Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730

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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/thermal-science-and-engineering-progress

Application of artificial intelligence for prediction, optimization, and

control of thermal energy storage systems
A.G. Olabi a, b, *, Aasim Ahmed Abdelghafar a, Hussein M. Maghrabie c, Enas Taha Sayed d,
Hegazy Rezk e, Muaz Al Radi f, Khaled Obaideen a, Mohammad Ali Abdelkareem a, d, *
a
Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
b
Mechanical Engineering and Design, Aston University, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Aston Triangle, Birmingham B4 7ET, United Kingdom
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, South Valley University, Qena 83521, Egypt
d
Chemical Engineering Department, Minia University, Elminia, Egypt
e
Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering in Wadi Alddawasir, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia
f
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Energy storage is one of the core concepts demonstrated incredibly remarkable effectiveness in various energy
Energy storage systems. Energy storage systems are vital for maximizing the available energy sources, thus lowering energy
Artificial intelligence consumption and costs, reducing environmental impacts, and enhancing the power grids’ flexibility and reli­
Energy efficiency
ability. Artificial intelligence (AI) progressively plays a pivotal role in designing and optimizing thermal energy
Optimization
Artificial neural networks
storage systems (TESS). Recently, plenty of studies have been conducted to examine the feasibility of applying
artificial intelligence techniques, such as particle swarm optimization (PSO), artificial neural networks (ANN),
square vector machine (SVM) and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), in the energy storage sector.
This study introduces the classifications, roles, and efficient design optimization of energy systems in various
applications using different artificial intelligence approaches. This study discusses the progress made regarding
implementing artificial intelligence and its sub-categories for optimizing, predicting, and controlling the per­
formance of energy systems that contain thermal energy storage facilities. In addition, the performance of these
technologies is thoroughly analyzed, highlighting their noticeable accuracy while carrying out different objec­
tives. Recommendations and future research points are introduced to offer new concepts and inspiration for the
application of AI in TESS.

1. Introduction continuous depletion of fossil fuels which can seriously impact life on
earth [1,2]. For instance, the expeditious combustion of fossil fuels
The world has witnessed a significant shift towards utilizing various raises greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide (CO2). The high
renewable energy resources over the past couple of decades due to the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere significantly impact climate warming,

Abbreviations: AI, Artificial intelligence; 5GDHC, Fifth-generation district heating and cooling; AC, Alternating current; ANFIS, Adaptive neuro fuzzy inference
system; ANN, Artificial neural network; ANNi, Inverted ANN; R2, Absolute fraction of variance; BP, Back-propagation; CCHP, Combined cooling, heating, and power;
CFD, Computational fluid dynamics; CHP, Combined heating and power; CL, Cooling load; COP, Coefficient of performance; CSP, Concentrated solar power; DHW,
Domestic hot water; DP, Dynamic programming; ES, Energy storage; ESS, Energy storage system; FFC, Feed-forward controllers; FFNN, Feed-forward neural network;
FLFFC, Fuzzy logic/feed-forward controller; GA, Genetic algorithms; GEHP, Gas engine-driven heat pump; GHI, Global horizontal irradiance; GMDH, Grouped
method of data handling; HTF, Heat transfer fluid; HVAC, Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning; LSTM, Long short-term memory; MAE, Mean absolute error;
MAPE, Mean absolute percentage error; MPC, Model predictive controller; MRE, Mean relative error; MSE, Mean square error; NARX, Nonlinear autoregressive
network with exogenous inputs; Nu, Nusselt number; PCM, Phase change material; PSO, Particle swarm optimization; PTC, Parabolic trough collector; PVT,
Photovoltaic thermal; SAH, Solar air heater; Qcool, Cooling capacity; RDC, Rotational desiccant cooling; RH, Relative humidity; RMSE, Root mean square error; RNN,
Recurrent neural network; SNEG, Specific net electricity generation; SOC, State of charge; SP, Series-Parallel; SVM, Support vector machine; TESS, Thermal energy
storage systems; VDF, Variable domain fuzzy.
* Corresponding author at: Sustainable Energy & Power Systems Research Centre, RISE, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
E-mail address: mabdulkareem@sharjah.ac.ae (M.A. Abdelkareem).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2023.101730
Received 12 August 2022; Received in revised form 14 January 2023; Accepted 14 February 2023
Available online 19 February 2023
2451-9049/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.G. Olabi et al.
resulting in ice melting in polar areas, consequently elevating sea levels
[3,4]. According to the global energy review of the International Energy
Association (IEA), the global coal and oil demands in the year 2020
compared with the ones of 2019′ s first quarter were affected by the
COVID-19 pandemic, reducing their consumption by nearly 8 % and 5 %
in the first quarter of the year, respectively [5,6]. Several methods have
been used to decrease global warming, such as improving the efficiency
of the current processes through waste heat recovery [7–9], using effi­
cient energy conversion devices such as fuel cells [10–12], and using
renewable energy resources [13,14]. Waste heat recovery is found to be
an effective method for reducing fuel consumption and thus reducing
emissions of hazardous gases [15–18]. Whereas, renewables have
avoided the crisis strike and successfully achieved growth in demand.
The IEA has also reported a drop in global CO2 emissions by 8 %, or
approximately 2.6 gigatonnes [19].
The success in the development of large-scale renewable energy is
considered one of the most effective ways of controlling global warming.
Recently commercial-scale renewable energy projects have been avail­
able all over the world, such as solar thermal [20], solar PV [21],
geothermal [22], and wind [23]. Still, the intermittency properties of
renewable energy sources is one of the main challenges facing their
global widespread, such as the case of solar and wind energies. Devel­
oping efficient and high-capacity energy storage systems could help
overcome the intermittences problem of renewable energy as it can
store/discharge energy at their excess/shortage conditions. There are
various types of energy storage technologies [24], such as thermal
[25–27], supercapacitors [28–30], battery [31–33], thermochemical
[34,35], compressed air [36–38], hydrogen [39–42], flywheel [43,44],
magnetic [45,46], and pumped energy storage [47]. The thermal energy
storage systems (TESS) could contribute effectively to the proper man­
aging of thermal energy and preventing its dissipation. They also pro­
vide potential energy conservation in all fields of thermal energy
resources [48–51]. The TESS can be usefully integrated into several
renewable energy sources, including solar-driven energy systems where
diurnal thermal energy is discharged during the night and hybrid
photovoltaic-phase change materials-thermal or concentrated solar
power (CSP) [52–54]. Packets of TES phase change material (PCM) were
introduced in a self-cleaning supported photovoltaic (PV) system to
provide better temperature regulation [55]. Various researchers studied
the various applications of TESS. A district solar-type borehole TES to
run into different water and space heating load conditions was devel­
oped [56]. It defined the most cost-optimal load fraction in which the
TES borehole could supply to a multi-family residential building. A
geothermal-based aquifer for seasonal energy storage was considered an
active part of a smart grid [57]. At least a single pair of integrated wells
is included in most of the aquifer systems for simultaneous extraction
and infiltration of groundwater. The TES aquifer was proposed to pro­
vide heating and cooling requirements for buildings during summer and
winter [58,59]. A novel design of a hybrid PV/solar pond system was
investigated [60]. According to the overall system performance analysis,
an efficiency of 37.67 % was successfully obtained, which is higher than
that of the conventional solar pond. Despite the enhancements granted
by the addition of TES units in such energy systems, the association of
drawbacks could degrade their overall performance in the long run.
Therefore, technologies that have the potential to optimize, control, and
predict the performance of TES systems are highly needed.
The AI concept simulates humans’ intelligence in machines that are
programmed to act somehow and think similarly to humans [61,62]. In
addition, devices with human-like characteristics, like problem-solving
and learning, also fall under artificial intelligence [63]. Decision-
making and validation done by AI are ideal features, providing ease in
accomplishing specific objectives [64]. Implementing AI offers consid­
erable merits, such as the minimization of human errors, swift decision-
making, and digital assistance [65]. Moreover, a range of problems can
be tackled in a particular domain using AI, while conventional
computing requires a lot of effort and time and can only address one
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
issue at a time [66]. In weak artificial intelligence, the machine software
that reacts according to a clear-cut response is limited by set rules given
by the user, and they respond within the range of those rules [67].
However, strong artificial intelligence contains machine learning and
deep learning subsets. In other words, it describes the development of
machine algorithms driven to learn and improve their accuracy inde­
pendently using input and output data effectively. A number of recently
published studies investigated the contribution of artificial intelligence
in a bunch of various fields such as engineering [68–70], cyber security
[71–73], medicine [74,75], arts and transportation [76,77]. The subsets
of artificial intelligence are shown in Fig. 1.
The utilization of AI in the energy sector can help in solving a large
number of issues related to energy and renewable energy: (1) modeling
and optimizing the various energy systems, (2) forecasting of energy
production/consumption, (3) improving the overall efficiency of the
system and thus decreasing the energy cost, and (4) energy management
among the different components of the energy system [78–84].
Currently, various techniques and approaches of artificial intelligence
(AI) are widely established for diverse applications in the energy sector,
such as energy systems design [85,86], monitoring of energy efficiency
[87,88], forecasting of energy generation [89,90], and energy storage
[91,92]. According to the lifestyle, modern applications were fulfilled
based on renewable-energy resources because of their availability [93].
The energy transformation from traditional sectors towards the renew­
able energy sectors combined with energy storage systems leads to
models, modern technologies, and services promising progress [21,94].
The infrastructure for connecting the system’s representations to phys­
ical objects is introduced when smart energy systems are integrated with
artificial intelligence [95,96]. Currently, most of the AI techniques in the
storage energy field aim to improve energy forecasting, predict system
components’ operation, evaluate system performance, etc. [97,98]. A
magnificent breakthrough was made by a uniquely developed technol­
ogy that could be employed as a reliable tool for controlling, optimizing,
or forecasting the TES systems, which is AI [99,100]. For instance, the
modelling of systems which involve PCM using classical physics-based
methods is difficult and requires detailed mathematics for all the sys­
tem components [101,102], whereas utilizing ANN, which is one of the
AI techniques for PCM modelling, can significantly lower the complexity
of the problem as it takes into consideration all the internal processes
and directly generates a model of the system using input and output
datasets of the physical system [103].
Recently, there is a number of research articles summarized the
recent progress in thermal energy storage and related topics. For
instance, Pintaldi et al. [104] reviewed the thermal storage applications
suitable for solar cooling systems using heat input within the range of
60–250 ◦ C, also sensible and latent heat materials for different storage
systems were classified due to their convenience for chillers with double
and triple effects. Furthermore, Aneke and Wang [105] performed a
detailed analysis of the real-life application and performance of the
various energy storage technologies. Lefebvre and Tezel [106] intro­
duced an overview of various forms of ESS focusing on the adsorption of
thermal energy for heating usage, while Safari et al. [107] discussed the
supercooling of PCMs in a thermal storage system (TSS). Olabi et al.
[108] reviewed the application of graphene in various energy storage
systems, including electrochemical sensors. Focusing on the applications
of low and medium temperatures of PCMs, Cunha and Eames [109]
conducted a comprehensive review of phase transition temperatures
between 0 and 250 ◦ C. However, Gasia et al. [110] reviewed the thermal
energy storage systems (TESS), including latent and sensible materials.
Tatsidjodoung et al. [111] introduced the different technologies for TES
for building with a specific interest in heat storage materials and their
limitations and classifications. Olabi et al. [112] introduced several
energy storage systems for stationary applications, focusing on their
potential prospects, while Yousef et al. [113] reviewed the development
of using nanoparticles in solar thermal storage material. Finally, Olabi
et al. reviewed [114] the thermal energy storage systems with different
A.G. Olabi et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730

