.00 m and 1.50 m
from one end of the string, with no nodes in between.
Which harmonic is this, and what is the string’s
fundamental frequency?
Solution:
The standing wave looks like Figure 20-2. If there are
no nodes between 1.00 m and 1.50 m, then the node
spacing is λ/2 = 0.50 m. The number of half wave-
lengths that can fit into the string’s length L = 2.50 m
is m = 2.50/(1/2) = 5. This is the mode number, which
means that 100 Hz is the fifth harmonic. The funda-
mental frequency is therefore f1 = 100/5 = 20 Hz.
Standing Electromagnetic Waves
Standing electromagnetic waves also exist, as for
example in the cavity of a laser (Figure 20-8). Mirrors
at either end of the cavity play the role of boundary
reflectors, analogous to the boundaries at the ends of a
string tied at both ends.
Figure 20-8. A laser cavity contains a standing electromag-
netic wave.
The boundary conditions on the electromagnetic wave
are the same as on a wave on a string, eqs[20-11], and
so eqs[20-14] and [20-16] also apply.
A typical laser cavity has a length L ≈ 30 cm and
operates in the red area of the electromagnetic
spectrum with λ ≈ 600 nm. The mode number of the
standing wave is, from eq[20-14]:
2L 2 x 0.30 m
m= = = 1,000,000 .
λ 6.00 x 10−7 m
The standing wave has about one million nodes! This
Note 20

is made possible by the very short wavelength of
light.
Various wind instruments (organ, flute, clarinet, etc)
produce musical sounds by virtue of the resonances of
air vibrating in a pipe or tube structure made of wood
or metal. The physics of tube structures we consider
next.
Conversely, where the tube is open to the atmosphere
an antinode must exist. The first three modes for the
three cases—a standing wave in a tube closed at both
ends (closed-closed), open at both ends (open-open),
and closed at one end (closed-open)—are illustrated
in Figures 20-10.

Standing Sound Waves

and Musical Acoustics
Air confined in a column or tube can support a
standing sound wave (Figure 20-9). We have seen in
Note 18 that a sound wave is a longitudinal wave; the
direction of alternate compressions and rarefactions of
air is in the direction of the tube axis. The point where
the tube is closed or capped must be the position of a
node (where the vibration of the air molecules is
minimum). The figure shows that the graphical rep-
resentation of the m = 2 mode is the same as the m = 2
mode of a standing wave on a string. Keep in mind
that the representation is of a longitudinal displace-
ment NOT a transverse displacement.

Figure 20-9. The m = 2 longitudinal standing wave inside a

closed column of air. The graphical representation is of a
longitudinal NOT a transverse displacement.
Sound produced by the setup in Figure 20-9 is of only
academic interest because it lacks the means to allow
the sound wave to leave the tube and reach the
listener (presumably outside the tube!). Thus practical
tubes are left open at one or both ends.
As we have stated earlier, at the point where the
tube is closed a node must exist in the standing wave.
Figures 20-10a and b. Standing sound waves in two types of
tube: (a) closed at both ends and (b) open at both ends.
Note that the standing wave in the open-open and
closed-closed tubes is the same except for a phase
inversion. In both cases there are m half-wavelengths
between the ends. Thus the wavelengths and frequen-
cies of an open-open tube and a closed-closed tube are

20-6
 Note 20

the same as those of a string tied at both ends:

Example Problem 20-2
(open-open, closed-closed tube) The Length of an Organ Pipe

 2L An organ pipe open at both ends sounds its second

 λm = m harmonic at a frequency of 523 Hz. What is the length
 m = 1,2,3… …[20-18] of the pipe?
 f m = m v = mf1
 2L Solution:
The second harmonic is the m = 2 mode, which for an
A tube closed at one end and open at the other end is open-open tube has the frequency (eq[20-18]):
quite a different matter (Figure 20-10c). The funda-
€mental mode has only one-quarter of a wavelength in v
a tube of length L, hence the m = 1 wavelength is λ1 = f2 = 2 .
4L. This is twice the λ1 wavelength of an open-open or 2L
a closed-closed tube. Consequently, the fundamental
Thus the length of the organ pipe is
frequency of an open-closed tube is half that of an
open-open or a closed-closed tube of the same length.
v€ 343 m.s−1
L= = = 0.656 m = 65.6 cm .
f2 523 Hz

