MODULE 1

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

INTRODUCTION
Philippine History viewed from the lens of selected primary sources in different periods
analysis, and interpretations. The course aims to expose students to different facets of Philippine
History through the lens of eyewitnesses. The focus of the course is to develop historiographical
skills connected to context and content analysis, applying both analytical strategies in themes and
topics across the Philippine past. Primary sources will be the ultimate bridge between the past
and the present, allowing spaces for students to simply not parrot facts about the past but to gain
knowledge that can be used in proposing solutions to the problem of today.

0BJECTIVES
Upon completion of this module you will be able:
1. To understand the meaning of History as an academic discipline and to be familiar with
the underlying philosophy and methodology of the discipline.
2. It strengthens our sense of nationalism.
3. Evaluate primary sources for their credibility, authenticity, and provenance
4. To examine and assess critically the value of historical evidences and sources.

CHAPTER I- HISTORY AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1.Defining History
It seems that a definition of history should include all things that have ever happened.
That definition would include all physical events and occurrences. It would also seem that the
definition of history would be synonymous with a definition of the past- the sum total of all
things that have ever happened. But Williams (4) points out that the past is not history. Things
may have happened in the past were not observed or recorded. History is, therefore, only a subset
of the past. As a discipline, history is a study of the past, but it will only reveal a portion of the
past , and should be done so as objectively as possible.

There have been many different approaches to the study of history. Idealism is the belief
that history can be described in terms of ideas- what people thought and the intent behind their
actions. The idealists of the mind- to late- 1800s cared not only about events, but on what those
events meant. Attaching meaning is not easy, and entails problems associated with
interpretations are biased or incomplete. The problem with this viewpoint is that we can’t always
know what was intended. Idealism can be limiting in accurately portraying events as they really
happened.

Historicism is another approach by which to described history. It premise is that “the

autonomy of the past must be respected” (Tosh 6). Each age has its own values, and events
should be described within the context of those values. One of the problems with historicism is
that its approach is tantamount to legitimation of events by respecting the values of the time.
That approach inhibits our ability to fully learn from mistakes of the past. Williams (24) stated
that that some of [it] has nurtured totalitarianism. When meaning takes on a life of its own and
affects viewpoints that lead to ideologies that lead to atrocious actions, then you what humanity
experienced with Nazi Germany.

Relativism is the belief that there is no absolute truth and that all views of history are valid.
The metaphor of a cut diamond with many facets, each of which represents a unique view of the
whole, is what relativism is like: each individual sees the world individually, and each view is
valid. Relativism shows its inherent weakness when a viewpoint attempts to deny history,
especially in the face of overwhelming proof. A view that the Holocaust never happened is not a
view that should be accepted as relevant, should that view be worthy and respect.

Despite the approach taken, historians have many issues to deal with. One issue that
historians must face is that of social memory. Tosh describes social memory as being “based on
consensus” (4). But beliefs based on consensus can lead to error. Just because a majority believes
in something doesn’t make it valid. Perhaps the greatest problem for historians is in the accurate
reporting of history. This includes problem with perception and interpretation. One action or
event may be interpreted differently by different groups, and by different individuals within a
group.

Primary sources should be used whenever available. A primary source is an original item
such as an image, document, map, artifact or recording that provides evidence about the past. A
secondary source is a means through which a primary source is presented. For example, an
article describing an original document is a secondary source as it is written to present or include
information about the primary source. Sometimes, an item can be either a primary source or
secondary source, depending on how it is used.

Some sources are better than others. Genetic testing, when applicable, is an excellent
method of obtaining proof of identity. It was the method used to prove that Thomas Jefferson
and his slave Sally Hemings had children together. The internet, in contrast, is not reliable as a
source. Anyone can post almost anything on the internet, and with no system in place for peer
review, it is prone to error.

Thomas Hobbes wrote in 1651, “the register of knowledge of fact is called history”
(Williams 11). Hobbes sentence can be broken down into revealing component parts. The
“register” refer to the need of history to be recorded in some lasting medium (e.g., print, film,
audio). The “knowledge of “phrase of Hobbes statement refers to the importance of us needing to
know about something. If we don’t know about it, then it won’t get reported or recorded. The
term “fact” is important in that we need truth, not suppositions.

Another issue facing historians is understanding the causation. Complex events may have
multiple causes. To understand causation, it is important to understand the difference between
what is necessary and what is sufficient. When certain necessary factors are in place, additional
factors are sufficient to cause the event to occur. Consider the following example regarding the
invasion of Iraq by the United State in 2002. It was necessary for Iraq, under Saddam Hussein’s
megalomaniacal dictatorship, to have had weapons of mass destruction in the past that were
actually used on thousands of Iraqi citizens. It was sufficient for the USA to believe that he still
had those weapons for the invasion to have been deemed necessary.

Another important issue that historians must consider is in how they present history to us.
A sound and cogent argument must be presented. Speculations must be kept to a minimum.
Historians should not manipulate evidence for revisionist purposes. Not having enough evidence
does not mean it is okay to fill in the gaps of time. Conjecture and opinion should be left to
journalists and editorialists, not historians.

The important contribution of the positivists of the nineteenth century was that they valued
the critical examination of evidence, and they sought to classify and organize as a scientist
would. They thought that history could be as rigid a discipline as the various scientific fields.
Cliometrics is quantitatively expressing history through statistics and mathematics. A cliometrics
approach is very useful to the historians. For example, it is of interest to the historians to know
how many people died during a certain battle of the Civil War. Also, it is useful to know how
many were wounded. If, for example, a smaller percentage of Union soldiers were killed in a
subsequent battle, then it might help historians learn how the Union field commanders might
have modified their tactics to minimize casualties.