Fig. 1. Artificial Intelligence subsets.

nanomaterials-based PCM. From the above discussion, it can be noticed
that there is a lack of knowledge on the recent applications of artificial
intelligence in TESS. The aim of this work is to analyze the applications
of AI in various types of TESS and to demonstrate the advances in
implementing AI approaches and their feasible integrations in the
different thermal energy systems. In addition, the relevant published
papers combining the classical algorithms of optimization with one of
the AI techniques are also elaborated. Finally, the recommendations and
future work required to advance the AI technologies for TES are
presented.
2. Methodology and theoretical background
Fig. 2 shows the search selection criteria of the current work. The
Scopus, Google Scholar, and ScienceDirect databases were utilized to
find relevant publications. A total of nine keywords were used, either all
at once or in different combinations, depending on the database, to
identify the relevant published work for each. The research resulted in
the last 20 years, i.e., between 2003 and 2023 [51,115,116].
The rest of this section will cover the background of the different AI
methods commonly applied in the TES systems, as summarized in Fig. 3.
ANN is an intelligent computing system that uses a group of inter­
connected nodes known as artificial neurons, which look similar to
biological ones [117,118]. When an artificial neuron propagates a signal
from one to another, the connections function similarly to synapses. The
signal can be processed by the artificial neuron that receives it, and the
artificial neurons linked to it can then be signaled. The artificial neurons
are often associated with frequently modified weights and biases as the

Fig. 2. Research selection criteria.