€
Musical Instruments
We have seen then that the equation that governs the
sound produced by stringed instruments is

v 1 T
f1 = = . …[20-20]
2L 2L µ

where T is the tension, L is the length and µ is the

mass per unit length of the string. The sound prod-
uced€ by a string is primarily at the fundamental
frequency f1 though some sound is also produced at
harmonic frequencies.3 This means that the note pro-
Figure 20-10c. Three modes in an open-closed tube. duced can be varied by varying L, T or µ.
Some instruments such as the piano are equipped
with strings of various L and µ. Clearly, the longer
The possible wavelengths and frequencies of the and the fatter the string, the lower is the note
sound produced by an open-closed tube of length L produced. Similar arguments can be made for
are: explaining the operation of many other stringed
(open-closed tube) instruments. We leave this subject to the interested
reader.
 4L
 λm = m We have therefore seen some of the effects that occur
 m = 1,3,5… …[20-19] when two traveling waves of the same frequency
 f m = m v = mf1
 4L 3
Many instruments can produce a middle “C”. However, it is
immediately evident to the average listener what type of
Let us consider an example of an open-open organ instrument produced the note. This is because different types of
pipe. instruments produce a different mix of harmonic frequencies in
€ addition to the fundamental frequency.

20-7
 Note 20
move in opposite directions and interfere with one
another to produce a standing wave. We now move
on to the case of the interference of two traveling
waves moving in the same direction.
Interference in One Dimension
Two hypothetical schemes for obtaining two traveling
waves of the same frequency moving in the same
direction along a line are illustrated in Figures 20-11.
Suppose the waves have the same amplitude a, the
same wave number k and the same angular frequency
ω. We wish to establish what happens when the two
waves overlap.
Figure 20-11a. A scheme for obtaining two traveling
electromagnetic waves of the same frequency moving in the
same direction.
Figure 20-11b. A scheme for obtaining two traveling sound
waves of the same frequency moving in the same direction.
We begin by considering the resultant wave at the
point of detection indicated in Figure 20-11b. The two
superposed waves, at distances x1 and x 2 from their
sources, can be written
D1(x1,t) = asin( kx1 − ωt + φ10 ) = asin φ1
…[20-21]
D2 (x 2 ,t) = asin( kx 2 − ωt + φ 20 ) = asin φ 2
€
20-8
€
where φ1 and φ2 are the phases of the waves.
The phase constants φ10 and φ20 are characteristics of
the sources of the waves, not the medium. For further
reinforcement of this idea, snapshot graphs at t = 0 of
waves emitted by three sources with phase constants
φ0 = 0 rad, φ 0 = π/2 rad and φ0 = π rad are drawn in
Figures 20-12. The phase constant determines what
the source is doing at t = 0. For example, Figure 20-12a
shows the meaning of a phase constant of 0 rad. This
would apply to a loudspeaker at its center position
while moving backward at t = 0. Similar arguments
can be applied to explain the meaning of the other
phase constants in the figure.
Figure 20-12. Waves from three sources having phase con-
stants φ0 = 0 rad, φ0 = π/2 rad and φ0 = π rad.
Two important special cases of the overlapped waves
are shown in Figures 20-13. Figure 20-13a shows the
crests and the troughs of the two waves aligned as
they travel along the x-axis. Figure 20-13b shows the
crests of one wave aligned with the troughs of the
other wave as they travel. Since the waves have the
same speed the relative position of the crests and
troughs remain fixed at all times. The position of the

wave fronts are indicated in the middle panel of the
figures.
The two waves of Figure 20-13a have the same
displacement at every point and therefore the same
phase. That is, φ2 = φ1, or more precisely φ2 = φ1 ± 2πm
where m is an integer. These waves are in phase. The
resultant displacement A = 2a. This is maximum
constructive interference.
€ 2π
Figure 20-13. Constructive and destructive interference of
two waves traveling along the x-axis.
€ is, two identical sources produce maximum construc-
In Figure 20-13b the waves are 180˚ out of phase. This
alignment of the waves produces destructive interfer-
Note 20
ence. The displacement of the waves is such that D1 =
–D2. Thus the net displacement of the resultant travel-
ing wave is zero at every point along the axis. This
special case of interference (where the resultant amp-
litude is zero) is called perfect destructive interference.
The Phase Difference
The phases of the two waves are
φ1 = kx1 − ωt + φ10
φ 2 = kx 2 − ωt + φ 20 , …[20-22]
and €
the phase difference ∆φ is
= φ 2 − φ1 = ( kx 2 − ωt + φ 20 ) − ( kx1 − ωt + φ10 )
Δφ €
= k ( x 2 − x1 ) + (φ 20 − φ10 )
= Δx + Δφ 0 . …[20-23]
λ
€
You can see that the phase difference consists of two
contributions: a phase difference due to
€
1 a path-length difference, and
2 a difference between the inherent phases of the
sources.
To see this note that ∆x = x 2 – x 1 is the difference
between the distances traveled by the waves from the
sources to the point of detection. This is called the
path-length difference. Obviously, if the sources are at
the same position in space then ∆x = 0 and ∆φ = ∆φ0.
The second contribution is due to the difference in
the inherent phase constants of the sources: ∆φ0 = φ20 –
φ10. If the sources are in phase (i.e., are identical) then
∆φ0 = 0. If the sources are at the same position in space
and are also in phase, then ∆φ = 0 and the waves
reaching the point of detection are also in phase.
The most general condition for maximum construc-
tive interference is
Δx
Δφ = 2π + Δφ 0 = 2mπ rad m = 0,1… …[20-24]
λ
For identical sources that have ∆φ0 = 0 rad, maximum
constructive interference occurs when ∆x = m λ. That
tive interference when the path-length difference is an
integer number of wavelengths (Figure 20-14).
20-9
Note 20