Historians must ask many questions during their research. Asking what, who, where,
when, how and why help ferret out the facts. Consider the following hypothetical example of
basic questions associated with a car bomb explosion: what? A bomb exploded in a car. Where?
It happened in the parking lot next to an open market in Baghdad. Who? An Iraqi father and two
of his children inside the car were killed. When? The bomb exploded on October 15, 2005, at
approximately 3:35 p.m. how? The bomb was set off by use of a timer device.

Presentation is an important consideration for historians. A list of facts in a book, for

example, might be accurate and scientifically relevant, but would be boring to read. Historians
thereby connect sequences of events with descriptive sentences in the form of a narrative. A
narrative should be written so that the context of each event is clearly understood. Revision and
alteration of a subject overtime should only be done to improve accuracy as new evidence is
acquired.

Besides print media, film is another method of presenting history. From the standpoint of
reaching and informing a large number of people, film may be a very good medium. Far more
individuals will watch a one- hour documentary on the causes of the Civil War than will read a
book on the same subjects. From the standpoint of the accuracy and completeness, however, film
is limiting. Decisions must be made regarding which of the many events over the Civil War’s
four years are included in a film that will last only a couple of hours. It has to be visually
interesting to viewers. A documentary is decidedly superior over drama in terms of historical
accuracy. Since the Civil War was not filmed, photos, maps and other artifacts must suffice for
visual images.

Historian Hayden White stated that only valid reasons for choosing one interpretation of
history “over another are moral or aesthetic ones” (Williams 29). Slavery was accepted in its
time. But we have the ability to use today’s moral filter through which to see the past. With
honest depictions based on the higher sense of morality that we now have, we can make more
honest assessments of events of the past. Similarly, aesthetic preferences might mean that one
producer’s version of a documentary is chosen over another one on the same topic to air on
television due to its superior production quality and visual appeal.

Sigfried Kracauer wrote that a historian “is both passive and active, a recorder and a
creator” (Williams 41). The historian researches, studies and collects data, and records it. But the
manner in which it is recorded and subsequently presented to the public is where the essence of
creation comes in. The historian discovers information, and then constructs the method or
medium through which to present it. Issues and events of the past come together in the present in
the mind of the historian to form the discipline of history. The present is needed to acquire
information, verify sources, piece the narrative together chronologically, and present it in such a
way that the past is accurately depicted and comes alive as history. (Underworld, 2008)
 a. Some Comments about History

“The most effective way to destroy people is to deny and obliterate their own
understanding of their history.”- George Orwell

“Study the past if you would define the future.”- Confucius

“If we are to make progress, we must not repeat history but make new history. We must
add inheritance left by our ancestors.”- Mahatma Gandhi

“History of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.”- Karl Marx

b. Why Study History?

“He who controls the past controls the future. He who controls the present controls
the past.”- George Orwell, 1984

History- both knowledge of the past and the practice of researching and
making sense of what happened in the past- is crucially important to the welfare of
individuals, communities, and the future of our nation. According to
processhistory.org, the study of history is essential for the following reasons:

To Ourselves
Identity-“history nurtures personal identity in an intellectual world. History enables
people to discover their own place in the stories of their families , communities and nation.
Critical Skills” History teaches critical 21 st century skills and independent thinking. The
practice of History teaches research , judgement of the accuracy and reliability of sources,
validation of facts , awareness of multiple perspectives and biases, analysis of conflicting,
evidence, sequencing to discern causes , synthesis to present a coherent interpretation, clear
persuasive written and oral communication , and other skills.

To our Communities
Vital places to live and work – “ History lays the groundwork for strong, resilient,
community until it is wrapped in human memory: family stories, tribal traditions, civic
commemorations”
Economic Development- “ History is a catalyst for economic growth. People are drawn
communities that have preserved a strong sense of historical identity and character.
To our Future
Engage Citizens – “History helps people craft better solutions. At the heart of democracy
is the practice of individuals coming together to express views and take action.”
Legacy – “ History saved and preserved, is the foundation for future generations . History
is crucial to preserving democracy for the future by explaining our shared past”

History Differentiated
1. History vs. Past
The past is not the same as history . The past involves everything that ever
happened that tell in the tree, and every chemical change in this universe and others.

History, by contrast , is a person of interpreting evidence or records from the past

in a thoughtful and informed way .History is the narrative that gives meaning, sense and
explanation to the past in the present.

2. History vs. Prehistory

History and prehistory show differences between them in their nature and
substance. The main difference between history and prehistory is the existence of records.
History is the record of significant events that happened in the past whereas prehistory is
the period of human activity prior to the invention of writing systems.

3. History vs. Other Disciplines

No discipline is an island . In the past hundred years or so, the ways that we study,
write, and teach history have changed dramatically, often because of influence from other
discipline. Where does history stand today in it’s relationship with its close relatives in
the social science of humanities? Do other disciplines use historical methodology? Does
this alone make them historians .

4. History, Historicity, and Historiography

In nutshell history is a narrative account used to examine analyze past events.

Historicity is the authentication of characters in history, as opposed to legend or

myth.
 Historiography is the writing of history, and the understanding of how the
interpretations of historians change over time. But is the difference among, history,
historicity, and historiography?. Are they compatible enterprises? And if compatible how
dependent are they among each other.?