3
A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 3. The incorporation of artificial intelligence techniques into thermal energy storage systems.
learning process progress [119,120]. The signal strength at a connection
is increased or decreased by the weight. The artificial neurons may have
a threshold above which the signal is only sent if the aggregate signal
exceeds it. As a result, the ANN technique is widely used in various
energy applications, including energy storage systems, because it can
rapidly and straightforwardly provide desirable solutions to non-linear
engineering problems in multi-dimensional domains [121–124]. The
FL “fuzzy logic” approach is a specified branch of logic systems in that
the validity of the statements can have a truth degree rather than a false
answer or an absolutely true, as it is found in Boolean logic. FL systems,
including four parts, rule base, fuzzification, inference engine, and
defuzzification, are characterized by worthful flexibility in ration­
alization, considering the inaccuracies and uncertainties of any kind of
situation [125]. The rule base contains IF-THEN conditions and experts’
rules to control the decision-making process. The inference engine
determined the degree of matching between the current fuzzy input and
each rule and which rules should be launched based on the input field.
The control actions are formed by combining the launched rules. The FL
systems often use the membership function as a graphical tool to display
how each point in the input space is charted to a membership value
between 0 and 1. The FL approach is superior due to its flexibility and
simplicity in solving real problems with incomplete and indefinite in­
formation. ANFIS “Adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system” is an inte­
gration of fuzzy inference and ANN, which has been widely used in
multiple areas to tackle complex and non-linear issues [126,127]. Jang
developed this technology, which was created based on the Sugeno
fuzzy model [128]. Back-propagation (BP) or a combination of BP and
least-square (LS) estimation is typically used by ANFIS to estimate the
parameters of membership functions [128]. ANFIS uses the Takagi-
Sugeno fuzzy inference system, which has a linear combination of
input variables or a constant output. ANFIS can assign input-output data
pairs utilizing hybrid learning techniques and create input-output
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
mapping based on human knowledge. In simulations, the ANFIS
framework is used to represent nonlinear functions, forecast chaotic
time series and determine online nonlinear elements in control systems
[129].
The technique of particle swarm optimization (PSO) was introduced
by Kennedy and Eberhart [130]. It is a population-based, randomized
optimization method that was influenced by bird flocking or fish
schooling. Each solution in PSO is a “bird” in the search domain. It is
referred to as a “particle.” A swarm of these particles explores the search
domain for the best position. Each particle occupies a space in the N-
dimensional problem domain, where N denotes the problem dimension
or the number of unknown parameters. PSO starts with a set of random
particles (solutions) and then updates generations to find the best so­
lution. Each particle is updated on each iteration by comparing two
“best” values. The first is the position vector of the best solution (fitness)
that this particle has yet to accomplish. It is also possible to save the
fitness value. This position is denoted as “pbest”. Another “best” position
that the particle swarm optimizer keeps tracking the best position that
each particle in the population has achieved so far. This best position is
known as gbest and is the current global best [131]. Several studies have
used PSO in the energy sector [132–134].
SVM “Support vector machine” is a pattern classification method
introduced by Vapnik et al [135,136]. In contrast to conventional
techniques for decreasing experimental training errors, SVM uses an
approach that seeks to reduce the upper bound of the error by maxi­
mizing the separation of the border between the hyperplane and the
training data [137]. One important aspect of SVM is that resolving linear
limited quadratic programming problems is equal to training SVM. Ge­
netic algorithms (GA) simulate natural selection and reproduction
[138]. The mutation operator is employed to sustain population di­
versity by changing the sequence of many genes in DNA. However, the
crossover operator looks like the procedure by which a couple of
A.G. Olabi et al.
chromosomes pair up and reciprocity part of DNA. Practically, the GA
converges slowly compared with the other traditional genetic ap­
proaches. At the same time, they are more effective since they can fulfil
the optimal solutions for various problems that lack linearity, continu­
ity, derivatives, convexity, etc., typically in TEG [139–143]. Over the
past few decades, several researchers have generated GA variants that
mainly vary in how they develop new populations and individuals
[144]. Whereas the basic working process of every variant stays the
same. The GA is a powerfully effective method for optimizing thermal
energy systems, particularly when other approaches, such as direct
analytical discovery. The fundamental GA approach reiterates three
steps until the threshold, or the maximum iteration number is acquired.
The three operators or steps in the algorithm are creating population,
mating, and mutation [145,146].
Fig. 4. (a) Block diagram of simulation and optimization processes of the PTC, (b) Statistical comparison between experimental and ANN-predicted PTC thermal
efficiency [147], with permission No. 5326060149934.
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
3. Artificial intelligence technologies for thermal energy storage
systems (TESS)
3.1. AI for the prediction of TESS
3.1.1. Artificial neural networks (ANN)
A heat demand prediction was carried out using a FFNN [92]. The
dataset collection was distributed in three parts, 70 % as a training
dataset and 30 % for testing and validation. The accuracy of various
designs was examined by evaluating RMSE “root mean square error”.
Hence, the most appropriate ANN model for the training dataset has
exhibited an RMSE and correlation coefficient of 7.18 and 0.9886,
respectively. The computationally predicted heat demand and elec­
tricity expenses were sent to the optimization model to establish the
most helpful alternative of gas turbine and entire CHP “combined heat
and power” plant operation. The optimization results of day-ahead
A.G. Olabi et al.
production scheduling indicated that the average variations between the
predicted and real values were 0.4 ◦ C for an ambient temperature of 0.7
MW for thermal power demand and 4.57 USD/MWh for electricity
expense. Another ANN was developed to enhance the thermal efficiency
of the parabolic trough collector (PTC) [147]. The overall system con­
tains 5 PTCs to supply preheated water. FFNN was used for forecasting
the PTC’s thermal efficiency. The simulation and optimization approach
and statistical comparison between the empirical PTC thermal efficiency
(ηt,exp) and the ANN-predicted simulation thermal efficiency (η,sim) are
shown in Fig. 4. It was found that the coefficient of determination was
superior at 0.9511. The input parameters were the ambient temperature
(Tamb ), inlet temperature (Tin ), wind speed (Vw ), rim angle (φr ), water
volumetric flow rate (Fw ), and direct solar radiation (Gb ).
Furthermore, 2340 empirical trials were randomly separated into
three subsets: training, validation, and testing, with each subset
including 60 %, 20 %, and 20 % of the obtained empirical data,
respectively. The hidden layer of the modeled ANN considered the
transfer functions of log sigmoid (LOGSIG) and tangent sigmoid function
(TANSIG), while the PURELIN linear function was used to calculate the
output layer. In addition, the ANN model was tested with various
numbers of hidden neurons. It was found that four hidden neurons ANN
was the optimum choice for both transfer functions. This was attributed
to the highest R2 and the lowest RMSE results exhibited by the ANN with
four hidden neurons. Hence, the optimal values of the input, hidden, and
output layers with neurons number that achieved the superior coeffi­
cient of determination at 0.9511 were 6, 4, and 1, respectively. The
proposed ANN model was inverted to produce the multivariable objec­
tive function to optimize multiple variables [148,149]. The coupling of
GA and PSO algorithms was also implemented to the inverted ANN
model (ANNi) to solve the multivariable objective function, considering
the weights and biases of the regular ANN model. Furthermore, the PTC
was optimized by running the multivariable objective function in two
ways differently. One way uses the TANSIG transfer function, and the
other by the LOGSIG function. Based on the results, the TANSIG function
was more effective for ANN model. It was found that 3.96 % was the
lowest error percentage obtained within 14.39 s when comparing the
empirical results with the ANNi-PSO ones. On the other side, the
smallest error achieved by ANNi-GA was 22.10 % in 1.60 s. Therefore,
the feasibility of improving PTC thermal efficiency was experienced by
applying TANSIG function along with PSO. The multivariable optimi­
zation was conducted progressively, optimizing single, two, and three
parameters. Remarkably, the simultaneous optimization of three vari­
ables accomplished a thermal efficiency of 67.12 %; this value was more
significant than other variables’ optimization, demonstrating the po­
tential of the ANNi-PSO optimization technique. In addition, ANN was
employed to improve the efficacy of the cold finger technique that was
utilized for a small fraction of PCM remaining in the solid phase [150].
The results indicated that the ANN could provide appropriate pre­
dictions considering the melting time.
A novel LSTM-BP ANN was developed to predict the process of phase
transition of PCM in a multi-channel thermal storage tank [151]. The
proposed ANN utilized HTF’s time, temperature and inlet velocity as
input data. The prediction findings of the LSTM-BP ANN were compared
with simulation results. It was found that the studied LSTM-BP-based
ANN exhibited good accuracy in predicting the average temperature
of PCM as well as liquid fraction. The R values, which correspond to a
liquid fraction of PCM and its temperature between the predicted and
simulated results, were 0.99978 and 0.99921, respectively. Another
study investigated the prediction of the solar fraction of a hybrid solar
thermal storage system which involves PCM using ANN [152]. Collector
area, tank volume, load temperature, PCM melting temperature, and
PCM volume fraction were used as the input data. The results indicated
that the proposed ANN achieved R2 value of 0.9999. Furthermore, the
prediction of liquid fraction as well as Nu throughout the process of
phase change was carried out by ANN [153]. The proposed ANN
employed the input data of fin number, inclination angle, and melting
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
time. It has been found an excellent prediction performance was dis­
played by the ANN, with MSE and R2 values of 9.6480×10− 5, 0.9990
and 0.0150, 0.9937 for liquid fraction and Nu, respectively.
The time needed to complete the phase conversion of encapsulated
paraffin wax as a PCM using an ANN was estimated [154]. The experi­
ments were carried out under different radially distributed magnetic
field levels with various Hartmann numbers (Ha1 and Ha2), volume
fractions of silver (Ag), and manganese monoxide (MgO) nanoparticles.
The only output of the model was the required time for the phase change
of the encapsulated paraffin wax to be completed. Therefore, the ANN-
based model had three inputs, one output, and one hidden layer with ten
neurons. The hyperbolic TANSIG was selected as an activation function,
and the Levenberg-Marquardt, along with back-propagation, was chosen
as the training algorithm to train the proposed ANN. The results indi­
cated that the success achieved values of MSE “mean square error” for
training, testing, and validation were 1.311, 1.628, and 2.329, respec­
tively, with a regression coefficient of 0.9997. The prediction and
analysis of power generation in nanofluid-nano-PCM photovoltaic
thermal (PVT) energy system by adding 3 % of silicon carbide (SiC) to
water and 0.1 % to paraffin wax was performed using ANN [155]. The
input variables of the PVT system included the ambient temperature,
global temperature, solar panel temperature, and solar irradiance. At the
same time, the system outputs were voltage, current, and power. The
FFNN and self-organized feature map neural networks were formed to
analyze and forecast power generation performance. Similarly, the input
layer of the two ANN models consists of ambient temperature and solar
irradiance with one hidden layer, while the power was the only output.
Based on the analysis, it was implied that processing the FFNN model
with various hidden layers had less impact on MSE values than that
process with the different number of epochs.
The prediction of total thermal energy demand for demand-side
management concept with the assistance of an ANN in a nearly zero
energy building (NZEB), containing a water tank as TES unit, domestic
hot water (DHW) tank, and a heat pump (HP) was conducted [156]. The
simulation of the heating system in the NZEB was done using TRANSYS
software. Descriptively, airflow was captured by air-to-water HP, which
utilized the external air temperature to heat up the TES and DHW tanks.
The power consumption and heat output of the HP depends mainly on
the temperatures of the inlet (air) and outlet (water). More importantly,
the thermal power supplied from TES (Q̇ out) was considered a signifi­
cant parameter for evaluating the introduced model predictive
controller (MPC). The neural network aimed to solve the issue of over
and underestimation of Q̇ out by knowing the consumption behavior. In
another study, a physics-informed neural network was employed for the
prediction of the internal states of oxide CaO/Ca(OH)2 thermochemical
energy storage [157]. The proposed neural network was trained with
two different configurations, Series-Parallel, and Parallel architectures.
Regarding the training performance based on Series-Parallel (SP) and
Parallel (P) structures, their training time were increased as the training
iterations increased. The training with P configuration was a nonlinear
hindrance because of the continuous changes in the feedback values,
which caused extra changes in gradient values through training itera­
tions. Consequently, the quickness of training performance decreased.
Nevertheless, training based on P structure generated more accurate
prediction results than SP. This attributed to the disappearance of un­
stable fluctuations in the worst predicted results of “MSE + L2 + PHY’
loss function. Another study proposed a FFNN to predict the Nusselt
number of RT42 paraffin (PCM in a heat sink) during the melting process
[158]. During the heat transfer analysis, it was noticed that the heat sink
temperature without PCM, initially improved as the temperature
increased. The MSE and R2 values acquired from the optimum FFNN
were 0.1507 % and 0.9999, respectively.
In a solar water heating system, another ANN was designed to vali­
date the design of a hot water storage tank and to determine the storage
tank total conductivity [159]. The mathematical model proposed for the
A.G. Olabi et al.
computation of the design depends on several parameters: thermal
conductivity of the storage tank, inner and outer convective heat
transfer coefficients, and conductivity and thickness of the material used
for insulating the storage tank. An FFNN model mainly utilized to ach­
ieve the required findings as quickly as possible was selected due to its
outstanding prediction accuracy among other NN configurations. Data
were gathered for testing and verifying the ANN model. The validation
results stated that the overall conductance values obtained from both
mathematical and NN models were incredibly close to each other,
resulting in a maximum error percentage of 2.62 %. Another FFNN was
designed to determine the performance of GCHPVT “grid-connected
hybrid photovoltaic thermal” located in hot regions in Iran [160]. The
proposed GCHPVT system was exploited for simultaneous space and
water heating as well as electricity generation. The input layer of the
FFNN processed the parameters of GHI “global horizontal irradiance”,
Ta “average monthly outdoor temperature”, RH “average monthly
relative humidity”, and Vw “wind speed” to computationally predict the
amount of solar thermal energy produced as well as alternative current
(AC) electrical energy. The Levenberg-Marquardt learning algorithm
was applied to obtain a quicker FFNN training process. Moreover, the
optimally selected number of neurons for the single hidden layer was 13,
corresponding to the lowest and highest values of MSE and R2 of 890.20
and 0.9901, respectively. A comparison between FFNN-predicted and
simulation results of AC electrical and thermal energies in one of the
heat-dominated cities revealed that the studied ANN model has suc­
cessfully achieved acceptably accurate results.
Moreover, four different configurations of photovoltaic/thermal
collector (PVT) were assessed in terms of thermal and electrical effi­
ciencies with the help of FFNN to enhance the thermal capacity and heat
transfer rate, ensuring higher efficiency and minimal costs [161]. The
four PVT configurations investigated were normal PV panel, PVT sup­
ported with a water tank, PVT supported with PCM (paraffin wax) filled
the tank, and PVT supported with a tank filled with PCM/nanofluid of
SiC/water. A collection of 1000 experimental datasets were divided into
500, 200, and 300 datasets for training, testing, and validation of FFNN,
respectively, with a learning rate of 0.7. Moreover, a number of
computational evaluators were employed to check the accuracy of the
predictive findings of FFNN, including MAPE “mean absolute percent­
age error”, RMSE, MAE “mean absolute error”, MSE, and R2 “coefficient
of determination”. The analysis has deduced that the influence of
ambient temperature on thermal efficiency is higher than solar radia­
tion. Another study tested the potential of an ANN model in predicting
the overall performance of sorption heat reactor to measure the amount
of stored/delivered energy, sorbate concentration, inlet and outlet
temperatures, air mass flow rate, and the state of charge of the reactor
[162]. The neural network model was examined in the hydration and
dehydration modes of the reactor. FFNN, NARX “nonlinear autore­
gressive network with exogenous” inputs, and the hyperbolic tangent
sigmoid transfer function were utilized in the hidden layers to carry out
the process of predicting the sorption reactor performance. The NARX
was responsible for estimating the state of charge of the reactor, while
the FFNN carried out the outlet temperature estimation. A modulated
back-propagation algorithm called the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm
was effectively applied to the training dataset for training the model.
The error in estimating the SOC “state of charge” was overall lower than
that of the temperature except for one experiment. This is attributed to
the excellence of the NARX prediction model.
The correlations between dependent and independent parameters of
photovoltaic/thermal SESGEHPs “supported gas engine-driven energy
storage heat pump system” and their effects on each other were studied
using GRNN “generalized regression neural network” [163]. The SES­
GEHPs system comprises the PVT system, GEHPs “gas engine-driven
heat pump” system, and ESS. Four working modes actively regulate
the operation of ESGEHPs, including Mode F (GEHPs-controlled
frequency-automatic capacity), Mode P (heating load requirement was
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
less than the heating capacity of ESGEHPs), Mode L (GEHPs were
switched off, and the ESs started supplying heat to the building) and
Mode O (GEHPs and ESs synchronously provide heat to building). The
performance of solar space heating system driven by a PTC was fore­
casted with the assistance of a PSO-GA-optimized artificial neural
network [164]. GA solved the planning-oriented issues; the method
lacks a convergence rate. While the PSO algorithm provided a faster
convergence rate, it suffered from being stuck in local verges. Thus, the
