Course No: URP 6101 Course Title: Planning Process and Theories

Term Paper
On
Planning Theories and Practices for Community Facilities

Submitted To: Submitted By:

Tusar Kanti Roy Md. Sohel Rana
Assistant Professor Roll: 1717558
Dept. of URP, KUET

Department of Urban and Regional Planning

Khulna University of Engineering and Technology
Background of Planning Theories
The industrialized cities of the 19th century had grown at a tremendous rate, with the pace and style of building
largely dictated by private business concerns as well as the nineteenth century witnessed the climax of the
industrial revolution and also, the worst of its anomalies. The process of urbanization had become dramatic, and
the uncontrollable influx of the rural people flooding into the towns in search of employment and urban
amenities reached alarming proportions. The resulting conditions were almost indescribable, unsanitary,
disease-ridden, back to back hovels, squalidly assembled in over-crowded settlements. From this point of view,
The century was distinguished by a number of ―Utopians‖, a term coined by Karl Marx to describe a group of
social thinkers whose attitude was unscientific and idealistic, and who hoped to improve the conditions of the
working class by individual benevolence, philanthropy and enterprise. These reformers concentrated on the
development of separate new communities outside urban areas, and there emerged a succession of plans based
on variety of political, social and philanthropical ideas. It was indeed a period rich in ―Utopians‖ and planning
and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century (Modi, 2007).

Planning Theories for Urban Community Facilities

An overview of planning theories from industrial revolution to date is listed below:

SL No. Name of the Theories Authors/Professionals Year

01 Linear City Don Asturo Soria Y Mata 1883
02 Garden City Ebenezer Howard 1902
03 Region City Patrick Geddes 1909
04 Radiant City Le Corbusier 1922
05 Concentric Zone Theory Ernest Burgess 1925
06 The Neighborhood Unit Theory Clarence Perry 1929
07 Redburn City Clarence Stein & Henry Wright 1929
08 Sector Theory Homer Hoyt 1932
09 Central Place Theory Walter Christaller 1933
10 Broadacre City Frank Lloyd Wright 1934
11 Multiple Nuclei Model C.D Harris &Edward L Ullman 1945
12 Urban Realm Model James E. Vance Jr. 1960
Note: Theories and Models from 1960-2018 are mainly for planning tools and techniques developed by
different authors, organizations, departments etc.
(Source: Modi, 2007)

1. Linear City

History and Professional Contributions

The linear city was a proposal made by Arturio Soria at the end of the 19th century, to turn Madrid into a more
human city, a city which was closer to nature (Madrid, 1844 -1920 ) He was an architect and an engineer ,
especially well- kwnon by his idea of building a linear city. He introduced the first tram in Madrid and also a
suburban train . From 1886, he devoted his life to this project.

Right side of the figure is Statue of Arturo Soria placed in Arturo Soria Street. There is also an underground
station called The linear city: Ciudad Lineal.

Left Side of the figure is the representation of Arturo Soria´s dreamed was to solve some of the problems that
Madrid had at that time: transport, overpopulation and sanitary conditions.

Planning Components and Management Issues

The linear city was an urban plan for an elongated urban formation. The city would consist of a series of
functionally specialized parallel sectors. Generally, the city would run parallel to a river and be built so that the
dominant wind would blow from the residential areas to the industrial strip (Memisevic and stachura, 2017).
The sectors of a linear city would be:

 a purely segregated zone for railway lines,

 a zone of production and communal enterprises, with related scientific, technical and educational
institutions,

 a green belt or buffer zone with major highway,

 a residential zone, including a band of social institutions, a band of residential buildings and a
"children's band",

 a park zone, and

 an agricultural zone with gardens and state-run farms

A town for 30,000 people based upon the principal transport route which is 100 meter wide of infinite length
depending upon urban growth.
 All services channeled along the street
 Other community facilities group at regular intervals
 Residential area is limited to 200 meter either side beyond which would lie the Countryside.
 The linear city gears away from the usual centric urban forms. The lines help control the expansion of a
city.

There were two different theories to solve the problems caused by the industrial revolution:

Naturistic theories: The houses would have a garden and an orchard.

Hygienist theories: Their objective was to improve the sanitary conditions of the city.

Proposals:
- to build wider streets
- to build detached or semidetached houses.
2. Garden City