5. History vs. Herstory

The word “ history “ ( from Greek historia meaning inquiry , knowledge , acquired
by investigation “ ) is etymologically unrelated to the possessive pronoun his.
Traditionally, history has been defined as “ the study of the past

Herstory, by contrast, is history written from a feminist perspective, emphasizing

the role of women , or told form a woman’s point of view. It is a neologism coined as
pun with the word “ history”, as part of a feminist critique of conventional
historiography, which in their opinion is traditionally written as “ his story, “ i.e. from the
masculine point of view. What about women ? Should an event in the past was written
down be called
“ herstory. “

Defining Historical Research

Historical Research comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians
use primary sources and other evidence, including the evidence of archaeology , to
research and then to write histories in the form of account of past
The historical approach is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting
events and/or conditions that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to established facts
in order to arrive at conclusions concerning past events or predict future events.

Examples of Historical Research

1. From Chalkboard to Whiteboard: A Historical Study of Teaching Instruction
2. A study of the effects of the historical decisions of the Philippine Supreme Court on
Philippine prisons.
3. A study of the evolution of print journalism in the Philippines through a study of
collections of newspapers.

a. The Purposes of Historical Research

The main purpose of Historical Research is to describe and examine events of the past
to understand the present and anticipate and anticipate potential future effects.
The purpose of historical research is to reach insights or conclusions about past
persons or occurrences. Historical Research entails more than simply compiling and
presenting factual information ; it also requires interpretation of the information.
 Educational researchers conduct historical studies for a variety of reasons, but perhaps
the most frequently cited to help people learn from past failures and successes .
When well designed and carefully executed, historical research can lead to the
confirmation or rejection of relational hypotheses
Typically, histories focus on particular individuals, social, issues, and links between
the old and the new. Some historical researchers are aimed at interpreting prior historical
works by revising existing understandings and replacing them with new, often politically
charged ones.
Histories are powerful because they both create and reinforce collective identities.
Without a history it is difficult to know who one is from or where one is headed. It is
difficult to belong or have direction History is like a collective memory, which historian
produce about the past. Having a history is important because what happened in the past
profoundly affects all aspects of our lives and will affect what happens in the future.

b. Characteristics of Historical Research

1. The unique characteristic or historical research is that if focuses exclusively on the pst
2. Historical research is not a mere accumulation of facts and data or even portrayal or past
events. It is flowing, vibrant report of past events which involves an analysis and
explanation of these occurrences with the objective or recapturing the nuances.
personalities and ideas that influenced these events.
3. Conducting Historical research involves the process of collecting and reading the
research material, collected and writing the manuscript from the data collected.
4. It deals with discovery of data that already exist and does not involve creation of data
using instructional tools.
5. It is analytical in that uses logical induction.
6. It has a variety of foci such as issues, events, movements, and concepts.
7. It records and evaluates the accomplishments of individuals, agencies or institutions.

c. Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research

Advantages
1. The main advantage of historical research is that is permits the investigation of topics
that could be studied in no other way. It is the only research method that can study
evidence from the past.
2. The historical method is well suited for trend analysis.
3. The research is not physically involved in the situation under study.
4. No danger of experiments – subject interaction.
5. Documents are located by the researcher, data is gathered, and conclusions are drawn
out of sight.
Disadvantages
 1. A disadvantage is that controlling for many of the threats to internal validity is not
possible in historical research . Many of the threats to internal validity is not possible in
historical research.
2. The researcher cannot control for threats to internal validity.
3. Limitations are imposed due to the content analysis
4. Researchers cannot ensure representation of the sample
5. There is bias interpreting historical sources.
6. Interpreting sources is very time consuming
7. Availability of sources of historical materials
8. There is lack of control over external variables.

LET US APPLY WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED

List the four categories of sources that historical researchers use and give example

HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED?

Quiz # 1
Directions: Match each of the following terms with the correct definition.
A. Historiography G. artifacts
B. Historicity H. chronology
C. Relativism I. data
D. historical research J. evidence
E. historicism K. idealism
F. history L. oral history
M. prehistory
N. herstory
O. oral history
_______1. A person who studies the events of the past.
_______2. A type of qualitative research which involves examining past events to draw
conclusions and make predictions about the future.
_______3. An object made by humans, especially one of historical events.
_______4. Any view that stresses the central role of the ideal or the spiritual in the interpretation
of experience.
_______ 5. Events that occurred before the existence of written records in a given culture or
society.
_______6. History considered or presented from a feminist viewpoint or with special attention to
the experience of women.
_______7. Information about the past gathered from interviews with people.
_______8. Information in raw or unorganized form (such as alphabets, numbers, or symbols) that
refer to, or represent , conditions, ideas, or objects.
_______9. Something that proves a belief ; something that indicates what happened
_______10. The act of producing a work that attempts to depict an accurate representations of
the real past.
_______11. The belief that history was determined by laws, and the belief that understanding
people and cultures requires an understanding of their historical events.
_______12. The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society,
or historical context and are not absolute
_______13. The order in which things happen, the arrangement of event in time order.
_______14. The study of the methods of historians in developing history as an academic
discipline, and by extension is any body of historical work on a particular subject.
_______15. Is the study of what happened in the past, a record of past events.

CHAPTER II – SOURCES OF HISTORY

Most historical source materials can be grouped into four: documents, numerical records,
oral statements, and relics.
1. Documents are written or printed materials that have been produced in one form or
another sometime in the past.
2. Numerical records include any type of numerical data in printed or handwriting form
3. Oral statements include any form of statements made orally by someone.
4. Relics are any objects whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some
information about the past.
The main emphasis in historical research is an interpretation of documents, diaries and
the like. Historical data are categorized into primary and secondary sources.

