RESEARCH

FINALS
WATER, ALKALINITY OF WATER,
TREATMENT OF WATER,
& COOLING H2O

INTRODUCTION
WATER is one of the basic needs and is required by all life on earth. It dominates a
majority of the space on our planet, covering about 71% of the total surface area of Earth.
Hydrology is the study of the distribution, availability, consumption, and movement of ground
water. Water exists in all three of its states, namely, solid (ice), liquid, and gas (stream)—
explaining the importance of understanding the science and structure of water. It is a
transparent colorless chemical substance with one oxygen atom covalently bonded to two
hydrogen atoms. Water is cycled continuously on Earth through evaporation, transpiration,
condensation, precipitation, and other means.

ALKALINITY OF WATER is not a chemical in water, but, rather, it is

a property of water that is dependent on the presence of certain chemicals in the water, such
as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides. A definition of alkalinity would then be "the
buffering capacity of a water body; a measure of the ability of the water body to neutralize
acids and bases and thus maintain a fairly stable pH level". In more simple terms, water with a
high alkalinity will experience less of a change in its own acidity, for instance, when acidic
water, such as acid rain or an acid spill, is introduced into the water body.

TREATMENT OF WATER is performed in order to improve water

quality. The processes employed for water treatment depend on the quality of the water
supply. In all cases, water has to be disinfected in order to deactivate any existing
microorganisms present in water. So far, this technique was proved to be the most important
for the protection of human life. It is commonly done using chlorine or chlorine dioxide, and in
many cases, other processes are also used such as ozonation and ultraviolet irradiation. If the
water originates from a surface water supply such as a river, lake, or dam, then the suspended
particles are the most important problem. Different techniques to remove suspended particles
include the addition of coagulants and the use of membranes..

COOLING H2O is a method of heat removal from components and industrial

equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor. Evaporative cooling
using water is often more efficient than air cooling. Water is inexpensive and non-toxic;
however, it can contain impurities and cause corrosion. “Water cooling is a method of heat
removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is
used as the heat conductor. Water cooling is commonly used for cooling automobile
internal combustion engines and large industrial facilities such as steam electric power
plants, hydroelectric generators, petroleum refineries, and chemical plants. Other uses
include cooling the barrels of machine guns, cooling of lubricant oil in pumps; for cooling
purposes in heat exchangers; cooling products from tanks or columns, and recently,
cooling of various major components inside high-end personal computers.
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
AND
DIAGRAMS

FRESH H2O
Freshwater is chemically defined as containing a concentration of less than two parts per
thousand (<0.2%) of dissolved salts (salts that are in solution). Although water is abundant on
the surface of Earth, freshwater is a very limited resource. water that contains only minimal
quantities of dissolved salts, thus distinguishing it from sea water or brackish water. Fresh
water or freshwater is any naturally occurring liquid or frozen water containing low
concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. Although the term specifically
excludes seawater and brackish water, it does include non-salty mineral-rich waters such as
chalybeate springs.

SEA WATER, OCEAN H2O

Seawater, or salt water, is water from a sea or ocean. On average, seawater in the world's
oceans has a salinity of about 3.5% (35 g/L, 35 ppt, 600 mM). seawater, water that makes up
the oceans and seas, covering more than 70 percent of Earth's surface. Seawater is a complex
mixture of 96.5 percent water, 2.5 percent salts, and smaller amounts of other substances,
including dissolved inorganic and organic materials, particulates, and a few atmospheric gases.
Seawater is a major source of food, minerals, and other raw materials. We get salt, fish and
other marine products, seaweed, mineral oil, and other minerals from the oceans. Medicines
and beauty products are also sourced from the oceans. We also get aquaculture supplements
to increase food production.

BOILER WATER
Boiler water is liquid water within a boiler, or in associated piping, pumps and other equipment,
that is intended for evaporation into steam. The function of a boiler is to either produce hot
water or steam. Hot water boilers heat water for the purpose of domestic or commercial
heating and hot water supply. Steam boilers generate steam in order to power turbines for
power generation and various other industrial heating applications.in general, boiler water is a
tank in which water is heated or hot water is stored.
WATER TREATMENT
Water treatment is a process involving different types of operations (physical, chemical,
physicochemical and biological), the aim of which is to eliminate and/or reduce contamination or non-
desirable characteristics of water. Water treatment helps in removing contaminants and hazardous
substances from the water, making it clean and safe to drink and be used for other purposes.
Unfortunately, almost 2 billion people in the world use either untreated drinking water or get water
from unsafe or contaminated sources. The processes involved in removing the contaminants
include physical processes such as settling and filtration, chemical processes such as disinfection and
coagulation and biological processes such as slow sand filtration.