Figure 20-14. Two identical sources one wavelength apart

produce waves that are in phase.

The most general condition for perfect destructive

interference is
Δx
Δφ = 2π + Δφ 0
λ
 1
= 2 m + π rad m = 0,1… …[20-25]
 2
€
Two identical sources (∆φ0 = 0) produce perfect des-
tructive interference when the path-length difference
is
€ a half-integer number of wavelengths. Figures 20-14
show three ways of producing perfect destructive
interference.

Let us consider an example of interference in one-

Figure 20-14. Three ways of producing perfect destructive
dimension when the sources are out of phase.
interference.

Example Problem 20-3

Solution:
Interference Between Two Sound Waves
Since initially there is almost no sound at all, the
sound waves are interfering destructively. The
You are standing in front of two side-by-side loud-
sources are side-by-side (at roughly the same position
speakers playing sound of the same frequency (Figure
in space) so ∆x = 0. Since ∆φ = π initially, it follows
20-15). Initially there is almost no sound at all. Then
that ∆φ0 = π, that is, the speakers themselves are out of
one of the speakers is moved slowly away from you.
phase. If the speakers are out of phase initially, then
The sound intensity increases as the separation
they are always out of phase. Moving one of the
between the speakers increases, reaching a maximum
speakers does not change ∆φ0 but it does change ∆x.
when the speakers are 0.75 m apart. Then, as the
Constructive interference is reached when
speaker continues to move, the sound starts to
decrease. What is the distance between the speakers
when the sound intensity is again a minimum? Δx Δx
Δφ = 2π + Δφ 0 = 2π + π = 2π rad.
λ λ

20-10
€

€ point of detection to the two sources and (φ0)avg = (φ10
Figure 20-15. The out-of-phase sources generate waves that
are in phase if the sources are one-half wavelength apart.
Thus it follows that ∆x = λ/2 when the intensity is a
maximum. Since ∆x = 0.75 m, λ = 2 x 0.75 m = 1.50 m.
The sound intensity will again be a minimum when
the speaker is moved one wavelength beyond its
starting position, or a distance of 1.50 m.
Let us now apply mathematics to the cases we have
just described qualitatively. Once again we use D to
indicate a wave of general (transverse or longitudinal)
sinusoidal type.
The Mathematics of Interference
Consider two sinusoidal waves of equal amplitude a,
but different phase constant, moving in the same
direction along the x axis. According to the principle
of superposition, the net displacement D of the
medium is
D = D1 + D2 ,
= a[sin(kx1 − ωt + φ10 ) + sin( kx 2 − ωt + φ 20 )]
€ = asin φ1 + asin φ 2 …[20-26]
€ where the phases φ1 and φ2 have been defined. Using
the trigonometric identity
€
α − β  α + β 
sinα + sin β = 2cos sin ,
 2   2 
we can write eq[20-26] as 4
€
4 5
This requires a little algebra, which we leave as an exercise for
the interested reader.
Note 20
  Δφ 
D = 2acos  sin( kx avg − ωt + (φ 0 ) avg ) . …[20-27]
  2 
where ∆φ = φ 2 – φ1 is the phase difference between the
waves. xavg = (x 1 + x2)/2 is the average distance from the
+ φ20)/2 is the average phase constant of the sources.
The sine term shows that the superposition of the
two traveling waves is itself a traveling wave.
The amplitude of the original traveling waves is
multiplied by the factor 2cos(∆φ/2). This is the major
result of interference.
The amplitude of the resultant wave depends on the
phase difference ∆φ between the wave components. If
∆ φ is a multiple of 2π , then the amplitude is
multiplied by 2. This is maximum constructive
interference. If the phase difference is an odd multiple
of π, then the amplitude is zero. This is perfectly
destructive interference. If the phase difference has any
other value then, in general, the interference can be
non-maximum constructive or imperfectly
destructive. For example, the interference patterns of
two component waves for three different arbitrary
values of ∆ φ are illustrated in Figure 20-16. Notice that
the resultant amplitude A is greater than 0 and less
than 2a. 5
Figure 20-16. The interference of two waves for three differ-
ent values of the phase difference showing non-maximum
constructive and imperfectly destructive interference.
You will not be held responsible for problems of non-maximum
constructive or imperfectly destructive interference in this course.
20-11
Note 20

Interference in Two and Three Dimensions constructive and destructive interference just
We have seen in Note 18 that traveling waves can described.
move in two-and three-dimensions. Ripples on the
surface of a pond and light and sound waves are good
examples. Figure 20-17 might represent a 2D or 3D
wave. Wave fronts (maximum displacements or
peaks) are separated by λ. Halfway between the wave
peaks are wave troughs. The waves move away from
the source with speed v.