A primary source is one prepared by an individual who was a participant in, or a direct
witness to, the event that is being described.
Primary sources include first hand information , such as eye witness repost and original
documents.
A secondary source is a document prepared by an individual who was not a direct
witness to an event, but who obtained his or her description of the event from someone
else.

Secondary sources include second hand information such as, a description of an event or
theory.

Primary sources may be harder to find out but are generally more accurate and preferred
by historical researchers . A major problem with much historical researchers. A major
problem with much historical research is excessive reliance on secondary sources.
⁷
1. Distinction of Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources
Historians encounters a large variety of sources during the course of their studies.
Sources can be labeled primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on their distance
from the information they share.

1. Primary Sources
Primary sources give first hand, original and unfiltered information. Example
are eye witness accounts , personal journals, interviews, surveys, experiments,
historical documents, and artifacts. These sources have close, direct
connection to their subjects.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Primary Sources

Primary sources directly address your topic and often provide information that
is unavailable else where. For examples the question you compose for an
interview or a survey will likely target your unique internet in the topic.
Similarly, to test a particular hypothesis you can design your own experiment.
On the other hand , some primary sources , such as, eye witness accounts ,
may be too close to the subject , lacking a critical distance . Others , such as,
interviews, surveys, and experiments are time consuming to prepare , adminis
koter and analyze.

2. Secondary Sources
Secondary sources are one step removed from the topic. While they can be
just as valuable as primary sources , you must remember that secondary
information is filtered through someone else’s perspective and may be biased.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Sources

Secondary sources provide a variety of expert perspective and insights , also
peer review usually ensures the quality of sources such as, scholarly articles.
Finally, researching secondary sources is more efficient than planning ,
conducting, and analyzing certain primary sources.
 In contrast, because secondary sources are not necessarily focused on your
specific topic, you may have to dig to find applicable information.
Information may be colored by the writers own bias or faculty approach.

3. Tertiary Sources
Tertiary sources provide third-hand information by reporting ideas and details
from secondary sources. This does not mean that tertiary sources have no
value, merely that they include the potential for an additional layer of bias.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Tertiary Sources

Tertiary sources offer a quick , easy introduction to your topic . They may
point to high quality primary and secondary sources
Conversely, because of their distance tertiary sources may over simplify or
otherwise distort a topic. By rehashing secondary sources, they miss new
insights into a topic.

Differences between Primary Sources vs, Secondary Sources

Sources of information are often categorized as primary or secondary
depending upon their originality. What are the differences between primary
sources and secondary sources? Let’s look at some dissimilarities:

Primary Sources

● Created at the time of an event, or very soon after

● Created by someone who saw or heard an event themselves

● Often one of a kind or rare

● Letters, diaries, photos and newspapers ( can all be primary sources )

Secondary Sources

● Created after event, sometimes a long time after something happened

● Often uses primary sources as examples

● Expresses an opinion or an argument about a past event

● History, textbooks, historical movies and biographies (can be secondary sources)

 a. Types of Primary Sources
People use original , first- hand accounts as building blocks to create stories
from the past. These accounts are called primary sources, because they are the
first evidence something happening or being thought or said. Some examples of
primary source formats include:

1. Autobiographies and memoirs

An autobiographies is an account of a person’s life written by that person.
Autobiographical works can take many forms, from the intimate writings made
during life that were not necessarily intended for publications ( including letters,
diaries, journals, memoirs and reminiscences ) to a formal book- length
autobiography .

An example of an autobiography is “ Mga Tala ng aking Buhay” written by

Gregoria de Jesus about herself, her husband Andres Bonifacio, the Katipunan and
the Philippine Revolution

The translation was done by Leandro H. Fernandez, a University of the

Philippine History Professor , and published in the June 1930 issue of the Philippine
Magazine volume XXVII No. 1 The original copy of the document was furnished to
Hernandez by Jose P. Santos.

A memoir is a history of record composed from personal observation and

experience. Closely related to ,and often confused with autobiography, a memoir
usually differs chiefly in the degree of emphasis placed on external events ; where
as writers of autobiography are concerned primarily with themselves as subject
matter, writers of memoir are usually persons who have played roles in, or have
been close observers of historical events and whose main purpose is to describe or
interpret the events.

An example of memoir is ” La Revolucion Filipina”a compact analysis and

commentary on the Philippine Revolucion by Apolinario Mabini .

2. Diaries, Personal Letters, and Correspondence

A diary is a form of autobiographical writing, is a regularly kept record of the
diarist’s activities and reflections. Written primarily for the writer’s use alone ,the
diary has a frankness that is unlike writing done for publication.
 Personal Letter
A personal letter is a type of letter ( for informal composition ) that usually
concerns personal matters ( rather than professionals concerns) and it is sent from one individual
to another.
An example of a personal letter is that of Marcelo H. del Pilar to his niece, Josefa
Gatmaitan. It was translated by Spanish into English by del Pilar’s granddaughter, Atty. Benita
Marasigan vda. De Santos.

Correspondence
A correspondence is a body of letters or communications. If you’ve ever have a pen
pal or an email buddy, you’ve written plenty of correspondence. (Vocabulary, n.d)
Some examples of correspondence are those buddy of letters between Jose Rizal and
Ferdinand Blumentritt..