TREATMENT FOR BOILER & FEED WATER

Boiler water treatment is a type of industrial water treatment focused on the removal or
chemical modification of substances potentially damaging to the boiler. Varying types of
treatment are used at different locations to avoid scale, corrosion, or foaming. Boiler water
treatment is crucial to ensure that the steam boiler is properly operating. As the impurities
enter the boiler water, it fouls the steam boiler and leads to damaging the boiler system,
reducing its lifespan and efficiency. It results in excessive bills for the same operation. The best
way to remove all water from the gas tank is to drain and refill your gas tank. This may seem
like an expensive alternative to some drivers; however, the damage that you will be avoiding to
your car is more than worth it. Fuel additives using emulsifiers are formulated to keep water in
emulsion in the diesel fuel in such minute particles that the water passes harmlessly through
the fuel delivery system where it is vaporized in the diesel engine's combustion chambers and
released as steam.

FEED WATER TREATMENT FOR LOW- AND HIGH-PRESSURE

BOILER
Water pressure is measured in 'bar', and generally speaking anything 0.3 bar or below requires
a low water pressure tap or shower, and anything at 1.0 bar or above requires a high-water
pressure tap or shower. high pressure boilers are built to a maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP) above 15 psig, while low pressure boilers are designed for operation at 15
psig or below. Low pressure boilers are most commonly utilized in heating applications and
require less maintenance than that of a high-pressure unit.

COOLING WATER FOR ENGINE

A cooling water temperature of approximately 80°C (176°F) and cooling water pressure of 3 bar
(44 psi) is standard for most engines operating under load. Cooling water is sometimes referred
to as 'jacket water' due to the 'jacket' of water surrounding the combustion space. The cooling
system works by constantly passing coolant through channels in the engine block.
BOILER
A boiler is a closed vessel in which fluid is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The
heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications,
including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and
sanitation Boilers are used to produce steam. The generation part of a steam system uses a
boiler to add energy to a feedwater supply to generate steam. The energy is released from the
combustion of fossil fuels or from process waste heat.

POTABLE WATER
Potable water, also known as drinking water, comes from surface and ground sources and is
treated to levels that that meet state and federal standards for consumption. Water from
natural sources is treated for microorganisms, bacteria, toxic chemicals, viruses and fecal
matter. Drinking water is water that is used in drink or food preparation; potable water is water
that is safe to be used as drinking water. The amount of drinking water required to maintain
good health varies, and depends on physical activity level, age, health-related issues, and
environmental conditions. Why is it Called Potable Water? Potable comes from the Latin pot
are, meaning "to drink." The Romans came up with the word and built some of the world's first
aqueducts, above-ground channels that brought potable water from the mountains to the
cities.
PARAMETER FOR SAFETY ION CONDUCTING BOILER WATER
TEST
The main boiler water tests that are routinely carried out are as follows: Deha/Oxygen test –
For testing oxygen and Chemical content. Hydrate Alkalinity – For testing the presence of
hydrates. Neutralized Conductivity – For testing the presence of ferrous ions and metal
contents.

PARAMETER UNIT LIMIT

pH
9.2
Total dissolved solids
mg/l 1500
Total hardness
mg/l 500
Alkalinity
mg/l 500

EFFECT OF SEA WATER & FRESH WATER TO BOILER

Sea water contains soluble salts of calcium and magnesium, which on boiling change to
insoluble salts and get deposited as a crust on the inner sides of a boiler. This crust acts as a bad
conductor of heat and prevents the flow of heat to water. A large quantity of fuel gets wasted.
A contamination could form deposits on the boiler tubes or furnace walls that are swept by the
flames on the opposite side. With seawater it is well known that chlorides will form a very hard
layer of lime deposits if the contaminated feedwater is not treated sufficiently.
PURPOSE OF BOILER FEED WATER TREAMENT
Boiler water treatment is used to control alkalinity, prevent scaling, correct pH, and to control
conductivity. The boiler water needs to be alkaline and not acidic, so that it does not ruin the
tubes. There can be too much conductivity in the feed water when there are too many
dissolved solids. These correct treatments can be controlled by efficient operator and use of
treatment chemicals. The main objectives to treat and condition boiler water is to exchange
heat without scaling, protect against scaling, and produce high quality steam. The treatment of
boiler water can be put into two parts. These are internal treatment and external treatment.