constructed ANN model was optimized with GA-PSO combined algo­
rithm to overcome these limitations. The main purpose of GA-PSO al­
gorithm was to grant the ANN proper initial magnitudes of biases and
weights, in which the objective function was minimized. The accuracy of
the ANN model was studied with a different number of neurons, and the
optimum number was found to be 10 neurons. Moreover, the GA-PSO
optimized ANN model, where its hidden and output transfer functions
were tangent-sigmoid and purelin, was validated and compared with
two other algorithms, specifically high exploration PSO and team game
algorithm. The three algorithms were assessed based on some perfor­
mance indicators, including R2 , RMSE, MAPE, and variance accounted
for (VAF). The results revealed that the GA-PSO-ANN model was the
best, pointing out its superior prediction performance.
A methodology for predicting the thermal energy utilization of
electric thermal storage heaters using the recurrent neural network
(RNN) was developed [165]. The functionality principle of bi-
directional RNN was to consistently handle forward and reverse states
in two RNNs for each training set. The prediction was carried out in 4
layers: the layer of data processing, the weight distribution, and the
prediction layer contained the multivariate Bi-directional LSTM “long
short-term memory” network prediction model and the output layer.
The data employed for the prediction were taken from real homes,
covering electrical usage and generation considering the environmental
variables, i.e., humidity and temperature. Afterwards, the collected
thermal energy data was successfully processed. The predicted thermal
energy utilization data exhibited the minimum value of RMSE of 0.15,
indicating the decent accuracy of the model.
A deep RNN model was introduced in campus buildings of Utah
university to estimate the heating demand as well as to optimize the
sizing of layer-arranged thermal storage tanks [166]. The RNN-based
prediction was conducted on a CHP “combined heating and power”
system combined with a tank for thermal storage. The structure of RNN
was formed of 6 layers, starting with the inputs layer, which contains
humidity, dry-bulb temperature, an hour of the day, day of the week,
day of a month, and the month number. The thermal storage tank with
hot and cold heat exchangers was mathematically modeled. The mass
flow rate in a cold heat exchanger, a portion of heat energy transferred
to thermal storage, and hot water temperature entering the tank were
optimized. The RNN model showed better heating demand predictions
than the FFNN model. Comparatively, the RMSE values of the RNN
model in predicting the heating demand of the building for all months
except April, May, and June were lower than FFNN one. The heating
demand predictions for Merill engineering building and social behavior
hall were illustrated as examples along with Rh findings versus periods
where the optimization process is conducted in Fig. 5. The load demand
profile of a power grid containing thermal storage electric boilers were
predicted and controlled with the help of a RNN to flexibly distribute the
energy flow within the grid, reducing the effect of power quality influ­
enced by the intermittent energy included in the grid [167]. An entire
input sequence of state vectors consisting of voltage, current, power,
power grid frequency, and so on, was effectively processed within the
constructed RNN to predict the grid’s load demand profile. When the
weights were updated with the gradient descent technique in RNN, the
gradient explosion was highly experienced. Therefore, LSTM was
applied to overcome the mentioned issue and predict the load profile.
The parametric data involving daily temperature, hourly load power,
and humidity were used to train LSTM neural network with a group of
1,584 data points. Fig. 6 displays the predicted load profile by LSTM
A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 5. Heating demand predictions for (Left) Merill engineering building, (middle) social behavior hall. (Right) Rh vs time intervals [166], with permission No.
5326060785705.
Fig. 6. Predicted and real load profiles [167], open access.
neural network. A remarkable closeness between the predicted and
actual load profiles indicated the reasonably convincing prediction
ability with small relative error.
The thermal performance of a solar chimney fully occupied with
paraffin wax of C20 was evaluated via an ANN [168]. The utilized FFNN
took eight data inputs of the absorber surface temperature recorded by
sensors attached to the solar collector to proceed to two hidden layers,
while the output consists of four airflow temperature readings. The ANN
considered the learning algorithm of Levenberg-Marquardt to be suffi­
ciently trained for accomplishing more accurate results. In the light of
the performance, the average relative error “ARE”, relative error “RE”,
and correlation coefficient of the best neural network operation were
successfully calculated to check the precision of the values predicted by
the FFNN with respect to the experimental values. Moreover, the
computed ARE value was 1.8326 %, while the maximum RE was 2.1546
%. Fig. 7 demonstrates the closeness between the experimental and the
predicted values by FFNN for different values of R.
A MPC based on the neural network significantly boosted the func­
tioning of a refrigerating station with massive temperature difference
containing external-melt ice coldness TES [169]. The cooling station
consisted of an elementary chiller, double evaporator chillers, flow-
controlling valves, charging/discharging, pumps, plate heat
exchanger, and ice storage tank. The main objective of the developed
neural-network-based MPC was to reduce the divergence between the
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
set-point temperature of the outlet ice tank water and the sample value.
The neural network model consisted of an output layer of 1 neuron, an
input layer of 5 neurons, and a hidden layer of 8 neurons. It was noticed
that after the 180 s, the outlet temperature concurred the set-point of
2.2 ◦ C, indicating the effectiveness of the neural network control model
under the changes in thermal load. A MPC framework containing mixed-
integer non-linear programming problems and a NARX were reported
for controlling HVAC “heating ventilation and air conditioning” in a
building [170]. The NARX model studied the thermal nature of a
building region. The formulation of the optimum control was presented
as MINLP to decrease the overall energy price needed for the HVAC
system, considering the dynamic demand response, on-site energy
generation, and storage. The predicted region temperature and power
values by NARX were compared with the simulated findings. It was
found that the prediction precision was quite reasonable. Utilizing
building power demand and utility load to obtain future data about
building power demand and power costs helped effectively make a well-
notified decision regarding the usage of the TES tank. The ANN-based
framework was reported as an optimum controller for TES system to
maximize energy savings [171]. The ANN output was the energy ob­
tained from the TES tank. The target of the ANN-based controller was to
reduce the cost of the building’s cooling load and re-cooling of TES, and
reduce the wasted money due to the overshooting of the power
requirement of the building. The classical PD “proportional derivative”
A.G. Olabi et al.
Fig. 7. Correlation coefficient values of the ANN outputs [168], with permission No. 5326060979613.
controller was compared with ANN-based controller. The cost savings
acquired by the ANN controller were better than PD ones, producing a
6.501 % increment in savings. While the wasted cost obtained by the
ANN controller was much lower than PD one.
Moreover, the assessment of the long-term performance of latent
heat TES (LHTES) merged in a cooling ventilation system employing
PCM of paraffin RT20 under charging and discharging modes was car­
ried out using ANN [172]. During charging mode, since the outdoor air
temperature was relatively below PCM’s melting point temperature of
24 ◦ C, high airflow rates were blown for solidifying the PCM. While,
during the discharging mode, relatively slight air was allowed to flow
over the LHTES system to maintain the inlet air temperature released
from the system inside a range of comfort temperatures. A GMDH-type
ANN model was developed based on the impactful parameters deter­
mined by the computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In another study, the
performance prediction of solar TES (STES) for providing space and
water heating was effectively evaluated using ANN [173]. The proposed
STES included two flat-plate solar collectors, a thermally isolated stor­
age tank, and a propane-ignited tank used as an auxiliary energy source.
Multiple solar radiation levels at various weather scenarios for all sea­
sons were measured to run the necessary experiments on the STES. The
input division of the ANN model contained the temperature of ambient
air, the solar radiation incident on the horizontal (Gh ) and inclined (Gi )
plates, and the previous time step temperatures of preheating tank
stratification at (t − 1). The stratification temperatures of the preheat
tank, heat transferred from the collector to the heat exchanger (HX), and
heat supplied by the propane-ignited tank to the system (Aux heat input)
were estimated. Levenberg-Marquardt and the scaled conjugate gradient
algorithms were implemented to train the ANN model with the experi­
mental measurements. Moreover, the neural network with 20 neurons
was selected since it exhibited the lowest mean relative error (MRE) and
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
the highest R2 of 2.1910 and 0.9999, respectively. The cooling capacity
(Qcool), as well as the COP “coefficient of performance” of LiBr-H2O
absorption chiller in a solar air-conditioning, were investigated using an
ANN [174]. The global radiation, water mass flow rates, and tempera­
tures were measured within the absorption chiller for a sampling period
of one minute. Regarding the ANN model, a FFNN with one hidden layer
containing nine neurons was chosen for conducting the work. Further­
more, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm was established to accom­
plish a quicker optimization process. A collection of 1250 data sets was
introduced; 1060 sets were employed to train the FFNN, while the rest of
190 samples were exploited for testing the model. The input layer of the
chosen configuration consisted of five inputs, including the entering,
and leaving evaporator’s temperatures, entering and leaving generator’s
temperatures, and second storage tank average temperature, while the
output layer contained Qcool and COP. Moreover, a comparison between
the predicted and actual findings of Qcool and COP indicated that the
RSME of the neural network was less than 0.70 %.
The thermal stratification of a storage tank was designed using ANN
in a solar thermal system to supply DHW, consisting of a flat-plate solar
collector, storage tank for the hot water, and internal heat exchanger
[175]. The employed ANN type was FFNN along with Levenberg-
Marquardt as a training algorithm. The input layer of the FFNN used a
hidden layer of eight neurons with a tangent-sigmoid transfer function
to successfully achieve the temperature distribution of the equally
divided storage tank layers. A group of 30,943 data sets was effectively
used, 27,946 for training the NNW and the remaining for validating it.
The model generated an average temperature deviation of 0.22 ◦ C with a
correlation of 0.9998 for no-load periods, while 0.76 ◦ C with a corre­
lation of 0.9666 for load periods. Additionally, an ANN model was
proposed to analyze and predict the total heat stored in a TESS con­
sisting of a finned tube surrounded by water as a PCM [176]. The ANN
A.G. Olabi et al.
provided a learning process to relate the total thermal energy stored for
seven types of finned tubes, three inlet temperatures of − 10, − 15, and
− 20 ◦ C, with different Reynolds numbers. Around 240 measured con­
ditions were experimentally obtained from an experimental test, 200
were utilized to train the FFNN. The rest were used for testing the model.
In addition, both required and experimental data were mathematically
normalized to be used in the ANN. The four inputs were time, Re, finned-
tube heat transfer area, and the inlet temperature. The output was
basically the total stored thermal energy. 400,000 iterations were ach­
ieved using the ANN to attain the convenient fits. On top of that, the
computation of AMRE “absolute mean relative error”, standard devia­
tion, and R2 were successfully performed to compare the ANN config­
urations and the numerical model. The comparison indicated that the
ANN model with 13 hidden layers nodes was the best pick due to the
lowest results of error corresponding to the prediction. Remarkably, the
calculated AMRE, standard deviation, and absolute fraction of variance
(R2 ) were 5.58, 0.00887, and 0.9950 for the ANN model and 4.99,
0.01791, and 0.9664 for the numerical model, respectively. In other
study, an ANN-based modeling approach was investigated for predicting
the performance of stratified TES tanks located in gas district cooling in
terms of the half-cycle figure of merit (1/2FOM) and the thermocline
thickness [177]. The model (ANN) utilized 14 temperature readings as
input to predict the thermocline thickness and 1/2FOM. The ANN error
was then calculated by subtracting the predicted value from the target
value. In addition, the errors generated by the hidden and input layers
were computationally found, as the weights and biases were updated
accordingly through the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm. All previous
steps were repeated till the error was minimized.
3.1.2. Hybrid AI techniques
An ANFIS was developed to study the effect of design parameters of
SPTS “solar power tower system” supported with molten salt ESS on the
thermal and economic aspects [178]. Multiple data, including latitude,
longitude, solar multiple, and design point direct normal irradiance,
were utilized as inputs to the ANFIS model to forecast the parameters of
the LCOE “levelized cost of energy”, annual energy, and a capacity factor
of the SPTS. The data were extracted from the energy modeling simu­
lations carried out using System Advisor Model. 70 % of the data was
employed for ANFIS model training, while the rest was exploited for
testing. Combination of GA-TBLO “genetic and teaching-learning-based
optimization” algorithms was implemented to potentially optimize the
performance. Three different AI models were studied to predict two
boreholes’ ground temperature [179]. A group of 36,250 datasets was
collected for BH1, and a group of 188,640 datasets was harvested for
BH2. In the data preprocessing phase, the sample was normalized in the
range of 0,1 to avoid the occurrence of large errors. This enhanced the
generalization potential of the proposed intelligent models efficiently.
The results revealed that the back-propagation ANN, LS-SVM “least
square support vector machine” and fuzzy LS-SVM were employed to
intelligently follow the ground temperature of the two Boreholes. Depth
and time parameters were utilized as inputs for the models to obtain the
ground temperature predictively. The efficiency of a flat plate solar
collector supported with PCM was computationally predicted by various
methods during charging and discharging modes [180]. The computing
methods proposed were support vector machine (SVM), ANFIS, and
ANN. It was found that the values of R2 obtained from SVM method was
the closest to 1.0 among other methods used in this study. For a solar
collector with PCM, the collector efficiency kept increasing even though
the solar radiation decreased; this accounts for the presence of PCM.
Noticeably, the SVM displayed the best results. Moreover, the prediction
and optimization of the maximum operating temperature to transition
temperature variation (δT) and stabilization time (δts ) in the TES heat
sink with paraffin as PCM were done using ANN with GA [181]. The δts
and δT were attained through the numerical simulation using ANSYS
software for different fin thicknesses, heights, number, and PCM size.
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
Then, the verified numerical outcomes were employed to train the
proposed FFNN along with the learning algorithm of Levenberg-
Marquardt for predicting the δts and δT. A well-trained FFNN was
established as a fitness function to the GA for the system optimization to
boost up the stabilization time and reduce the operating temperature to
transition temperature variation. Regarding the setup, the numerical
simulation was performed on two types of TES heat sinks, namely
storage A without fins and storage B attached with two internal fins to
promote the heat transfer rate. The optimized TES heat sink δts was
significantly dropped by 64.12 % and 58.45 % compared with storage A
and storage B, respectively. As for δT, a reduction of 8.207 % and 6.015
% was recorded compared with storage A and storage B TES heat sinks,
respectively. ANN integrated with GA optimizer as a controlling system
was proposed by Cox et al. [182], to minimize the operational costs in
two different cases; time-of-use pricing and real-time pricing, and pre­
dicting the performance of ice storage in the district cooling system.
Different models were assessed by normalized mean bias error and root
mean squared error. Moreover, the thermal load was predicted by col­
lecting and comparing weather-forecasting data to measure the weather
parameters, including GHI, dry-bulb temperature (Tdb), and RH. The
CVRMSE and NMBE of this model were 18.0 % and 13.2 %, respectively.
A MPC based on FFNN using hyperbolic activation functions with two
hidden layers is also introduced, Fig. 8. The function of GA used in FFNN
was to solve the optimization issues regarding the operation of the
chillers plant.
3.2. AI for optimization of TESS
3.2.1. Artificial neural networks (ANN)
FFNN associated with GMDH “grouped method of data handling”
along with NSGA-II “non-dominated sorting genetic II” algorithms was
used as an optimization tool to find the smallest heating and cooling
loads in a PCM-enabled residential building [183]. The parameters were
the PCM’s thickness (t), PCM’s melting temperature (Tm ), outdoor
thermal resistance (R), inner gain (LG), and infiltration rate (ACH).
Moreover, the computation of cooling load [184] and heating load [185]
functions were successfully achieved from the simulation of the PCM
inside the building using EnergyPlus software. The optimization of
household water in five generation district heating and cooling (5GDHC)
energy transmission station [68] was performed with the help of model
predictive control based on an ANN (ANN-based MPC) [186]. The sys­
tem comprises PV panels located on the building roof, HP, and thermal
storage tank. A BP ANN-controlled thermostats for optimizing solar-
based thermal mass storage in homes was studied [187]. Regarding
the system model, two sets containing 48 input data, where each set had
24 input data. One of the two sets described the solar radiation, and the
other set represented the outdoor temperature. Additionally, a group of
24 Boolean values expressed the system output, where each output was
considered as a decision factor, determining whether the air conditioner
should be switched on or off. In other words, the decision taken
regarding home cooling was dependent on the availability of sufficient
solar energy for operating the air conditioning system. The previously
mentioned 48 input data were fed into the BP ANN design to predict the
values of the daily decision.
3.2.2. Metaheuristic optimization algorithms
A numerical model was conducted to optimize a water-PCM heat
exchanger for the cooling application utilizing GA approaches [188].
The proposed method was based on the finite difference method’s heat
balance. The validation procedure results indicated that the values of the
root mean squared error, the coefficient of variation, and the normalized
mean bias error demonstrated the accuracy of the proposed model.
However, an inconsiderable delayed response within the phase change
was observed due to minor heat transfer’s impact that was not consid­
ered in the heat balance equations. The optimization of the size, location
and energy management of the stationary super-capacitor energy
A.G. Olabi et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730