3. Interviews, Surveys, and Fieldwork

An interview is a conversation where questions are asked and answers are given. In
common parlance, the word “interview” refer to a one on one conversation with one
person acting on the role of the interviewer and the other in the role of the
interviewee. The interviewer asked questions, the interviewee responds, with
participants taken turns talking. Interviews usually involves a transfer of information
from interviewee to interviewer, which is usually the primary purpose of the
interview, although information transfer can happen in both directions
simultaneously. (Wikipedia, 2018).

An example is the interview between Walter Dempster, Jr. and Ronald D. Klein.
Walter Dempster, Jr. is the last person alive who can bear witness to the Japanese
rape atrocities against comfort gay. The interview took place on August 10, 2002.

Surveys

A survey is a list of questions aimed at extracting specific data from a particular

group of people. Surveys may be conducted by phone, mail, via the internet, and
sometimes face-to-face on busy street corners or in malls. Surveys research is often
used to asses thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Surveys can be specific and limited, or
they can have more global, widespread goals. (Wikipedia, 2018).
 Field research or Fieldwork

A field research or fieldwork is the collection of information outside a laboratory,

library of workplace setting. Field research involves a range of well-defined ,
although variable, methods: informal interviews, direct observation, participation in
the life of the group, collective discussions, analyzes of personal documents produced
within the group, self-analysis, results from activities undertaken off- or on-line, and
life history. (Wikipedia, 2018).

4. Photographs and Posters

Photographs and posters are often considered as primary sources, because
photographs and posters can illustrate past events as they happened and people as
they were a particular time.

Examples are those images captured by various photographs during the 1986 EDSA.

5. Works of art and literature

In fine art, a work of art, an art work, or a work is a creation, such as a song, book,
print, sculpture or a painting, that has been made in order to be a thing of beauty in
itself or a symbolic statement of meaning, rather than having a practical functions. Art
can take the form of:

Paintings: a form of visual art where paint or ink is used on a canvas or, more often
in the past, wooden panels or plaster walls, to depict an artist’s rendering of a scene or
even of an abstract, non-representational image.

Drawings: a form of visual art in which a person uses various drawing instruments to
mark paper or another two-dimensional medium. Instruments include graphite
pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colored pencils, crayons, charcoals, chalk,
pastel, various kind of eraser, markers, styluses, various metals (such as silverpoint)
and electronic drawing.

Literature: a body of written works. The name has traditionally been applied to those
imaginative works of poetry and prose distinguished by the intentions of their authors
and the perceived aesthetic excellence of their execution. Literature may be classified
according to a variety of systems, including language, national origin, historical
period, genre and subject matter.
 6. Speeches and oral history

A speech is a form of communication in spoken language, made by a speaker before

an audience for a given purpose. (Dictionary, n. d.)

An example is Rizal’s brindis or toast speech delivered at a banquet in the restaurant

Ingles, Madrid, on the evening of June 25,1884 in honor of Juan Luna, winner of the
gold medal of his painting. “El Spoliarium,” and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, winner
of a silver, for his painting “Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho” at a
Exposicion Nacional de Bellas Artes de Madrid.

Other types of primary sources include books, magazine and newspaper articles and
ads published at the time of the event of artifacts of all kinds, such as tools, coins,
clothing, furniture, etc.

b. Types of Secondary Sources

Secondary sources were created by someone who did not experience first-hand
or participate in the events or the conditions you’re researching. Some types of
secondary sources include : bibliographies, nonfiction texts such as
biographical works, periodicals, newspapers, magazines, journals, history
books, works of criticism and interpretation, commentaries and treatises,
textbooks, video documentaries, and multimedia reports.
Bibliographies
An annotated bibliography is an organized list of sources, each of which is followed by a brief
note or “annotation “. This annotations do one or more of the following: describe the content and
focus of the book or article, suggest the sources usefulness to your research, evaluate its method,
conclusions, or reliability, and record your reactions to the source. (University of Wisconsin
System, 2018)

An example is Dr. Jose Rizal’s annotations to Antonio de Morga’s Succesos

de las Islas Filipinas.

1. Biographical works

A biography is a description of a real person’s life, including factual detail

as well as stories from the person’s life. The word biography comes from
the Greek word bios, meaning “life” and- graphia, meaning “writing”.
 Biographies usually include information about the subject’s personality and
motivations, and other kinds of intimate details excluded in a general
overview or profile of a person’s life. (Literary Devices, 2016)

An example of a biography is that of Andres Bonifacio, the “Father of the

Philippine Revolution” and the President of the Tagalog Republic

Periodicals are newspapers, magazines, and scholarly journals- all of which

are published “periodically”. Some periodicals are in print, some are
electronic, and some use both formats (often with added information or a
multimedia element in the electronic version.

A. Newspapers

A newspaper is a periodical publication containing written information

about current events. Newspapers can cover wide variety of fields such
as politics, business, sports and art and often include materials such as
opinion columns, 7weather forecasts, review of local services,
obituaries, birth notices, crosswords, editorial cartoons, comic strips, and
advice columns. (Wikipedia, 2018)

B. Magazine and Journal

Unlike daily newspaper, magazines and journals may be published
weekly, monthly, quarterly, annually, or at some other interval. Print editions use better paper
and more color than newspapers do. The main difference between magazines and journals is
their audience. Journals are written by scholars for scholars; magazines are produced by
professional writers and editors for a general readership.

An example of a journal is “Natural La Revolucion Filipina and

Isabelo de los Reyes’ La Sensacional memoria” by Ramon Guillermo.