BLOW DOWN REQUIRMENTS FOR BOILER WATER

CONDUCTIVITY
The main aspects are the great temperature difference and high pH. A boiler water sample has
an unnaturalized conductivity of 5 000 μS/cm at 25°C.Conductivity is a viable indicator of the
overall total dissolved solid concentrations. Typically, blowdown rates range from 4 – 8 percent
of boiler feedwater flow rate, but can be as high as 20 percent with extremely poor-quality
feedwater.

Boiler Pressure (psig) Iron Concentration Specific Conductivity

(ppm) (μS/cm) *

0 – 300
0.1 7000
300 – 450
0.05 6000
450 – 600
0.03 5000
600 – 750
0.025 4000
DETRIMENTAL EFFECTS OF COOLING WATER TO ENGINE
This will result in metal-to-metal contact of the piston and cylinder wall leading to piston crown.
Burning of and warping of exhaust valves setting up of thermal stresses in the cylinder, cylinder
head and piston. This may lead to cracking of them. If you choose not to treat your cooling
tower water for biological growth, chances are microbe growth will run rampant, cause leaks
and fouling in your system, and promote slime formation that can reduce heat transfer and
accelerate the rate of corrosion. Do not pour cold water into a still-hot radiator — it could
cause the engine block to crack due to the sudden change in temperature. If you absolutely
have to add water while the engine is still warm, pour slowly while the engine is running in
neutral or park.

WATER QUALITY
Water quality describes the condition of the water, including chemical, physical, and biological
characteristics, usually with respect to its suitability for a particular purpose such as drinking or
swimming. Water quality is one of the most important components of a healthy ecosystem.
Clean water provides a drinking supply for communities, supports a diversity of plants and
wildlife, and enhances recreation and tourism. The most important quality of water is to
Dissolved Oxygen.
This is a critical water quality parameter that can help you determine how polluted rivers, lakes,
and streams are. When water has a high concentration of dissolved oxygen, you can be
confident that the water quality is high.

WATER SOFTENING
Water softening is the removal of calcium, magnesium, and certain other metal cations in hard
water. The resulting soft water requires less soap for the same cleaning effort, as soap is not
wasted bonding with calcium ions. Water softening is achieved either by adding chemicals that
form insoluble precipitates or by ion exchange. On a small scale, chemicals used for softening
include ammonia, borax, calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), or trisodium phosphate, usually in
conjunction with sodium carbonate (soda ash). The primary purpose of hard water softening
is to prevent the precipitation and buildup of hard water minerals in equipment and piping.
Reduction or elimination of hard water scaling can be performed using physical water
treatment equipment, or, in limited circumstances, using chemical additives.

DESALINATION
Desalination is a process that takes away mineral components from saline water. More
generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals from a target substance, as in
soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture. Desalination is the process by which the
dissolved mineral salts in water are removed. Currently, this process, applied to seawater, is
one of the most used to obtain fresh water for human consumption or agricultural purposes.
Humans cannot drink saline water, but, saline water can be made into freshwater, for which
there are many uses. The process is called "desalination", and it is being used more and more
around the world to provide people with needed freshwater.

HARD WATER
Hard water is water that has high mineral content. Hard water is formed when water percolates
through deposits of limestone, chalk or gypsum, which are largely made up of calcium and
magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates and sulfates. Hard drinking water may have moderate
health benefits. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals, largely calcium and magnesium. You
may have felt the effects of hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands.
Depending on the hardness of your water, after using soap to wash you may have felt like there
was a film of residue left on your hands. Water described as “hard” contains high amounts of
dissolved calcium and magnesium. Hard water is not a health risk but is a nuisance because of
mineral buildup on plumbing fixtures and poor soap and or detergent performance.