History and Professional Contributions

Sir Ebenezer Howard, (born Jan. 29, 1850, London, Eng.—died May 1, 1928, Welwyn Garden City,
Hertfordshire), founder of the English garden-city movement, which
influenced urban planning throughout the world.
After starting work in a stockbroker’s office at age 15, Howard learned
shorthand and held various jobs as a private secretary and stenographer
before becoming a shorthand reporter in the London law courts. He was a
liberal social reformer who was decisively influenced by Edward
Bellamy’s utopian novel Looking Backward (1889).
In the 1880s Howard wrote To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Social Reform. Not published until 1898, this work
was reissued in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-morrow. In this book he proposed the founding of ―garden cities,‖
each a self-sufficient entity—not a dormitory suburb—of 30,000 population, and each ringed by an agricultural
belt unavailable to builders. Howard was attempting to reverse the large-scale migration of people from rural
areas and small towns to cities, which were becoming overpopulated. Howard’s garden cities were intended to
provide heretofore rural districts with the economic opportunities and the amenities of large industrial cities.
Each garden city would be owned by a private corporation.
Howard had the gift of persuading practical businessmen that his idea was financially sound and socially
desirable. During his lifetime two garden cities were founded, both in Hertfordshire: Letchworth (1903)
and Welwyn Garden City (1920). They served as prototypes of the new towns organized by the British
government after World War II. These later towns differed from Howard’s model in that a contiguous zone of
farmland was not an essential feature.

Planning Components and Management Issues

Concept of Garden City

o The concept of the garden city was developed under the Three Magnet Theory where there –

o Ebenezer Howard described three magnets as town or city, country or village and town-country or such
a place where there was the dual characteristics of town and country.

o He said theses three magnets pulled people towards themselves. But where to people go was depended
upon the advantages and disadvantages.

The Town Magnet, it would be seen, the advantages of high wages, opportunities for employment, tempting
prospects of advancement, but these are largely counterbalanced by high rents and prices.

o Its social opportunities and its places of amusement are very appealing, but excessive hours of work,
distance from work, and the 'isolation of crowds' tend greatly to reduce the value of these good things.

o The well, streets are a great attraction, especially in winter, but the sunlight is being more and more shut
out.

o Splendid structures and fearful slums are the strange, complementary features of modern cities
The Country Magnet would be declared to be the source of all beauty and wealth.

o There are beautiful landscapes, lordly parks, fresh air, sounds of flowing water.

o Rents, if estimated by the acre, are certainly low, but such low rents are the natural fruit of low wages
rather than a cause of substantial comfort; while long hours and lack of amusements forbid the bright
sunshine and the pure air to gladden the hearts of the people.

o The one industry, agriculture, suffers frequently from excessive rainfalls. In times of drought, there is
frequently, even for drinking purposes, a most insufficient supply.

o Even the natural healthfulness of the country is largely lost for lack of proper drainage and other sanitary
conditions.

Town-Country Magnet would represent the full plan and purpose of nature. Human society and the beauty of
nature are meant to be enjoyed together. It could minimize most of the disadvantages of town and country.
Ebenezer Howard dreamed the garden city as a town-country which would attract people from town and
country and provided a standard urban life with country environment.

Location of Garden City

o Ebenezer Howard thought that garden city would be in a distant place from the central city at the
country side.
 o The location would be just beside the major railroad.

o There would be inter-municipal railway between the central city and garden city.

o Garden city would be connected with other satellite cities by high road crossing the centers of both
garden city and other satellite cities.

Garden city would be connected with the central city by road network also

Nature of the Garden City

o Decentralized with limited and fixed area, population and density with zoning.

o Self sufficient and ability to perform essential city urban life functions as like business, industry,
administration and education.

o Surrounded by agricultural green belt to resist urban expansion and to maintain country environment

Planning Considerations of the Garden City

Garden city plan was made by following concentric system (concentration at centers with many divisions):

o 5000 acres of land was needed for the planning of garden city.

o 1000 acres for the center was the city or town.

o Other 4000 acres were the agricultural belt or country side that worked as green belt.
 o Total population of the garden city was planned as 32,000 where 30,000 would live in the in the city and
remaining 2000 would be on the country side or agricultural belt.

o The garden city would be in circular form and within 1240 yards or ¾ quarter miles (about 0.7 mile)
from the center to circumference.

o Shopping center would be at the edge of the city.

o Industries would be at the out strikes of the city.

3. Region City

History and Professional Contributions

Sir Patrick Geddes (2 October 1854 – 17 April 1932) was a Scottish

biologist, sociologist, geographer, philanthropist and pioneering
town planner. He is known for his innovative thinking in the fields
of urban planning and sociology. He introduced the concept of
"region" to architecture and planning and coined the term
"conurbation". Geddes was the founder of the College des Ecossaise
(Scots College) an international teaching establishment in Montpellier, France. He studied at the Royal College
of Mines in London under Thomas Henry Huxley between 1874 and 1878, and lectured in Zoology at
Edinburgh University from 1880 to 1888.

His principles for town planning in Bombay demonstrate his views on the relationship between social processes
and spatial form, and the intimate and causal connections between the social development of the individual and
the cultural and physical environment. They included: (Bombay Town Planning Act of 1915") Preservation of
human life and energy, rather than superficial beautification. Conformity to an orderly development plan
carried out in stages. Purchasing land suitable for building. Promoting trade and commerce. Preserving
historic buildings and buildings of religious significance. Developing a city worthy of civic pride, not an
imitation of European cities.  Promoting the happiness, health and comfort of all residents, rather than
focusing on roads and parks available only to the rich. Control over future growth with adequate provision for
future requirements.

