ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY LECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
What are the Similarities Between
Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis in
Chemistry?
 Both Qualitative and Quantitative
Analysis in Chemistry are analytical
techniques.
 Both Qualitative and Quantitative
Analysis in Chemistry techniques give
details about the components in a
sample.
 Most of the times, these techniques are
used together (Ex: use qualitative
analysis followed by quantitative
analysis)
What are the Difference Between
Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis in
Chemistry?
Quantitative analysis of a sample is very
important for several reasons. It gives the
details about how much reactant should be
used to perform a chemical synthesis
reaction to get a certain amount of product,
hence the waste of chemicals is reduced
(atom economy is increased), it can be used
to determine the quality of food or any other
product by indicating the presence of
appropriate amounts of ingredients, it is
helpful in determining the purity if a sample,
etc.
What is Quantitative Analysis in
Chemistry?
Quantitative analysis in chemistry is a branch
of chemistry that deals with the quantities of
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different components in a sample. The
quantity can be given as a mass,
volume, concentration, relative abundance,
etc. There are chemical or physical methods
that are used in the quantitative analysis
Chemical Methods - include chemical
reactions (ex: oxidation, reduction,
precipitation, neutralization,
etc.), titration methods, gravimetric
methods, combustion analysis techniques,
etc.
Physical Methods - analyses one or more
physical properties of a sample. Some
examples include AES (Atomic emission
spectroscopy), x-ray fluorescence
spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy, etc.
But most of the times, physical and chemical
analysis techniques are used together with
some calculations to determine the exact
amount of a component in a given sample.
However, there can be many interferences
and experimental errors that cause faulty
final results.
What is Qualitative Analysis in
Chemistry?
Qualitative analysis in chemistry is a branch
of chemistry that analyses the chemical
composition of a sample. It indicates
different elements, or groups of elements
such as functional groups, etc. present in the
sample. Therefore, a qualitative analysis of a
sample can be used to determine whether a
particular component is present in a sample
or not. However, this analysis does not
provide any information about the quantity of
that chemical component. The qualities in
the sample that are often considered in the
analysis are color, odor, melting point,
boiling point, reactivity, precipitation, etc.
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INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

The qualitative analysis is found in two types; Difference Between Qualitative and
organic qualitative analysis and inorganic Quantitative Analysis in Chemistry
qualitative analysis. Among them, the
Qualitative and quantitative analysis in
organic qualitative analysis determines the
chemistry are the major types of analytical
functional groups and chemical bonds in the
techniques (both required) used in chemistry
sample whereas inorganic qualitative
to determine the chemical composition of
analysis, most of the times, determines the
sample qualitatively and quantitatively
ions present in the sample.
The key difference between qualitative and
The chemical techniques used in the
quantitative analysis in chemistry is
qualitative analysis of a sample can
that qualitative analysis in chemistry gives
include the followings;
the presence or absence of different
1. Change in color chemical components in a sample whereas
2. Flame test quantitative analysis in chemistry gives the
3. Distillation amount of different chemical components
4. Extraction present in a given sample.
5. Precipitation
Qualitative Data
6. Chromatography
7. Spectroscopy  Information about qualities; information
that can't actually be measured.
Example of Qualitative Analysis in
 Example: the softness of your skin, the
Chemistry
grace with which you run, and the color
 Flame Test (An Inorganic Qualitative of your eyes.
Analysis Technique)  If we're describing qualities, we're
making a statement about qualitative
data
 Categorical data is usually qualitative

Quantitative Data

 Information about quantities; that is,

information that can be measured and
written down with numbers
 Example: your height, your shoe size,
Ex: Zinc gives a green flame color and the length of your fingernails
 If we're measuring a quantity, we're
 In the flame test, the presence of a
making a statement about quantitative
certain metal or its ions can be
data
determined
 Quantitative data can also be put into
 Different metal atoms give different
categories
colors to the flame