DISOLVE OXYGEN
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen that is present in water. Water bodies receive
oxygen from the atmosphere and from aquatic plants. Running water, such as that of a swift
moving stream, dissolves more oxygen than the still water of a pond or lake. Dissolved oxygen
(DO) is one of the most important indicators of water quality. It is essential for the survival of
fish and other aquatic organisms. Oxygen dissolves in surface water due to the aerating action
of winds. Oxygen is also introduced into the water as a byproduct of aquatic plant
photosynthesis Oxygen is added to water by: Re-aeration: Oxygen from air is dissolved in water
at its surface, mostly through turbulence. Examples of this include: Water tumbling over rocks
(rapids, waterfalls, riffles) Wave action Photosynthesis (during daylight) Plants produce oxygen
when they photosynthesize.

TREATMENT OF MUNICIPAL H2O SUPPLIES

Primary wastewater treatment usually involves gravity sedimentation of screened, DE gritted
wastewater to remove settleable solids; slightly more than one-half of the suspended solids
ordinarily are removed. BOD in the form of solids removable by sedimentation (typically about
one-third of total BOD) is also removed. Chlorine and chloramine are the major disinfectants
used in public water systems. Chemical disinfection is another common method for making
water safe to use. Chlorination is a common chemical disinfection technique that involves
adding a chlorine-based product (such as sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, or
household bleach) to water to kill bacteria and viruses.

LIME SODA PROCESS

Lime soda process: In lime-soda process, hard water is treated with lime (CaO or Ca (OH)2)
firstly, after that with soda. In this process, the hardness is removed by sedimentation as
calcium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide. Soda lime, solid is generally a white to grayish
white colored solid. It is the mixture of calcium hydroxide and sodium or potassium hydroxide,
both corrosive materials. It is noncombustible and soluble in water with release of heat Lime is
used to remove chemicals that cause carbonate hardness. Soda ash is used to remove
chemicals that cause non-carbonate hardness. When lime and soda ash are added, hardness-
causing minerals form nearly insoluble precipitates. Calcium hardness is precipitated as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3).

ION EXCHANGE
Ion exchange is a water treatment process commonly used for water softening or
demineralization, but it also is used to remove other substances from the water in processes
such as DE alkalization, deionization, denitrification, and disinfection. With many other
overlapping technologies available, it is important to determine whether ion exchange is the
best choice in a given scenario. Ion exchange describes a specific chemical process in which
unwanted dissolved ions in water and wastewater — like nitrate, fluoride, sulfate, and arsenic
— are exchanged for other ions with a similar charge.
GREEN CHEMISTRY
Green chemistry is the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the
use or generation of hazardous substances. Green chemistry applies across the life cycle of a
chemical product, including its design, manufacture, use, and ultimate disposal. Green
chemistry reduces pollution at its source by minimizing or eliminating the hazards of chemical
feedstocks, reagents, solvents, and products. One example is replacing a hazardous sorbent
[chemical] used to capture mercury from the air for safe disposal with an effective, but
nonhazardous sorbent. Using the nonhazardous sorbent means that the hazardous sorbent is
never manufactured and so the remediation technology meets the definition of green
chemistry.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES GOVERNING GREEN CHEMISTRY

 Prevention. It is better to prevent waste formation than to treat it after it is formed.
 Atom economy. Design synthetic methods to maximize incorporation of all material
used into final product.
 Less hazard. Synthetic methods should, where practicable, use or generate materials of
low human toxicity and environmental impact.
 Safer chemicals. Chemical product design should preserve efficacy whilst reducing
toxicity.
 Safer solvents. Avoid auxiliary materials - solvents, extractants - if possible, or otherwise
make them innocuous.
 Energy efficiency. Energy requirements should be minimized: conduct synthesis at
ambient temperature and pressure.
 Renewable feedstocks. Raw materials should, where practicable, be renewable.
 Reduce derivatives. Unnecessary derivatization should be avoided where possible.
  Smart catalysis. Selectively catalyzed processes are superior to stoichiometric
processes.
 Degradable design. Chemical products should be designed to be degradable to
innocuous products when disposed of and not be environmentally persistent.
 Real-time analysis for pollution prevention. Monitor processes in real time to avoid
excursions leading to the formation of hazardous materials.