2. Literature reviews and review articles (e.g., movie reviews, book

reviews)

A literature review is an evaluative report of information found in the

literature related to your selected area of study. The review should describe,
summarize, evaluate and clarify this literature. It should give a theoretical
base for the research and help you (the author) determine the nature of your
research. (Central Queensland University, 2018)
 A review article summarizes the current state of understanding on a topic. A
review article surveys and summarizes previously published studies, rather
than reporting new facts or analysis. Review articles are also called survey
articles. Academic publications that specialize in review articles are known
as review journals. (Wikipedia, 2018)

Film Review
The film review is a popular way for critics to asses film’s over all quality
and determine whether or not they think the film is worth recommending.
Film reviews differ from scholarly film articles in that they encompass
personal and idiosyncratic reactions to an evaluations of a film, as well as
objective analyzes of the film’s formal techniques and thematic content.

Book Review
A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is analyzed
based on content, style, and merit. A book review maybe a primary source,
opinion, piece, summary, review or scholarly review .Book can be reviewed
for printed periodicals, magazines and newspapers, as school work, or for
book websites on the internet. A book reviews length may vary from a
single paragraph to a substantial essay. Such a review may evaluate a book
on the basis of personal taste. Reviewers may use the occasion of a book
review for an extended essay that can be closely or loosely related to the
subject of the book, or no promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a
fiction or non-fiction work.
Other types of secondary sources include history books and other
popular or scholarly books, works or criticism and interpretation, comments
and treatises, textbooks, video documentaries and multi media reports.

c. Types of Tertiary Sources

1. General references such as dictionaries, encyclopedias. almanacs, and

atlases
2. Crowd sourcesiWikipedia, You Tube, message boards, and social
media sites like Twitter and Facebook
3. Search sites

d. Repositories of Primary Sources

There is no single repository of primary sources. Primary sources are
usually located in archives, libraries, museums, historical societies and special
collections.
A library is a collection of sources of information and similar sources,
made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides
 physical or digital access to material , and may be a physical building or rooms
or a virtual space, or both . A library’s collection can include books, periodicals,
newspapers , manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform CD’s,
cassettes, video tapes , DVD’s , Blu-ray Disc’s, e- books, audio books ,
audiobooks, databases, and other formats. Libraries range in size from a few
shelves of books to several million items.

An archive is an accumulation of historical records or the physical place

they are located. Archives contain primary source documents that have over the
course of an individual or organization’s lifetime and are kept to show the
function of that person or organization . Professional archivists and historians
generally understand archives to be records that have been naturally and
necessarily generated as a product of regular legal, commercial, administrative,
or social activities. They have been metaphorically defined as the “secretions of
the organism “ and are distinguished from documents that have been
consciously written or created to communicate a particular message to posterity.

A museum is an institution that cares for ( conserve ) a collection of

artifacts and other objects of artistic , cultural, historical, or scientific
importance. Many public museums make these items available for public
viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary.

A historical society ( sometimes also preservation society ) is an

organization dedicated to preserving, collecting, researching, and interpreting
historical information or items. Originally these were created as way to help
future generations understand their heritage.

In library science, special collections (Spec. Coll. Or S. C. are libraries or

library units that house materials requiring specialized security and user
services. Materials housed in special collections can be in any format
( including rare books , manuscripts , photographs, archives , ephemera, and
digital records), and are characterized by their artifactual or monetary value,
physical format, uniqueness or rarity , and / or an institutional commitment yo
long -term preservation and access . They can also include association with
important figures of institutions in history, culture, politics, sciences or the arts.

e. Document Collection
Document collection is used in Historical Re3search and in other
research designs in combination with other ways of data collection. Here are
some documents that can be used by the researcher as a source of data.

1. Found Documents: Produced by Organizations

 Formal records: personnel, sales, records, shareholder reportsminutes
of the meeting

● Informal communications notes, memos, e-mail

● Public records: electoral registers, registers of birth,

marriages and deaths.

2. Found Documents: Produced by Individuals

● Personal papers , logs, letters, phone, texts, e-mails

● Documents from everyday lives: shopping list, bus and train

tickets.

3. Found Documents : Publications

● Academic literature

● Popular literature

● Guides manuals

4. Found Documents : Secondary data

● Research data and field notes from previous studies

● Publicly funded surveys

● Internal organizational research

5. Found Documents :Multimedia

● Photos , videos, comic trips, signposts, models

● Sound and music

● Electronic sources- screen shots , websites, online

communities archives

6. Researcher Generated Documents

● Field notes

● cr
 ● Diagrams

● Story boards

● Use case scenarios

3. External and Internal Criticism

“ If you don’t know history, then you don’t know anything. You are a leaf that
doesn’t know it is part of a tree” – Michael Crichton
Researchers cannot accept historical data at face value , since many diaries ,
memoirs, reposts, and testimonies are written to enhance the writer’s position , stature, or
importance .
Because of this possibility , historical data has to be examined for it’s
authenticity and truthfulness . Such examination is done through criticism by asking and
researching to help determine truthfulness, bias, omissions, and consistency in data.
There are two kinds of criticism : External Criticism and Internal Criticism
External criticism refers to genuineness of the documents researcher uses in a
historical study.
It asks if the evidence under consideration is authentic. The researchers check
the genuineness or validity of the source . Is it what it appears or claims to be ? Is it admissible (
Internal criticism refers to the accuracy of the contents of a document. Whereas
external criticism has to do with the authenticity of a document, internal criticism has to do with
what the document says. ( Fraenkel and Wallen, n.d. )
After the source is authenticated, it tasks if the source is accurate , was the writer
or creator competent, honest, and unbiased? How long after the event happened until it was
reported ? Does the witness agree with other witnesses?