Fig. 8. The proposed structure of the Feed-forward neural network (FFNN) [182], with permission No. 5326061473484.

storage system to maintain the best voltage profile and economic effi­
ciency of metro systems was implemented by Xia et al.[189]. The opti­
mization method combined the GA with the simulation platform of the
urban rail power supply system. The simulation results indicated that
the best compromise between the voltage drop compensation and the
economic efficiency was maintained by the proposed optimization
method, which provided a beneficial reference to the subway applica­
tions. An optimization investigation was conducted to study a 4 MWh
underwater compressed air system [190]. The exergoeconomics, capital
expenditures, cost rate, and exergy destruction were analyzed numeri­
cally; and the sensitivity analysis was performed. The results of the
multi-objective optimization introduced the maximum round-trip effi­
ciency, operating profit, and minimum cost. The control co-optimization
and structure of CO2 ejector expansion heat pump coupled with cold and
hot water storage tanks (EHPTES) was intelligently carried out using GA
[191]. The co-optimization approach had consecutive stages, where in
the first step, the initial hot and cold-water temperature readings (Th and
Tc ) were fed into the dynamic control optimization model. The second
step utilized the GA to specify the best control parameters. In the third
step, the determined optimal control parameters were employed as in­
puts. In the fourth step, the GA was re-utilized to select the optimum
structure parameter. In the fifth step, the obtained optimal structure
parameter was compared with the initial ones. In step 6, an optimal
control plan was developed by entering the final optimum structure
parameters to the dynamic system model. Step 7 used GA to define the
best transient setting points during the thermal energy charging. In step
8, the determined setting points were fed into the dynamic system
model. Structure and control co-optimization (SCCO), single-objective

Fig. 9. EHPTES performance during thermal charging using CCP, SCO, and SCCO [191], with permission No. 5326061276151.