WATER PURIFICATION
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal of this process is to produce
water fit for a specific purpose. The purification process of water may reduce the concentration
of particulate matter including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi;
and a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may
have made contact with after falling as rain. The standards for drinking water quality are
typically set by governments or by international standards. These standards will typically set
minimum and maximum concentrations of contaminants for the use that is to be made of the
water.

TRIHALOMETHANE
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are liquid by-products formed when chlorine is used to disinfect water
to make it safer to drink. THMs are colorless with a slight chlorine-like scent. These chemicals
are called THMs because each contains three halogen molecules: chlorine, bromine or a
mixture of chlorine and bromine. In chemistry, trihalomethanes are chemical compounds in
which three of the four hydrogen atoms of methane are replaced by halogen atoms. THMs
occur when chlorine reacts with organic matter in water, and for this reason are more common
in surface water supplies throughout Canada.
REGIONS IN THE ATMOSPHERE
The atmosphere of the Earth is divided into four layers: troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere
and Thermosphere, and they are separated based on temperature. Weather processes occur in
the lower layers of the atmosphere while interesting events such as the beautiful aurora occur
higher Earth's atmosphere is composed of about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and one percent
other gases. These gases are found in atmospheric layers (troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere) defined by unique features such as temperature
and pressure. the regions of atmosphere with temperature, Troposphere (0-11 km. 15 to
−56∘C), stratosphere (11-50 km, -56 to 2∘C), mesosphere (50-85 km. -2 to −92∘C),
thermosphere (85-500 km, -92 to 1200∘C).

ACID RAIN
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic
components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet
or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic. Acid rain results
when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the
atmosphere come from electric power generators. Vehicles and heavy equipment.
Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries. Winds can blow SO 2 and NOX over long
distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for everyone and not just those who
live close to these sources.
PHOTO IONIZATION
Photoionization is the process that makes once-invisible filaments in deep space glow.
Photoionization is the physical process in which an ion is formed from the interaction of a
photon with an atom or molecule. photo-ionization, the interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with matter resulting in the dissociation of that matter into electrically charged
particlesPhoto-ionization occurs when an atom or molecule absorbs light of sufficient energy to
cause an electron to leave and create a positive ion. The PID is comprised of an ultraviolet lamp
that emits photons that are absorbed by the compound in an ionization chamber.

RAIN H2O
Rainwater is a mixed electrolyte that contains varying amounts of major and minor ions.
Sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, and sulfate ions are major
constituents, together with ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, nitrogen, and other nitrogenous
compounds (Hutchinson, 1957). Minor constituents are iodine, bromine, boron, iron, alumina,
and silica. Dust particles are added locally. The sources of these constituents are the oceans,
fresh water and saline lakes, landmasses, vegetation, manmade industries, and volcanic
emanations. In most studies of weathering processes, it has been assumed that rainwater has
an average composition

PHOTODIMERIZATION
Photodimerization is one of the representative P-type photochromism * whereas it has been widely employed
for cross-linkage of negative acting photoresists. The photodimerization is an example of a direct
photoreaction where every step for polymer build-up is initiated by an absorbed photon, thus every
single reaction step is dependent on the quantum yield of the photoreaction (generally very much
smaller than one). The chemical reaction that joins two molecular subunits, resulting in the formation of
a single dimer. (2) The process or act of forming a dimer.

CHLOROFLOROCARBON
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon,
chlorine, and fluorine. They are used in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for
foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as refrigerants. CFCs are classified as
halocarbons, a class of compounds that contain atoms of carbon and halogen atoms. Individual
CFC molecules are labeled with a unique numbering system. For example, the CFC number of
11 indicates the number of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, fluorine, and chlorine (e.g., CCl 3F as
CFC-11

PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry which is mainly concerned with rates and
mechanisms of reactions resulting from the exposure of reactants to light radiations. The
photochemical reaction is, in fact, the thermal reaction of the electronically excited state of the
molecule while the dark reaction of the molecule is the thermal reaction of the ground state. A
photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction triggered when light energy is absorbed by a
substance’s molecules. This response leads the molecules to experience a temporary excited
state, thus altering their physical and chemical properties from the substance’s initial molecule.