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 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY LECTURE
INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Data you'll need to know
is categorical data. This is data that can be
organized into mutually exclusive
categories.
Summary
 Data is either quantitative (about
quantities or numbers), or qualitative
(about non-measurable qualities).
 Sometimes data can be turned into
categorical data by putting it into
categories.
 Most of our statistics will be done on
quantitative data
Collection of Data
whenever we collect data, there's a collection
of possible values from which we record our
observations
There are two different ways to classify data
based on the possible values we can
observe.
 Data is discrete if there's clear
separation between the different possible
values (there will be a finite number of
possible values)
 Data is continuous if there's no clear
separation between possible values.
 Sets of data involving measurements
that can have fractions or decimals
are generally continuous.
Univariate V. Bivariate Data
Single-variable or univariate data refers to
data where we're only observing one aspect
of something at a time. With single-variable
data, we can put all our observations into a
list of numbers.
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two-variable, or bivariate data, we observe
two aspects. We can put our observations
into a table. The columns-and-rows kind
The Nature of Analytical Chemistry
 Analytical chemistry is a measurement
science consisting of a set of powerful
ideas and methods that are useful in all
fields of science, engineering, and
medicine.
 exciting illustrations of the power and
significance of analytical chemistry have
occurred
What is Analytical Chemistry
 Characterizes matter both qualitatively
and quantitatively
 Uses instruments and methods to
separate, identify and quantify matter
 Applies chemical knowledge
 Does not only involved routine analysis
but tries to improve established analytical
methods
Two Divisions of Analytical Chemistry
1. Qualitative Analysis - establishes the
chemical identity of the species in the
sample
2. Quantitative Analysis
 determines the relative amounts of these
species or analytes in numerical terms
 denotes the amount of each substance in
the sample
Analyte – components of a sample that are
determined in an analysis
Quantitative Analytical Methods
There are two main measurements:
1. mass or the volume of sample being
analyzed
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INTRODUCTION TO ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

2. some quantity proportional to the amount 4 Major Divisions Quantitative Analysis

of analyte such as mass, volume,
intensity of light, or electrical charge.
The Role of Analytical Chemistry
Wide range of application in the fields of all
sciences, industry and medicine.
1. Medicine – analysis of O2 and CO2
concentrations in blood samples to
diagnose and treat illnesses,
concentrations of ionized Ca to
determine parathyroid diseases
2. Industry – concentrations of HCs, NOx
and CO in automo-bile exhaust gases
are determined to evaluate efficiency of
emission control devices
3. Food manufacturing – determination of
N in foods to establish protein content
thus their nutritive value
4. Steel industry – analysis of steel during
production permits adjustment in the
concentrations of elements C, Ni and Cr
to achieve the desired strength,
hardness, corrosion resistance and
ductility.
5. Petroleum industry – S/mercaptan
content of household gas supplies is
monitored continually to ensure that the
gas has sufficient obnoxious odor to warn
of dangerous leaks.
Gravimetric Methods: the mass of the
analyte or some compound chemically
related to it is determined. ex. Analysis of
cement
Volumetric Methods: the volume of a
solution containing sufficient reagent to react
completely with the analyte is measured. ex.
Redox titration, neutralization titration
Electroanalytical Methods: electrical
properties such as potential, current,
Resistance, and quantity of electrical charge
are measured. ex. Potentiometric titration of
chloride and iodide in a mixture
Spectroscopic Methods: the interaction
between electromagnetic radiation and
analyte atoms or molecules or the emission
of radiation by analytes is explored.
Spectrophotometric determination of
cholesterol in blood.
Miscellaneous Methods: measure such
quantities as mass-to-charge ratio of ions by
mass spectrometry, rate of radioactive
decay, heat of reaction, rate of reaction,
sample thermal conductivity, optical activity,
and refractive index.
Typical Quantitative Analysis

6. Agriculture – quanti analysis of plants

and soil are used by farmers to tailor
fertilization and irrigation schedule to
meet the changing plant needs during the
growing season