11
A.G. Olabi et al.
dynamic optimal control strategy [192], and constant control plan
(CCP) were implemented to effectively evaluate the EHPTES system
performance in terms of overall heating and cooling capacities and
power consumption. Fig. 9 represents the EHPTES performance during
the thermal charging utilizing CCP, SCO, and SCCO. It is observed that
the overall cooling capacity obtained by the SCCO was slightly larger
than the ones of SCO and CCP, leading to the lowest overall power
consumption during thermal energy charging, demonstrating the
reasonably good potential of the proposed method.
The optimization of a TES with PCM for solar LiBr-water absorption
chiller depending on the exergoeconomic analysis and the GA was
implemented [193]. The exergoeconomic analysis was based on finding
a number of methods to enhance the thermal performance considering
the economic restriction. A novel hybrid optimization approach that
coupled the GA with the dynamic programming (GA-DP) was proposed
to swiftly settle optimal operating strategy for CCHP “combined cooling,
heating, and power” system with TES as presented in Fig. 10 [194]. As
shown in the proposed optimization approach, 24-hourly set points of
energy generated by the PGU “power generation unit” are being opti­
mized through GA based on the objective function. Moreover, DP was
utilized to determine the optimum energy storage state and prepare the
fitness values concurrently. The GA-DP optimization method was
analytically compared with two other approaches, traditional GA and
DP-GA. In addition, the hybrid DP-GA in summer was exhibited the
optimum performance result of 69.42 %. While the GA-DP optimization
was achieved 69.45 % as the best value. More importantly, the proposed
Fig. 10. Flowchart of hybrid GA-DP optimization process, (Left) GA part, (Right) DP part [194], with permission No. 5326070113973.
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
optimization method was successfully increased the CCHP performance
by 1.92 %. For winter, although the hybrid DP-GA optimization
approach had the best result of 73.34 %, the computation of the results
took more than 10 h, which was unacceptable.
3.2.3. Hybrid AI techniques
Hybrid artificial intelligent techniques aim to combine different al­
gorithms to overcome the limitations of individual ones and attain
synergistic effects through hybridization. This leads to efficient opti­
mization performance with acceptable accuracy [184,195,196]. The
ANN, GA, MRA, and FL system were integrated to optimize the energy
consumption and indoor environment based on the simulation results
[197]. Air supply characteristics such as inlet temperature, ventilation
rate, and angle were used as design parameters. The GA was utilized to
maintain the optimal solution, while ANN and CFD were employed to
get each individual’s correct objectives values. On the other hand, the
MRA was utilized to decrease the variable space, and the FL was
employed to manage the execution routine to reduce the cost of the
computational procedure. The results revealed that using MRA and FL in
the design process, the computational cost and the variable space were
decreased by 35.7 % and 50 %, respectively. The multiple optimization
and predictive models were employed to optimally optimize the oper­
ation as well as the scheduling of a CHP plant [92]. The network of the
gas-fired CHP plant elementally consisted mainly of two GT “gas tur­
bines”, heat recovery hot water boilers (HRHWBs), hot water accumu­
lator (AC), and supplementary firing system that was utilized to boost
A.G. Olabi et al.
the thermal potential of the heat recovery boilers. Initially, a CHP plant
model was mathematically developed in Ebsilon®Professional software
to select the parameters of the CHP plant that could optimum the plant
production. The primary precedence of the CHP plant operation was to
ensure the needed thermal energy for the district heating network
(DHN). The magnitudes of the thermal power, electrical power, and fuel
expenditure in generation units were quantified. A cascade-type of PCM
was implemented in a solar thermal-based electricity generation power
plant as a TES unit using an implicit 2D model based on an adaptive
Crank-Nicolson [198,199]. The cascaded PCM performance was
assessed and compared with two molten salt-based tanks used in a
commercial CSP plant. It was deduced that accumulative power gener­
ation over the year and the total production output were similar [198].
An optimization scheme that involves FFNN along with GA was
employed for RDC “rotational desiccant cooling” system supported with
PVT-SAH “photovoltaic thermal collector-solar air heater” and PCM as
TES unit [200]. The PVT-SAH unit captured the thermal energy and
produced electricity as the captured thermal energy was then exploited
for PCM charging and/or DW regeneration. The RDC-PVT-SAH-TES
system was conducted in three different operational modes and
TRANSYS was used as a simulation platform. Proposed design optimi­
zation was introduced to boost the system’s specific net electricity
generation (SNEG). The matrix included a number of main design in­
puts, including PV covering factor, PVT-SAH air channel depth, DW
thickness, number of PCM layers, PCM material, and air channel depth.
A group of 320 simulation trials was performed to generate the training
data of the FFNN model, and 30 trials were used for validation. The
prediction performance of the FFNN model exhibited reasonably good
results of R2 and RMSE of 0.9993 and 0.0290, respectively. The decre­
ment of electric heater consumption and the increment of PV electricity
generation in near optimal design led to significant increase in the SNEG
and net electricity generation, compared with those in the baseline
design. Whereas the reduction in air channel depths of the TES unit and
PVT-SAH resulted in decreasing the fan’s power consumption in near-
optimal design compared with baseline design. At the optimal design,
the TES unit introduced a share in a large portion of thermal energy for
regenerating the DW compared with the baseline design, as the electric
heater energy requirement was reduced from day 15 to day 25.
3.3. AI for control of TESS
3.3.1. Artificial neural networks (ANN)
The back-propagation (BP) neural network was implemented as the
optimum control method for estimating the returning water tempera­
ture, denoted as a phase change TSS model [201]. The secondary
network water temperature was primarily influenced by the heat flow
via the building, while the amount of heat dissipated depending on the
outdoor temperature. Accordingly, the BP neural network was modeled,
utilizing the secondary water supply temperature and outdoor temper­
ature to estimate the dynamic temperature accurately. The predicted
dynamic temperature values were analyzed and compared with the
measured ones, as presented in Fig. 11. As a result, it was observed that
the predicted and measured findings were quite close, with a RMSE of
0.186.
3.3.2. Fuzzy logic (FL)
A VDF “variable domain fuzzy” PID control approach was tested to
stabilize heating water temperature in valley electric phase-change
thermal storage for two different operating modes [202]. In the heat­
ing section, a variable frequency blower (VFB) was controlled to supply
cold air with various wind speeds. The implemented control system
included VDF PID controller, VFB, electric regenerator, and heat
exchanger. The VFD PID controller was established to control the
heating system corresponding to the operational mode of the valley
electric phase-change TES. The contraction changes approach and error
domain expansion along with seven linguistic value variables were
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Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
Fig. 11. Comparison between predicted and measured findings of dynamic
temperature [201], open access.
specified to split the domain. Also, the flexible modifications of the
scaling factor were necessary so that the domain stays constant when­
ever the error and error change rate is large. The adjustments were done
by variable domain fuzzy PID controller during heat storage and heat
release. It was found that within 2.25 h, the change of system parameters
was enormous, attributing to the clear alteration of the control level.
Despite that VDF PID control resulted in a certain overshoot regarding
the temperature of the heated water, the stabilized temperature of the
heated water was 57 ◦ C with an error of 2 ◦ C during the storing process,
implying that the heating performance was reasonable. Similarly, the
stable heat release process was achieved as the furnace temperature was
dropped linearly during the exothermic heating, mentioning that the
stabilized heating water temperature was as identical as the one during
heat storage. A fuzzy control was proposed to keep the HTF “heat
transfer fluid” inlet temperature around certain set point in a solar-based
fresh air system combined with a latent heat thermal storage tank [203].
The solar fresh air system functions in three different operational modes.
The solar-based fresh air system efficiently handled a bunch of issues
such as ambient temperature, solar radiation, and wind speed. There­
fore, the multi-input single-output fuzzy control system was employed to
control the measured temperature. The input parameters were the fresh
air temperature and the deviation change rate, where the single output
was the water flow rate. Remarkably, it was observed that the fuzzy
control exhibited an accurate tracking of the input signals with a mini­
mum overshoot of around 4.4 % with a fast response time. A control
framework containing fuzzy logic/feed-forward controller (FLFFC) was
studied to improve the performance of a hybrid TESS (HTESS) [204].
The proposed framework runs both feed-forward controllers (FFC) and
FL to measure the electric energy (thermal) required to be stored in the
HTESS. The FFC computed the electricity consumption plot for the
heating unit. Additionally, a PID controller was introduced to regulate
the electric fan to fix the room temperature. During midnight, FLC uti­
lized the metrological data forecasts to find out the thermal energy
needed for the next day. The input parameters to the FLC were the
forecasted solar radiation, energy loss (estimated) from HTESS in the
next day, and the electric energy (thermal) stored in the previous day.
The temperature error was processed for the PID controller block to
compute the flow rate of air provided by the fan. The proposed control
framework performance was evaluated by conducting a few numerical
simulations employing the recorded metrological data for January. The
PID-controller#1 operated continually while the functions PID-
controller#2 was discontinuous based on the time plan similar to the
FLFFC one. The results exhibited that the HTESS was controlled better,
and less electricity consumption was successfully achieved for space
heating by FLFFC. The PID controllers produced higher room tempera­
ture than that of FLFFC, leading to frequently undesired overheating.
A.G. Olabi et al.
4. Summary and discussion
The aforementioned AI approaches differ from deterministic nu­
merical optimization methods, where they are agent-based models; they
rely on training data to adjust their strategy and procedures to achieve
the appropriate solution, and they involve stochastic decision processes,
and independent of the inputs uncertainty to reach the correct solution.
The artificial intelligence techniques based on the results of the CFD are
adopted to optimize different types of the TES, however the computa­
tional cost is the prime barrier in the hybrid artificial intelligent tech­
niques. The ANN technique’s computational cost is negligible compared
with the cost of the CFD methodology, therefore, it was chosen as a
substitute model for CFD. The ANN can introduce the system response
over the full design space to avoid the predicted uncertainty and the risk
of the prediction error. The FL is a promising artificial intelligence for
hybrid approaches, as it can manage the execution routine of CFD
analysis and reduce needless operations. Furthermore, the FLC does not
require complicated analytical statements or knowledge of the control
object model.
The current improvements in TES’s control strategy concern the
quick creation of new AI algorithms for solving challenging problems.
Multi-target challenges, such as technical constraints and economic
should be considered in optimization AI algorithms [205]. Moreover,
the functions of the TES output power substantially depend on the
technology of AI that should be integrated with the control approach
with a higher level of robustness and performance [206]. The powerful
functionality of ANN in analyzing heat transfer processes and thermal
energy storage practices is approved. The FL systems often use the
membership function as a graphical tool for displaying how each point
in the input space is charted to a membership. Moreover, among arti­
ficial intelligent techniques for TES, the GA is the most popular since
obtaining the universal optimum solution is easier and simpler. In some
applications of the TES, training datasets are required as well as the
physics-based model should generate the validation dataset. Regarding
the assessment, the mean square error (MSE) and the relative energy
balance error may be established as performance evaluators for the
neural network model and compared with the outputs of the physics-
based model. Due to the reason that the electrical, thermal energy
data is basically time-based series data, the recurrent neural network
(RNN) can attain highly precise results in case of succeeding machine
learning duty. The relative increase in accuracy of RNN model is
potentially magnificent even for distinct heating demand plots. On the
other hand, this increment in accuracy could differ based on the
behavior of the heating demand profile. The LSTM RNN is employed and
effectively trained with BP algorithm. The prediction layer contains the
multivariate Bi-directional LSTM model which establishes adaptive
moment estimation as an optimization algorithm to compute the adap­
tive learning ratio for distinct elements and hold less storage resources.
The thermal energy utilization prediction (TEUP) is mostly dependent
on environmental factors and attributes. The forecasting of electricity
expense is performed using multiple models, including triple exponen­
tial smoothing (TES) and FFNN. The FFNN is the most accurate model
for the one-week training dataset. As well, it is observed that the higher
the linearity, the more accurate FFNN predictions are.
The FFNN model is mainly utilized to quickly achieve the required
findings in TES due to its outstanding prediction accuracy, among other
NN configurations. Nano-PCM photovoltaic (PVT) TESS can be inte­
grated by adding nanoparticles with different concentrations to base
fluid and PCM. The PCMs act as latent heat storage units to effectively
promote the thermal performance of the constructed solar chimney, as
they can potentially capture massive amount of heat within small vari­
ations of temperature throughout cloudy days and nights. Interestingly,
the introduced nanofluid-nano-PCM collector can effectively improve
the heat transfer rate as well as minimize material expenses. Since the
HVAC is usually non-linear and dynamic, the NARX model with satlins
transfer function can be effectively implemented. It utilizes the
14
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
mathematically expressed external, state and control variables to predict
the HVAC power consumption. As each hour denotes a single decision
step, the DP should compute all energy storage states for every decision
step. Once all decision steps are calculated, the DP can define the
optimal energy storage state and the fitness value of each possible so­
lution before sending them to the GA. In other words, it can be deduced
that the computational time of the proposed hybrid GA-DP approach is
greatly acceptable for scheduling the CCHP system, as it effectively
optimized the operation of CCHP with TES. Additionally, the fitness
values were affected with respect to hot or cool water storage capacities.
It was observed there is no drop in the fitness value beyond 300 kW and
450 kW for chilled and hot water storage tanks, respectively. Table. 1
summarizes the research in applying various AI technologies to opti­
mize, predict, and control the TES units involved in thermal energy
systems, highlighting remarkable comments, and outcomes of each work
done. It can be observed the majority of studies investigated the
implementation of AI mostly in storage tanks as well as phase change
materials. For instance, the work done in [186] optimized the domestic
hot water tank using MPC based on RNN and nonlinear autoregressive
ANN, which resulted in shifting 14 % of electricity from on-peak to off-
peak. [200], therefore, maximized the specific net electricity generation.
It is clear also from the table that ANN demonstrated excellent func­
tionality and flexibility.
5. Recommendations and future research
Even though the studies investigating the implementation of AI ap­
proaches in thermal energy storage showed notable findings, it is highly
recommended to explore several essential points that could beneficially
increase the significance of this topic:
▪ As AI techniques are improving quickly in recent years and
more advanced methods with enhanced performance are
emerging, the investigation of the employment of recent state-
of-the-art methods that showed superior performance in the
fields of computer vision and natural language processing for
the modelling and analysis of TES systems should be investi­
gated. An example of these techniques is the transformer
network that showed excellent performance in time series
prediction, which can be applied for similar prediction tasks
involving TES. Another example is the implementation of
recent metaheuristic optimization algorithms such as the Grey
Wolf Optimizer (GWO), Whale Optimization Algorithm (WOA),
and other recent metaheuristic techniques for the optimization
of the design and operation of various TES systems.
▪ More explorations are desired for optimizing new PCMs for
high-temperature applications (at 180 ◦ C to 250 ◦ C) rather than
those used for conventional low-temperature applications using
different AI technologies to reduce the size of the TES and in­
crease the efficiency.
▪ Solar ponds are one of the most important thermal energy
storage systems that have a wide range of applications. How­
ever, no studies discussed the application of AI techniques for
designing, modelling, analyzing, and optimizing these systems.
Therefore, it is recommended to apply various AI techniques in
this type of TESS. Promising AI techniques that could be
implemented, including RNNs and transformer networks for
parameter series prediction and metaheuristic search algo­
rithms for system optimization.
▪ The application of AI techniques in TES for controlling, man­
aging, and optimizing the charging and discharging of the
materials of the thermal storage system based on the forecast
requirements should be implemented. Implementing a com­
pound AI system that consists of a predictor for forecasting and
a controller for instantaneous system optimization is recom­
mended as it can reach higher overall system efficiency. AI
A.G. Olabi et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730