SALINITY OF H2O
Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see
also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water;
the latter is dimensionless and equal to ‰). Salinity is an important factor in determining many
aspects of the chemistry of natural waters and of biological processes within it, and is
a thermodynamic state variable that, along with temperature and pressure, governs physical
characteristics like the density and heat capacity of the water.. Sodium and magnesium sulfate
levels in drinking water may produce a laxative effect and reduce the suitability of a water
supply for grazing animals. Salinity is either expressed in grams of salt per kilogram of water, or
in parts per thousand (ppt, or ‰). For example, if you have 1 gram of salt and 1,000 grams of
water, your salinity is 1 g/kg, or 1 ppt. Freshwater has very little salt, usually less than 0.5 ppt.

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Reverse osmosis is a water purification process that uses a semi-permeable membrane
(synthetic lining) to filter out unwanted molecules and large particles such as contaminants and
sediments like chlorine, salt, and dirt from drinking water. During this process, the
contaminants are filtered out and flushed away, leaving clean, delicious drinking water. A
reverse osmosis system removes sediment and chlorine from water with a prefilter before it
forces water through a semipermeable membrane to remove dissolved solids. After water exits
the RO membrane, it passes through a postfilter to polish the drinking water before it enters a
dedicated faucet.

MARINE POLUTION
Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land
sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the
environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide. All marine
debris comes from people with a majority of it originating on land and entering the ocean and
Great Lakes through littering, poor waste management practices, storm water discharge, and
extreme natural events such as tsunamis and hurricanes. The world's marine pollution comes in
many forms – from toxic chemicals, sewage and fertilizers to plastics, discarded fishing nets and
even the noise from shipping and drilling

BIODEGRADABLE & NON-BIODEGRADABLE MATERIALS

The biodegradable, name itself is a combination of two words that are bio and degradable which means
any substance or object is capable of being degraded or decomposed through bacterial action or by any
other living organisms without producing any kind of pollution. And, this biodegradation process is
assumed to occur naturally. Some examples of biodegradables are organic wastes, paper, woods, etc.
While Non-biodegradable or not-biodegradable means any substance or object that is not capable or
incapable of being decomposed or broken down by the action of bacteria, fungi, or any other form of life.
Some examples of non-biodegradable are plastic, glass, metals, etc.

Biodegradable Substance Non-biodegradable Substance

It decomposes naturally in the environment
by It does not decompose naturally.
the action of microorganisms.

It is harmful to the environment and causes

It is environment friendly.
pollution.
It is made up of natural ingredients. It is made up of synthetic materials.
It can be converted into manure or recycled. It can be either reused or recycled.
Examples: Plastic bags, cans, disposable bottles,
Examples: Waste paper, wood crumbles, etc.
etc.

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement or diffusion of solvent molecules through a selectively-permeable
membrane from a region of high-water potential to a region of low water potential, in the direction that
tends to equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides Osmosis is the transport of a solvent through
a semipermeable membrane that separates two solutions of differing solute concentration. During
osmosis, the solvent moves from the solution that is lower in solute concentration to the solution that is
higher in solute concentration.
THERMOSPHERE
The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and
below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes
photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the thermosphere thus
constitutes the larger part of the ionosphere. The thermosphere is a layer of Earth's
atmosphere that is directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. It extends from
about 90 km (56 miles) to between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above our planet. The
thermosphere is the atmospheric region from ∼85 to ∼500 km altitude, containing the
ionosphere. It is characterized by high temperature and large variability, in response to changes
in solar ultraviolet radiation and solar-driven geomagnetic activity.

FUEL CELL
A fuel cell uses the chemical energy of hydrogen or other fuels to cleanly and efficiently
produce electricity. If hydrogen is the fuel, the only products are electricity, water, and heat.
Fuel cells are unique in terms of the variety of their potential applications; they can use a wide
range of fuels and feedstocks and can provide power for systems as large as a utility power
station and as small as a laptop computer. Fuel cells can be used in a wide range of applications,
providing power for applications across multiple sectors, including transportation,
industrial/commercial/residential buildings, and long-term energy storage for the grid in
reversible systems. Fuel cells work like batteries, but they do not run down or need recharging.
They produce electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched
around an electrolyte.