a. External Criticism
External criticism refers to the genuineness of the documents a researchers uses
in a historical study.
Key (1997) enumerates a series of questions to establish the genuineness of a
document or relic.
1. Does the language and writing style conform to the period in question and is it
typical of other work done by the author?
 2. Is there evidence that the author exhibit ignorance of things or events that man
of his training and time should have known?
3. Did he report about things, events, or places that could not have been during
that period?
4. Has the original manuscript been altered either intentionally or unintentionally
by copying?
5. Is the document an original draft or a copy
6. If manuscript is undated or the author unknown , are there are clues internally
as to the origin?

b. Internal Criticism

Internal criticism refers to the accuracy of the contents of a document. Whereas

external criticism has to do with the authenticity of a document, internal criticism has to
do with what the document says
After the source is authenticated , it asks if the source is accurate, was the writer
or creator competent, honest and unbiased? How long after the event happened until it
was reported? Does the witness agree with other witnesses?

c. General Principles for Determining Reliability

Olden Jorgensen (1998) and Thuren (1997) two Scandinavian historians have
formulated the following general principles in determining reliability.
1. Human sources may be relics such as a fingerprint, or narratives such as a,
statement or a letter. Relics are more credible sources than narratives.
2. Any given source may be forged or corrupted. Strong indications of the
originality of the source increase it’s reliability.
3. The closer source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can
trust it to give an accurate historical description of what actually happened.
4. An eyewitness is more reliable than testimony at second hand , which is more
reliable than hear say at further remove and so on.
5. If a number of independent sources contain the same message , the credibility of
the message is strongly increased.
6. The tendency of a source is it’s motivation for providing some kind of bias.
Tendencies should be minimized or supplemented with opposite motivations.
7. If it can be demonstrated that the witness or source has no direct interest in
creating bias then the credibility of the message is increased.

d. Contradictory Sources
 1. What if your sources are contradicting each other? What do you do?
The seven – step procedure for source criticism in history by Bernheim(1889)
and Langlois and Seignobos (1898) might help.
2. However, majority does not rule even if most sources relate events in one way,
that version will not prevail unless it passes the test of critical textual analysis.
3. The source whose account can be confirmed by reference to outside authorities
in some of its parts can be trusted in its entirety if it is impossible similarly to
confirm the entire text.
4. When two sources disagree on a particular point, the historian will prefer the
source with most “ authority” – that is the source created by the expert or by the
eyewitness.
5. Eyewitnesses are, in general, to be preferred especially in circumstances where
the ordinary observer could have accurately reported what transpired and , more
specifically , when they deal with facts known by most contemporaries.
6. If two independently created sources agree on a matter the reliability of each is
measurably enhanced.
7. When two sources disagree and there is no other means of evaluation, then
historians take the source which seems to accord best with common sense.

e. Eyewitness Evidence
R. J. Shafer (1974) suggest a series of questions in order to evaluate eyewitness
testimony:
1. is the real meaning of the statement different from its literal meaning? Are word
used in senses not employed today? Is the statement meant to be ironic (i.e., mean other
than it says)?
2. How well could the author observe the things he reports? Were his senses equal
to the observation? Was his physical location suitable to sight, hearing, touch? Did he
have the proper social ability to observe: did he understand the language, have other
expertise required (e.g., law, military); was he not being intimidated by his wife or the
secret police?
3. How did the author report? and what was the ability to do so?

a. Regarding his ability to report, was he biased? Did he have proper time for
reporting? Proper place for reporting? Adequate recording o?
b. When did he report in relation to his observation? Soon? Much later? Fifty
years is much later as most eyewitnesses are dead and those who remain may
have forgotten relevant material.
c. What was the author’s intentions in reporting? For whom did he report? Would
that audience be likely to require or suggest distortion to the author?
 d. Are there additional clues to intended veracity? Was he indifferent on the
subject reported, thus probably not intending distortion? Did he make
statements damaging to himself, thus probably not seeking to distort? Did he
give incidental or casual information, almost certainly not intended to mislead?
4. Do his statements seem inherently improbable: e.g., contrary to human
nature
Or conflict with what you know.
5. Remember that some types of information are easier to observe and report
on than others.
6. Are there inner contradictions in the document?

Indirect Witnesses
Gilbert J. Garraghan ( 1946) says that the most information comes from
indirect witnesses people who were not present on the scene but heard of the events from
someone else.
Loius Gottschalk (1950) says that a historian may sometimes use hearsay
evidence when no primary texts are available. He writes , “ In cases where he uses secondary
witnesses .. he asks.
1. On whose primary testimony does the secondary witness base his
statements
2. Did the secondary witness accurately report the primary testimony as a
whole?
3. If not, In what details did he accurately report the primary testimony?
Satisfactory answers to the second and third questions may provide the
historians with the whole or the gist of the primary testimony upon which the
secondary witness may be his only means of knowledge.
In such cases the secondary source is the historian’s original source, in the
sense of being the origin of his knowledge. In so far at this original source is an accurate report
of primary testimony, he tests its credibility as he would that of the primary testimony itself.