Table 1
Detailed summary of the discussed studies.
Ref. TES system AI role AI technique Objective of AI technique Remarks/Comments

[167] Thermal storage electric Prediction Recurrent neural network Controlling and predicting load demand The closeness between the predicted and
boilers profile of power grid real load profiles indicated the prediction
potential of the RNN with small relative
error.
[151] Multi-channel thermal Prediction LSTM-BP ANN predicting the process of phase It was found that the studied LSTM-BP
storage tank transition of PCM based ANN exhibited good accuracy in
predicting the average temperature of PCM
as well as liquid fraction.
[152] water-PCM solar thermal Prediction ANN prediction of solar fraction of hybrid The results indicated that the proposed
storage system solar thermal storage system which ANN achieved R2 value of 0.9999.
involves PCM
[153] PCM composited with Prediction ANN prediction of liquid fraction and Nu It has been found an excellent prediction
metal foam-fin hybrid throughout the process of phase change performance was displayed by the ANN
structure
[170] Air conditioning and Prediction Model predictive control based Controlling HVAC system The NARX successfully modeled the
heating ventilation on non-linear autoregressive thermal behavior of the building.
[159] Hot water storage tank Prediction Feed-forward ANN Design validation of the hot water The validation results overall conductance
storage tank in solar water heating obtained from both mathematical as well
system as NN models were close to each other,
with a maximum error of 2.62 %.
[175] Storage tank Prediction Feed-forward ANN Designing thermal stratification of The ANN model generated an average
storage tank in solar thermal system temperature of 0.22 ◦ C with correlation of
0.9998 for no-load periods, and 0.76 ◦ C
with correlation of 0.9666 for load periods.
[169] External-melt ice coldness Prediction Model predictive control based Enhancing the operation of large The performance of the neural network
TES on neural network temperature difference refrigerating control model was effective even under the
station fluctuations of the thermal load.
[201] Phase change material Control ANN Estimation of the return water Predicted and measured findings were
temperature quite close, with a RMSE of 0.186.
[161] Phase change material Prediction Feed-forward ANN Evaluation of thermal and electrical The NANO configuration exhibited the
(paraffin wax)/ SiC efficiencies of various photovoltaic/ highest thermal and electrical efficiencies.
nanofluid thermal collector configurations
[168] Phase change material Prediction Feed-forward ANN Evaluation of thermal performance of Experimental and predicted results were
(paraffin wax) solar chimney close to each other, with average relative
error and relative error of 1.8326 % and
2.1546 %, respectively.
[173] Hot water tank in solar Prediction Feed-forward ANN Forecasting the performance of solar The results proved the superiority of the
thermal energy system thermal energy system highly accurate ANN prediction.
[166] Thermal storage tank Prediction Recurrent neural network Heating demand Prediction of campus The deep RNN model generally performed
buildings better than a 3-layer FFNN.
[204] hybrid thermal energy Control Fuzzy logic/feed-forward Enhancing the performance of hybrid Less electricity consumption was
storage controller TESS successfully achieved for space heating by
fuzzy logic/feed-forward controller.
[203] Latent heat thermal Control Fuzzy control Maintaining the inlet temperature of the The fuzzy control exhibited an accurate
storage tank heat transfer fluid around certain set tracking of the input signals with minimum
point in a solar-based fresh air system overshoot around 4.4 %.
combined with latent heat thermal
storage
[171] Water tank Prediction Feed-forward ANN Maximizing the savings An increment of 6.501 % in savings was
accomplished by the ANN.
[200] Phase change material Optimization Feed-forward ANN with genetic Maximizing the specific net electricity The decrement of electric heater
algorithm production consumption and the increment of PV
electricity generation in near optimal
design led to significant increase in the
SNEG and net electricity generation.
[182] Ice storage Prediction Feed-forward integrated with Minimizing the operational costs of time During ice storage operation, the cost
genetic algorithm of use and real time pricings, besides the savings of time of use and real time pricings
prediction of ice storage performance obtained by NARX neural network were
9.5 % and 8.4 %, respectively.
[186] Domestic hot water tank Optimization MPC based on recurrent NNW Optimization of domestic hot water Overall optimization was accomplished by
and nonlinear autoregressive production in fifth-generation district shifting 14 % of the electricity
ANN heating and cooling energy transmission consumption from on-peak to off-peak
station period.
[183] Phase change material Optimization Feed-forward ANN associated Optimization of heating and cooling The maximum value of error achieved
integrated into a with grouped method of data loads between the ANN-obtained and real results
residential building handling and non-dominated was 5.5 %.
sorting genetic II algorithms
[92] Hot water accumulator of Optimization Feed-forward ANN Optimization of operation and An average variation between resulted and
CHP plant scheduling of CHP plant real values of 0.4 for ambient temperature,
0.7 MW for thermal power and 4.57 USD/
MWh for electricity expense were obtained.
[187] Thermal mass storage Optimization ANN optimized with GA Optimization of solar-based thermal ANN-controlled thermostats performance
mass storage in homes exhibited low error.
[160] Prediction Feed-forward ANN
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15
A.G. Olabi et al. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730