BATTERY
A battery is a device that stores chemical energy, and converts it to electricity. This is known as
electrochemistry and the system that underpins a battery is called an electrochemical cell. A
battery can be made up of one or several (like in Volta's original pile) electrochemical cells. Each
electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. Battery acid is a
common name for sulfuric acid (US) or sulphuric acid (UK). Sulfuric acid is a mineral acid with
the chemical formula H2SO4. In lead-acid batteries, the concentration of sulfuric acid in water
ranges from 29% to 32% or between 4.2 mol/L and 5.0 mol/L.
Primary Battery Chemistries

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

The greenhouse effect is a process that occurs when gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's
heat. This process makes Earth much warmer than it would be without an atmosphere. The
greenhouse effect is one of the things that makes Earth a comfortable place to live. As you
might expect from the name, the greenhouse effect works … like a greenhouse! A greenhouse
is a building with glass walls and a glass roof. Greenhouses are used to grow plants, such as
tomatoes and tropical flowers. A greenhouse stays warm inside, even during the winter. In the
daytime, sunlight shines into the greenhouse and warms the plants and air inside. At nighttime,
it's colder outside, but the greenhouse stays pretty warm inside. That's because the glass walls
of the greenhouse trap the Sun's heat.

CONCENTRATION CELL
Concentration cells are galvanic (or voltaic) cells made of two half-cells, each of which
containing the same electrodes, but different concentrations. Concentration cells work to
establish equilibrium by transferring electrons from the cell with the lower concentration to the
cell with the higher concentration. The electrode potential difference between the two half-
cells can be calculated using the Nernst equation. An Example for this type of cell would be a
cell consisting of two hydrogen electrodes which are subjected to varying pressures but are
immersed in the same solutions (containing hydrogen ions). Concentration cells are an
important technology used mainly in batteries. The technology is used for the transference of
substance to form an equilibrium between the concoctions. Concentration cells are a limited
form of galvanic cells.

ALKALINE BATTERY
An alkaline battery is a type of primary battery where the electrolyte (most
commonly potassium hydroxide) has a pH value above 7. Typically these batteries derive energy
from the reaction between zinc metal and manganese dioxide, nickel and cadmium,
or nickel and hydrogen. Compared with zinc–carbon batteries of the Leclanché cell or zinc
chloride types, alkaline batteries have a higher energy density and longer shelf life, yet provide
the same voltage. The alkaline battery gets its name because it has an alkaline electrolyte
of potassium hydroxide (KOH) instead of the acidic ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) or zinc
chloride (ZnCl2) electrolyte of the zinc–carbon batteries. Other battery systems also use alkaline
electrolytes, but they use different active materials for the electrodes
STANDARD REDUCTION HALF CELL POTENCIAL
A half-cell reaction is either an oxidation reaction in which electrons are lost, or a reduction
reaction where electronic are gained. The reactions occur in an electrochemical cell in which
the electrons are lost at the anode through oxidation and consumed at the cathode where the
reduction occurs. Oxidation–reduction potential (E h) is a measure of the ability of
chemical/biochemical systems to oxidize (lose electrons) or reduce (gain electrons). A positive
value indicates an oxidized state, whereas a negative value indicates a reduced state

OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION

An oxidation–reduction or redox reaction is a reaction that involves the transfer of electrons
between chemical species (the atoms, ions, or molecules involved in the reaction). Redox
reactions are all around us: the burning of fuels, the corrosion of metals, and even the
processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration involve oxidation and reduction.

ELECTRO CHEMISTRY
Electrochemistry is the study of electron movement in an oxidation or reduction reaction at a
polarized electrode surface. Each analyte is oxidized or reduced at a specific potential and the
current measured is proportional to concentration. This technique is a powerful methodology
towards bioanalysis. electrochemistry used for, Electrochemical techniques, including
potentiometry, amperometry, coulometry, and voltammetry, are used in chemical research to
measure redox potentials, characterize reversibility of a chemical process, assemble or
synthesize materials, and analyze the efficiency and function of catalysts, among many other
uses.

BRACKISH WATER
Brackish water, sometimes termed brack water, is water occurring in a natural environment
that has more salinity than freshwater, but not as much as seawater. It may result from mixing
of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, but also certain human activities can produce
brackish water, in particular certain civil engineering projects such as dikes and the flooding of
coastal marshland. Brackish water is a broad term used to describe water whose salinity is
between that of fresh and marine water, and these are often transitional areas where such
waters mix. An estuary, which is the part of a river that meets the sea, is the best-known
example of brackish water.