Oral Tradition
Gilbert Garraghan (1946) maintains that oral tradition may be accepted if it
satisfies either “broad conditions” or six “particular conditions” as follows: ko
1. Broad conditions stated.
1. The tradition should be supported by an unbroken series of witnesses,
reaching from the immediate and the first reporter of the act to the living
 mediate witness from whom we take it up, or to the one who was the first to
commit it to writing.
2. There should be several parallel and independent series of witnesses
testifying to the fact in question.
2. Particular conditions formulated
1. The tradition must report a public event of importance, such as would necessarily
be known directly to a great number of persons.
2. The tradition must have been generally believed, at least for a definite period of
time.
3. During that definite period, it must have gone without protest, even from persons
interested in denying it.
4. The tradition must be one of relatively limited duration. Garraghan suggest a
maximum limit of 150 years, at least in cultures that excel in oral remembrance.
5. The critical spirit must have been sufficiently developed while the tradition lasted,
and the necessary means of critical investigation must have been at hand.
6. Critical-minded person who would surely have challenge the tradition- had they
considered it false- must have made no such challenge.

Synthesis: Historical Reasoning

Once individual pieces of information have been assessed in context, hypothesis can be
formed and established by historical reasoning.

Arguments to the best explanation

C. Behan Mc Cullagh (1984 ) lays down seven conditions for a

successful arguments to the best explanation:

1. The statement, together with other statements already held to be true, must imply yet
other statements describing present , observable data. ( We will henceforth call the first
statement” the hypothesis” and the statements describing observable data, “ observation
statements “
2. The hypothesis must be of greater explanatory scope than any other incompatible
hypothesis about the same subject that is, it must imply a greater variety of observation.
3. The hypothesis must be of greater explanatory power than any other incompatible
hypothesis about the same subject ; that is, it must make the observation statements it
implies more probable than any other.
4. The hypothesis must be more plausible than any other incompatible hypothesis about the
same subject , that is, it must be implied to some degree by a greater variety of accepted
truths than any other , and be implied more strongly than any other, and be implied more
strongly than any other, and its probable negation must be implied by fewer beliefs and
implied less strongly than any other .
5. The hypothesis must be less ad hoc than any other hypothesis about the same subject that
is, it must include fewer suppositions about the past which are not already implied to
some extent by existing beliefs about the past which are not already implied to some
extent by existing beliefs.
6. It must be disconfirmed by fewer accepted beliefs than any other incompatible hypothesis
about the same subject , that is, when conjoined with accepted truths a must imply fewer
observation statements and other statements which are believed to be false.
7. It must exceed other incompatible hypothesis about the same subject by so much in
characteristics 2 to 6 , that there is little chance of an incompatible hypothesis after
further investigation , soon exceeding it in these respects .

Generalization in Historical research

As in all research, researchers who conduct historical studies should exercise caution
in generalizing from small or non- representative samples.

HOW MUCH HAVE YOU LEARNED?

Quiz # 2
Multiple Choice:
1. Which of the following is not a characteristic of historical research ?
a. It can be used to test hypothesis about relationship or trends
b. It facilitates prediction of the effects of policy.
c. It focuses primarily on past materials and events.
d. It relies on naturalistic observation for valid data collection.
2. Which of the following is best classified as a source other than a relic?
a. A legal record c. A piece of furniture
b. A monument d. An original painting
3. The process that a researcher uses to verify that the contents of a document are accurate is
known as,
a. External criticism c. Internal Criticism
b. External validity d. Internal validity
4. Which of the following is most likely to be a secondary source?
 a. A book about educational theory in the early 1900s
b. A frontier family paragraph
c. A soldier’s letter home during the Korean War
d. Minutes from the university faculty meeting held in 1892
5. If a researcher uses a tape of legend from a Tribal elder as a source of data, he is using a
data source known as a
a. Document c. Oral statement
b. Relic d. Secondary source
6. Which of the following is not one of the four essential steps in historical research?
a. Defining the problem c. Oral statement
b. Interpreting information d. Searching for relevant source
material
7. Which of the following is most likely to be a primary source?
a. A film about battlefield maneuvers in the Civil war
b. A miner’s letter home during the gold rush
c. A poem expressing a miner’s feelings
d. An article about educational theory in the early 1900s
8. Which of the following is not the disadvantage of a historical research?
a. It permits the investigation of topics and questions that can be studied in no
other way
b. Measures used in other methods to control for threats to internal validity are
not possible
c. Sampling of information maybe biased
d. The validity of information I questionable
9. Census data is best described as which kind of historical source material
a. Document c. Numerical record
b. A relic d. Oral statement
10. An interview with a World War II combat veteran is best described as which kind of
historical source material?
a. A document c. A numerical record
b. A relic d. an oral statement

True or False
1. A primary source is one prepared by an individual who was a participant in , or a direct
witness to, the event that is being described
2. A secondary source is a document prepared by an individual who was not a direct witness
to an event, but who obtained his or her description of the event from someone else.
3. Content analysis is a primary method data analysis in historical research.
4. External criticism refers to the genuineness of the documents a researcher use in a
historical study
5. Internal criticism pertains to the accuracy or truthfulness of information in a document.
 6. Most historical source material can be grouped into 4 basic categories: documents,
numerical records, oral statements, and relic
7. The advantage of historical research is that it follows a clear sequence.
8. The only essential step involved in doing a historical study is defining the problem or
hypothesis to be investigated.
9. The unique characteristics of historical research is that it focuses exclusively on the past.
10. When all designed and carefully executed, historical research can lead to the
confirmation of relational hypotheses.

END OF MODULE 1 for Midterm

Prepared by:

Ms. Marlene P. Montalbo

Ged 105- Readings in Philippine History