Figure 20-17. Representation of a circular or spherical wave.

This kind of wave can be written
D(r,t) = asin( kr − ωt + φ 0 )
Figure 20-18. The overlapping ripple patterns of two sources.
Several points of maximum constructive interference
(orange dots) and perfectly destructive interference (blue
dots) are shown.
…[20-28]

where r is the distance measured outwards from the
source. Strictly speaking, for spherical and circular
waves a decreases as r increases. For simplicity, how-
€ determined if the path-length difference at that point
ever, we shall assume a is constant over the region of
the wave we study.
Constructive and destructive interference of such
waves from two sources (Figure 20-18) depends on
how the peaks and troughs come together at a partic-
ular point. The orange dots indicate points at which
(at the particular instant represented) peaks from both
sources come together, or troughs from both sources
come together. These are points of maximum
constructive interference with A = 2a.
The blue dots indicate points at which peaks from
the one source and troughs from the other source
come together. These are points of perfectly destruc-
tive interference with A = 0.
Keep in mind that as time goes on the circles in the
figure move steadily outwards. The motion of the
wave, however, does not affect the points of
If the sources are identical (intrinsic phase difference
is zero) then the interference at any point can be
is known. Let us suppose for argument that the ripple
patterns of two identical sources are as shown in
Figure 20-19. It follows that since the sources are
identical (resulting, say, from pebbles being dropped
simultaneously into a pond) ∆φ0 = 0 and the phase
difference between the two waves at any point is
determined by the path-length difference ∆r.
Consider point A. The path-length difference there is
∆ r = 3λ – 2λ = λ. Hence at that point maximum
constructive interference occurs. Consider point B. At
that point the path-length difference is ∆r = 3λ – 2.5λ =
0.5λ. Hence at B perfectly destructive interference
occurs.

20-12
 Note 20

(b) How will the situation differ if the loudspeakers

are out of phase?

Solution:
Since the sources are in phase then ∆φ 0 = 0 and the
interference produced at the point of detection is due
to the path-length difference.
(a) Let r 1 and r2 be the distances from the sources to
the point of observation. These are:

r1 = (5.0 m) 2 + (1.0 m) 2 = 5.10 m

r2 = (5.0 m) 2 + (3.0 m) 2 = 5.83 m

€ Thus the path-length difference is ∆r = r – r = 0.73 m.
2 1
The wavelength of the sound wave is
€
Figure 20-19. When the sources are identical the path-length v 341 m.s−1
difference ∆r determines whether the interference at a λ= = = 0.487 m .
particular point is constructive or destructive.
f 700 Hz

In terms of wavelengths, the path-length difference is

∆r/λ = 1.50, or
Example Problem 20-4 € 3
Δr = λ .
Two Dimensional Interference Between the Sound from 2
Two Loudspeakers
The path-length difference is an integer multiple of
Two loudspeakers are 2.0 m apart and in phase with half-wavelengths, so the waves interfere
each other. Both emit sound waves at a frequency of destructively.
€
700 Hz into a room where the speed of sound is 341 (b) If the sources were out of phase (∆φ0 = π rad), then
m.s –1. A listener stands 5.0 m in front of the loud- the phase difference at the listener would be
speakers and 2.0 m to one side of the center (Figure
20-20). Δr  3
Δφ = 2π + Δφ 0 = 2π   + π rad = 4π rad .
λ 2

This is an integer multiple of 2 π rad so in this case the

interference would be constructive.
€

This concludes our study of waves.

Figure 20-20. Pictorial representation of the interference

between two loudspeakers.

(a) Is the interference at this point constructive,

destructive, or something in between?

20-13
Note 20

To Be Mastered
• Definitions: Principle of Superposition, constructive interference, destructive interference
• General expression for: wave intensity
• Physics of: traveling wave pulses encountering a discontinuity
• Physics of: standing waves on a stretched string
• Physics of: standing waves in a pipe: closed-closed, open-open, open-closed
• Physics of: interference in one-dimension, due to path-length difference, intrinsic phase difference of sources
• Physics of: interference in two dimensions

Typical Quiz/Test/Exam Questions

1.

20-14