AERATING H2O
Aeration is the process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or
substance. Aeration brings water and air in close contact in order to remove dissolved gases
and to oxidize dissolved metals, including iron, hydrogen sulfide, and volatile organic chemicals
(VOCs). This process is typically the first major process at drinking water treatment plant, and
occurs in the secondary treatment processes of activated sludge treatment in wastewater
treatment plants. Aeration can be achieved through the infusion of air into the bottom of the
lake, lagoon or pond or by surface agitation from a fountain or spray-like device to allow for
oxygen exchange at the surface and the release of gasses such as carbon dioxide, methane or
hydrogen sulfide. Aerating water is an important process that helps keep water healthy and
clean. Water aeration is the process of introducing air into water to increase oxygen levels,
which can help reduce the levels of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and other gases.

SLUDGE & SLURRY

Sludge and slurry are by-products of industrial, refining or wastewater treatment processes.
Depending on the industry, it can contain non-hazardous water, mud, oils, biosolids or other
debris. Filter cakes is are designed to remove contaminants from sludge tanks and also require
disposal after they have served their purpose. Sludge is thick, soft, wet mixture of liquid and
solid components. Slurry is a thin, sloppy, wet mixture of liquid and solid components. Sludge
and slurry are by-products of industrial, refining or wastewater treatment processes. A watery
mixture or suspension of insoluble (not dissolved) matter; a thin, watery mud or any substance
resembling it (such as a grit slurry or a lime slurry).

VARIOUS EFFECT ON VARIOUS COMPONENT OF MARINE

ENVIRONMENT
Rising water temperatures, acidification, and low oxygen levels can combine with natural ocean
cycles to create extreme marine events. Marine heat waves, dead zones, and coral bleaching
are just a few examples of these events, which are projected to become more common and
severe. A healthy ocean regulates climate and reduce climate change impacts. Ocean currents
distribute heat across the globe, regulating temperature and weather. The ocean also absorbs
over 90% of the heat and approximately 30% of carbon dioxide emissions produced by human
activities.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is the contamination of water sources by substances which make the water
unusable for drinking, cooking, cleaning, swimming, and other activities. Pollutants include
chemicals, trash, bacteria, and parasites. All forms of pollution eventually make their way to
water. Air pollution settles onto lakes and oceans. Land pollution can seep into an underground
stream, then to a river, and finally to the ocean. Water pollutants may cause disease or act as
poisons. Bacteria and parasites in poorly treated sewage may enter drinking water supplies and
cause digestive problems such as cholera and diarrhea. Hazardous chemicals, pesticides, and
herbicides from industries, farms, homes and golf courses can cause acute toxicity and
immediate death, or chronic toxicity that can lead to neurological problems or cancers.

LAGOON H2O
Lagoons are shallow, often elongated bodies of water separated from a larger body of water by
a shallow or exposed shoal, coral reef, or similar feature. Some authorities include fresh
water bodies in the definition of "lagoon", while others explicitly restrict "lagoon" to bodies of
water with some degree of salinity. Davis does state that the terms "lagoon" and "estuary" are
"often loosely applied, even in scientific literature". [1] Timothy M. Kusky characterizes lagoons
as normally being elongated parallel to the coast, while estuaries are usually drowned river
valleys, elongated perpendicular to the coast. Coastal lagoons are classified as inland bodies of
water.
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT EQUILIBRIUM
In the equilibrium solubility method, the evaluation of drug is achieved with the addition of an
amount of substance in an aqueous solvent until it reaches the saturation of the media,
followed by stirring for a prolonged period until the attainment of equilibrium (Avdeef, 2003;
EMA, 2008; United States, 2000). Solubility equilibrium is the equilibrium associated with
dissolving solids in water to form aqueous solutions. At the point where no more solid can
dissolve, the solution is saturated. The solubility product constant is an equilibrium constant
used in solubility equilibrium.

SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANT

The solubility product constant, Ksp, is the equilibrium constant for a solid substance dissolving
in an aqueous solution. It represents the level at which a solute dissolve in solution. The more
soluble a substance is, the higher the Ksp value it has. Solubility equilibrium is a type of dynamic
equilibrium that exists when a chemical compound in the solid state is in chemical equilibrium
with a solution of that compound. The solid may dissolve unchanged, with dissociation, or with
chemical reaction with another constituent of the solution, such as acid or alkali.
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