Table 1 (continued )
Ref. TES system AI role AI technique Objective of AI technique Remarks/Comments

Storage tank in grid- Performance evaluation of grid- The Multi-layer perceptron model was
connected hybrid connected hybrid photovoltaic thermal successfully achieved acceptably accurate
photovoltaic thermal system results.
system
[176] Finned-tube surrounded Prediction Feed-forward ANN Predicting and analyzing the total heat Functionality of ANN in analyzing heat
by Phase change material stored in thermal energy storage system transfer processes was powerful and how
(water) which consist of finned-tube surrounded effective for thermal energy storage
by water practices.
[174] Hot and cold water Prediction Feed-forward ANN Predicting cooling capacity and The RMSEr between the predicted and
storage tanks in solar- coefficient of performance of absorption actual values was not more than 0.70 %.
powered air-conditioning chiller
system
[179] Boreholes Prediction Back-propagation ANN, least Predicting the ground temperature of Although the prediction accuracy of fuzzy
square support vector machine two boreholes LS-SVM was slightly slower than ANN
(LS-SVM), fuzzy LS-SVM model, its computational speed was mostly
higher by three times.
[180] Phase change material Prediction SVM, ANFIS, ANN Predicting the performance of flat plate The SVM showed the best prediction
(sodium carbonate solar collector supported with PCM outcomes and the utilization of PCM
decahydrate) provides much better performance.
Stratified TES tank Prediction Feed-forward ANN Predicting the performance of stratified The optimum number of neurons was 90
[177]
TES tank located in gas district cooling in which exhibits the best prediction results
terms of thermocline thickness as well as and the overall R2 is 0.99.
half-cycle figure of merit
PCM (Aluminum and Prediction Feed-forward ANN Prediction and Optimization of The optimized TES heat sink stabilization
[181] paraffin) stabilization time and maximum time were dropped by 64.12 % and 58.45
operating temperature to transition %, and reduction of 8.207 % and 6.015 %
temperature variation for maximum operating temperature to
transition temperature variation compared
with Storage A and Storage B TES heat
sinks.
Phase change material Prediction Feed-forward ANN Prediction of Nu during melting process The prediction performance of the ANN
[158]
(RT42 paraffin) of RT42 paraffin was high in accuracy, with maximum error
of 6.0 %.
Nanofluid-nano-PCM Prediction Feed-forward ANN/Self- Prediction of power generation in Electrical current exerted the highest
[155] photovoltaic thermal organized feature map ANN nanofluid-nano-PCM PVT energy system impact on PVT power generation outputs of
energy system P-M1 and P-M2. While solar irradiance
exhibited the most impact for P-M3.
[147] Preheated water by Prediction GA-PSO-optimized inverted Prediction of PTC’s thermal efficiency Simultaneous optimization of three
parabolic trough solar ANN variables was successfully accomplished a
collectors thermal efficiency of 67.12 %, ANNi-PSO
outperforms ANNi-GA.
[164] Storage tank Prediction GA-PSO-optimized ANN Prediction of solar space heating system The GA-PSO optimized neural network
driven by parabolic trough collector displayed superior prediction performance.
[162] Sorption heat reactor Prediction Non-linear autoregressive and Prediction of sorption heat reactor The NARX and FFNN models displayed
feed-forward neural networks performance accurate prediction of the overall
performance.
[157] (CaO)/(Ca(OH)2) Prediction Non-linear autoregressive Prediction of the internal states of CaO)/ Moderate depth of feedback delay
thermochemical ESS neural network with deep Ca(OH)2 thermochemical ESS produced better prediction performance,
frequency indicating that the network captured the
latency of the system.
[163] Energy storage heat pump Prediction Generalized regression neural Prediction of the relationship between The operating characteristics of the system
system network independent and dependent variables of were significantly influenced by the solar
solar PVT supported gas engine driven radiation and the ambient temperature,
energy storage HP system and less influenced by the speed of wind.
[154] Phase change material Prediction Feed-forward ANN Prediction of the time needed for The performance of the ANN model in
(encapsulated paraffin complete phase conversion of the PCM predicting the PCM charging time was
wax) efficiently accurate.
[156] Hot water tank in nearly Prediction Model predictive control-based Prediction of the total energy demand in The MPC-based ANN can forecast the heat
zero-energy building ANN nearly zero-energy building consumption only based on ambient
temperatures and the consumption of the
previous 24 h.
[165] Thermal storage heater Prediction Recurrent neural network Prediction of thermal energy usage of The predicted thermal energy utilization
thermal storage heater data was exhibited minimum value of
RMSE of 0.15, indicating the decent
accuracy of the model.
[194] Storage tanks (hot and Optimization Genetic algorithm coupled with Setting optimal operating strategy for The proposed optimization method was
cold water) dynamic programming combined cooling, heating and power successfully increased the CCHP
system with TES performance in summer and winter by
1.92 % and 1.91 %, respectively.
[202] Phase change material Control VFD PID control Stabilizing heating water temperature in The stabilized heating water temperature
valley electric phase change thermal was 57 ◦ C with an error of 2 ◦ C during heat
storage storage process, implying that the heating
performance was reasonable.
[191] Storage tanks (hot and Optimization GA Co-optimization of CO2 ejector Although the overall cooling capacity
cold water) expansion HP coupled with storage obtained by the SCCO was slightly larger
tanks for hot and cold water than the ones of SCO and CCP, it achieved
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16
A.G. Olabi et al.
Table 1 (continued )
Ref. TES system AI role AI technique
[178] Molten salt Prediction Adaptive neuro fuzzy inference
system
[172] Phase change material Prediction GMDH neural network
(RT20 paraffin)
techniques including sequence prediction models, such as
NARX, RNNs, and optimization models such as PSO, could in­
crease the global capacity of the TESS for different applications.
▪ Integration of artificial intelligence techniques such as fuzzy
and ANNs with modern optimization algorithms can provide an
accurate and rapid optimum performance of the various ther­
mal energy storage systems
▪ Hybrid energy storage methods, such as PCM-based TES inte­
grated with battery energy storage, should be investigated
using AI techniques. SVMs, FL, and ANFIS demonstrated
excellent performance in literature in terms of accuracy and
speed, and they could be used for such integrated energy stor­
age systems.
▪ Renewable energy sources such as solar and wind are fluctu­
ating; therefore, energy storage systems such as TESS are
needed. Moreover, energy consumption also fluctuates as it can
increase or decrease. Therefore, there is an urgent need to
model, optimize, and predict the energy source, energy storage,
and energy consumption. Simultaneous multi-variable optimi­
zation using AI techniques could be effectively applied to ach­
ieve this target.
▪ The current AI techniques applied in the TES are concerned
with efficiency and cost. However, other parameters such as
environmental impacts and safety should be considered.
▪ The effect of various optimization strategies on energy-saving
should be examined, considering the limitations of the deci­
sion variables. Finally, there is an extremely convenient set of
implementations of AI techniques that profit the design and
operation of different ESSs related to energy forecasting for
short, mid, and long terms.
6. Conclusion
This work reported the application of various AI techniques in
modelling, optimizing, forecasting, and controlling energy storage sys­
tems’ overall performance, focusing on thermal storage systems. GA,
PSO, ANN, SVM, FL, and ANFIS, were the common AI approaches
applied in TESS. The performance of the aforementioned techniques is
evaluated using multiple performance indicators. According to the
literature, storage tanks and phase change materials are the most studied
TESS. The main concluded points of the present review are:
• ANN introduces several advantages, such as flexibility, cheap, and
reliable data processing compared with conventional modelling
methods such as CFD. Furthermore, ANN demonstrated robustness
and effectiveness in analyzing various heat transfer processes.
• It has been addressed that the controlling potential of ANN-based
predictive control model is efficient under thermal load fluctua­
tions (that are not easily handled using conventional modelling
methods). Moreover, ANN-based frameworks demonstrated vital
potential in maximizing energy savings of TES water tanks by up to
6.5 %.
• FL control has displayed accurate tracking of the input signals with a
minimal overshoot of roughly 4.4 % while maintaining the
17
Thermal Science and Engineering Progress 39 (2023) 101730
Objective of AI technique Remarks/Comments
the lowest overall power consumption
during thermal energy charging.
Studying the design parameters effect of The predicted results of GA-TBLO
solar power tower supported with optimized ANFIS model successfully
molten salt ESS on the thermal and exhibited remarkable agreement with the
economical aspects real data.
The assessment of long term There was a reasonable matching between
performance of latent heat TES merged the simulated and ANN-predicted results.
in cooling ventilation system
temperature of the heat transfer fluid at the desired temperature.
Equally important, incorporating FL controllers into ANNs effec­
tively promoted the efficacy of the hybrid TESS by reducing space
heating costs by 40 %.
• Although the operational/controlling parameters are varied from
one TES system to another, ambient temperature, system inlet tem­
perature, solar radiation, wind speed, water volumetric flow rate,
relative humidity, dry-bulb temperature, and ventilation rate are
commonly used in modelling and optimizing the various TESS.
• Simultaneous multi-variable optimization using emerging AI tech­
niques, such as GA, PSO and ANN, successfully predicted the thermal
efficiency of parabolic trough solar collectors for water-preheating.
The combination of ANN with GA achieved cost savings of around
10 %.
• Introducing AI techniques in various TESS improved the overall
performance of the proposed systems in terms of decreasing space,
decreasing cost, and/or increasing efficiency.
• The present review shows that applying AI techniques in TES is still
progressing research endeavor. The main limitation of using AI is the
dependence of its accuracy on the input data. Therefore, special care
must be given to the input data.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgement
The authors would thank the University of Sharjah for supporting the
current work through project number CoV19-0202.
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