Topic 4 & 14:

Chemical Bonding
& Structure

Ionic & Metallic

Bonding
 Ionic Bonding & Structure

Ionic compounds consist of ions held

together in lattice structures by ionic bonds.

1. Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons.

2. Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons.

3. The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron

configuration of the atom.

4. The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely

charged ions.

5. Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with

lattice structures.
 Ionic Bonding & Structure

Application & Skills:

1. Deduction of the formula and name of an ionic compound from its

component ions, including polyatomic ions.

2. Explanation of the physical properties of ionic compounds (volatility,

electrical conductivity and solubility) in terms of their structure.
Types of bonding
• What are the types of bonding you
have learned previously?

➢ Ionic
➢ Covalent
➢ Metallic

• What is the “driving force” behind why

atoms undergo chemical bonding?

➢ Greater stability
 What happens during
bonding?
• Consider the energy changes that occur when 2
atoms join together to form a molecule.

H(g) + H(g) → H2(g) ΔH = -432 KJ mol-1

Cl(g) + Cl(g) → Cl2(g) ΔH = -156 KJ mol-1

• Both reactions are exothermic and is true for all bond forming reactions.
• The bonding results in a liberation of energy (given off as heat).
• This energy is given off to the surroundings, therefore the energy of
• the system decreases → stability increases.
➢ Thus, we can conclude that atoms join together (bond) in order to achieve
greater stability. Energy is the most important factor in bond formation.
 Ionic bonding

• It involves the transfer of electrons from the metal to

the non-metal to form ions that come together to form
a giant ionic structure (lattice).
Structure
consists of
many cations
& anions
closely
packed in a
lattice.

Ionic bond is the strong electrostatic

Both ions have the electron configurations of forces of attraction between cations &
noble gases in which the outer shell usually anions
consists of a stable octet of electrons.

Bonding Structure
 Representations of ionic
bonding & structure
• Using ‘dot and cross’ diagram to show how the
formation of ions in sodium chloride

• Using Lewis diagram to show the outer shell of

electrons.
 Energy considerations &
ionic bonding
• What is the enthalpy change for the formation of the sodium ion
from the sodium atom in the gaseous state?

➢ Ionisation energy of Na atom (endothermic process)

Na(g) → Na+(g) + e- ΔHθIE = 496 KJ mol-1

• What is the enthalpy change for the formation of the chloride

ion from the chlorine atom in the gaseous state?

➢ Electron affinity of Cl atom (exothermic process)

Cl(g) + e- → Cl-(g) ΔHθEA= -349 KJ mol-1
 Energy considerations &
ionic bonding
• Although the electron affinity is often exothermic,
it is never large enough to compensate for the
endothermic ionisation energy. Therefore there
strong electrostatic forces of seems to be no energetic advantage in the
attraction between formation of ions.
oppositely charged ions

• It is the energy released as the oppositely charged

ions form the ionic bond that makes the overall
process exothermic. (These energy changes will be
revisited in more detail when studying Energetics)

• The lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change that

occurs when one mole of a solid ionic compound is
formed from its gaseous ions under standard
conditions.
ΔHθlattice = -790 KJ mol-1
 Physical properties of
matter

Forces of attraction
• Melting /boiling
➢ Strong electrostatic
points Can be forces of attraction
➢ Strong covalent bonds
• Hardness explained ➢ Weak intermolecular
by forces of attraction
• Solubility
Moving charged particles
• Electrical
➢ Ions
conductivity
➢ electrons
 Physical properties of Ionic
compounds
Ionic compounds have high melting /boiling points

• Ionic substance has a giant ionic structure with strong electrostatic

forces of attraction between cations and anions.
• During melting, a lot of energy is absorbed to overcome this strong
electrostatic forces of attraction.
→ Thus ionic compounds has high melting point.
• The substance is in molten state (melted solid /liquid)
 Physical properties of Ionic
compounds
Ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity
in molten /aqueous state
• Substances can conduct electricity due to moving ions or electrons.

Strong electrostatic
forces of attraction
hold the ions in fixed
positions
 Physical properties of Ionic
compounds
Most ionic compounds are soluble & dissolve in water
(polar solvent) to form solutions.
The negative end of water molecule
(oxygen end) is attracted to the
• During dissolving, the solvent particles
cations & surround them interact with the solute particles.
• “Like dissolves Like” – polar solutes will
dissolve in polar solvents; non-polar solutes
will dissolve in non-polar solvents.

• Forces of attraction between solute particles

& solvent particles are formed.

• If a solid is soluble in the solvent → forces of

The positive end of water molecule
(hydrogen end) is attracted to the anions
& surround them
attraction between solid & solvent particles
are strong enough to overcome the forces of
attraction between the particles of the solid
to break it apart.
 Physical properties of Ionic
compounds
Ionic compounds are brittle – they shatter when they
are hit
 Metallic Bonding & Structure

Metallic bonds involve a lattice of cations

with delocalized electrons.

1. A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of

positive ions and delocalized electrons.

2. The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions

and the radius of the metal ion.

3. Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced
properties.
 Metallic Bonding & Structure

Application & Skills:

1. Explanation of electrical conductivity and malleability in metals.

2. Explanation of trends in melting points of metals.

3. Explanation of the properties of alloys in terms of non-directional

bonding.
 Metallic bonding

How is metallic bonding being represented in diagram?

Positive metal cation –

made up of nucleus +
inner energy level
electrons

• The shared “electron sea” bonds the metal ions tightly into the lattice..
• The electrons involved are only the valence electrons in the highest energy
level of the metal atoms (furthest away from the nucleus)
• The electrons are said to be delocalised, i.e. no longer attached to one
particular nucleus.
 Metallic properties

This model is a simplification but it can explain the

typical metal properties:

• Metals are malleable & ductile

• Metals have high melting points
• Metals are good electrical conductors
• Metals are good thermal conductors
• Melting points increase across the period
E.g. Na ---> Mg ---> Al (Why?)
 Explaining Metallic
properties
Why did the melting point increases from Na to Mg to Al?

• The strength of metallic bonding increases from Na, through Mg,

to Al as the number of valence electrons per atom increases from
1 to 2 & then 3.

• The ionic radius decreases from Na to Mg to Al as the large

increase in nuclear charge outweighs the small increase in
shielding effect of electrons.
➢ the melting points increase from sodium to aluminium

Strength of 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐚𝐭𝐨𝐦

metallic bond 𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐜 𝐫𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐬
 What are alloys?

An alloy is a mixture of a metal with one or a few other

elements.

• Alloys have properties that are distinct from their component elements
due to the different packing of the cations in the lattice.
• The alloy is often stronger and more resistant to corrosion.
Uses of alloys