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Choosing a Method - consider the level of alloy is assayed for its zinc content, and
accuracy required, the complexity of and the its assay is a particular numerical value
number of components in the sample. High  An analysis must be performed on a
reliability requires a large investment of time sample that has the same composition as
and money. the bulk of material from which it was
taken
1. level of accuracy required
 bulk is large and heterogeneous, great
 high reliability nearly always requires
effort is required to get a representative
a large investment of time - there
sample.
must be a compromise
 A material is heterogeneous if its
2. the number of samples that will be
constituent parts can be distinguished
analyzed.
visually or with the aid of a microscope.
 many samples, afford to spend a
Coal, animal tissue, and soil are
significant amount of time in
heterogeneous.
preliminary operations such as
assembling and calibrating
instruments and equipment and
preparing standard solutions.
 only a single sample or a just a few
samples, it may be more appropriate
to select a procedure that avoids or
minimizes the preliminary steps.
3. Finally, the complexity of the sample and
the number of components in the sample
always influence the choice of method to
some degree.

Acquiring the Sample - sample is the
representative of the whole bulk. Its
composition should reflect the composition of
the whole block.
 Sampling is the process of collecting a
small mass of a material whose
composition accurately represents the
bulk of the material being sampled. It is
the most difficult step and the source of
greatest error and requires effort, if the
bulk material is heterogeneous.
 An assay is the process of determining
how much of a given sample is the
material by its indicated name. Ex., a zinc
Processing the Sample - the first step in
processing the sample is often the
preparation of a laboratory sample
 Preparing a Laboratory Sample
 A solid sample is ground, mixed, and
stored. Samples must be dried before
analysis because any loss or gain of
water changes the chemical
composition of solids.
 If liquid samples are allowed to stand
in open containers, the solvent may
evaporate and change the
concentration of the analyte.
 If the analyte is a gas dissolved in a
liquid, the sample container must be

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kept inside a second sealed Eliminating Interferences - species other

container to prevent contamination
by atmospheric gases.
 Defining Replicate Samples
 Replicate samples are portions of a
material of approximately the same
size that are carried through an
analytical procedure at the same time
and in the same way.
 Replication improves the quality of
the results and provides a measure of
their reliability.
 Quantitative measurements on
replicates are usually averaged and
statistical tests are performed to
ensure reliability.
Preparing Solutions: Physical and
Chemical Changes
Most analyses are performed on solutions of
the sample made with a suitable solvent.
Converting the analyte in such materials into
a soluble form is often the most difficult and
time-consuming task in the analytical
process.
1. The solvent should rapidly and
completely dissolve the entire sample
under sufficiently mild conditions.
2. The sample may require heating with
aqueous solutions of strong acids, strong
bases, oxidizing agents, reducing
agents, or some combination of such
reagents.
3. Once the analyte is made soluble, the
sample must have a property that is
proportional to analyte concentration and
that can be measured.
4. Techniques or reactions that work for
only one analyte are said to be specific.
Techniques or reactions that apply to
only a few analytes are selective.
than the analyte that affect the final
measurement by enhancing or attenuating
(making smaller) the quantity being
measured are called interferences, or
interferents. Interferences in the sample
must be eliminated before making
measurements.
Calibrating and Measuring Concentration
- ideally, the measurement X of a physical or
chemical property is directly proportional to
the concentration cA of the analyte.
K is a proportionality constant.
Calibration is the process of determining the
proportionality k between analyte
concentration and a measured quantity
Calculating Results - computing analyte
concentrations from experimental data is
usually easy and is based on the raw
experimental data collected in the
measurement step, the characteristics of the
measurement instruments, and the
stoichiometry of the analytical reaction.
Evaluating Results by Estimating
Reliability an analytical result without an
estimate of reliability is of no value.
An Integral Role for Chemical Analysis
Feedback Control Systems
The process of continuous measurement
and control is often referred to as a feedback
system, and the cycle of measurement,
comparison, and control is called a feedback
loop.

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In a Feedback System:

 The desired system state is defined, the

actual state of the system is measured,
and the two states are compared.
 The difference between the two states is
used to change a controllable quantity
that results in a change in the state of the
system.
 Quantitative measurements are again
performed on the system, and the
comparison is repeated.
 The new difference between the desired
state and the actual state is again used
to change the state of the system if
necessary.
 The process provides continuous
monitoring and feedback to maintain the
controllable quantity, and thus the actual
state, at the proper level