Patrick Geddes explained an organism‟s relationship to its environment as follows: ―The environment acts,
through function, upon the organism and conversely the organism acts, through function, upon the
environment.― (Cities in Evolution, 1915) In human terms this can be understood as a place acting through
climatic and geographic processes upon people and thus shaping them. At the same time people act, through
economic processes such as farming and construction, on a place and thus shape it. Thus both place and folk are
linked and through work are in constant transition.

Patrick Geddes was influenced by social theorists such as Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) and French theorist
Frederic Le Play (1806–1882) and expanded upon earlier theoretical developments that lead to the concept of
regional planning. He adopted Spencer's theory that the concept of biological evolution could be applied to
explain the evolution of society, and drew on Le Play's analysis of the key units of society as constituting "Lieu,
Travail, Famille" ("Place, Work, Family"), but changing the last from "family" to "folk". In this theory, the
family is viewed as the central "biological unit of human society "from which all else develops. According to
Geddes, it is from "stable, healthy homes" providing the necessary conditions for mental and moral
development that come beautiful and healthy children who are able "to fully participate in life".

Geddes first published his idea of the valley section in 1909 to illustrate his idea of the 'region-city'. The region
is expressed in the city and the city spreads influence of the highest level into the region. To put it another way,
Geddes said that "it takes a whole region to make the city‖. The valley section illustrated the application of
Geddes's trilogy of 'folk/work/place' to analysis of the region. The valley section is a complex model, which
combines physical condition- geology and geomorphology and their biological associations - with so-called
natural or basic occupations such as miner, hunter, shepherd or fisher, and with the human settlements that arise
from them.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

Patrick Geddes explained an organism’s relationship to its environment as follows:

•This can be understood as a place acting through climatic and geographic processes upon people and thus
shaping them.

•At the same time people act, through economic processes such as farming and construction, on a place and thus
shape it.
•Thus both place and folk are linked and through work are in constant transition.
• Emphasised the relationships of people & cities, thus the city- region term

4. Radiant City

History and Professional Contributions

Le Corbusier (1887-1965), a Swiss architect, city planner, and painter who practiced in France, was one of the
most influential architects of the 20th century. In the 1930s, Le Corbusier reformulated his theories on
urbanism, publishing them in La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City) in 1935. The most apparent distinction
between the Contemporary City and the Radiant City is that the latter abandoned the class-based system of the
former, with housing now assigned according to family size, not economic position.

The Radiant City brought with it some controversy, as all Le Corbusier projects seemed to. In describing
Stockholm, for instance, a classically rendered city, Le Corbusier saw only ―frightening chaos and saddening
monotony.‖ He dreamed of ―cleaning and purging‖ the city with ―a calm and powerful architecture‖; that is,
steel, plate glass and reinforced concrete, what many observers might see as a modern blight applied to the
beautiful city.
At the end of the 1930s and through the end of World War II, Le Corbusier kept busy with creating such famous
projects as the proposed master plans for the cities of Algiers and Buenos Aires, and using government
connections to implement his ideas for eventual reconstruction, all to no avail.

The vertical city of le Corbusier is an outstanding landmark in the history of city planning. Le Corbusier,
presented his concept of a modern city of magnificent sky-scrapers (A skyscraper is a tall, continuously
habitable building of many storeys) surrounded by broad sweeping open spaces.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

In his scheme for ―La Ville Contemporaine (CONCENTRIC CITY - 1922)‖, a contemporary city he did not try
to overcome the existing conditions of the traditional cities, rather he attempted to form the conceptual skeleton
of a system of modern town and its fundamental principles.
He tried to satisfy four apparently irreconcilable but most important demands of modern cities; the major
objectives of his concepts are
1. Decongestion of the center of the city, to provide for the demands of traffic.
2. To increase density in the center to allow for the close contact demanded by business and other
activity
3. To improve facilities for getting about
4. To increase and create enough pare and green spaces.
He proposed three distinct areas:-
1. A central business area with 24 huge 60 storied sky scrapers to house 10,000 to 50,000 employees and
400,000 to 600,000 inhabitants (this means accommodating 1,200 persons per acre covering only 4% of
the ground)
2. An encircling residential area of 600,000 inhabitants occupying 8 storied buildings arranged in zig-zag rows
with broad open spaces about them. The density of the population here being 120 persons/acre.

3. Lying about the outskirts were the garden cities of single houses designed for a population of 300,000 people.
Le Co busier assumed a population in total of three million. He classified its inhabitants into 3 types,
 First the citizen who lived and worked in the city.
 Second the suburban dwellers, who worked in the outer industrial zones and lived in the garden
cities, and
A third type, who worked in the city but lived outside.

5. Concentric Zone Theory

History and Professional Contributions

Ernest Watson Burgess (May 16, 1886 – December 27, 1966) was an
American sociologist, famous for his work on urban sociology at the University
of Chicago is the founder of concentric zone theory.

Ernest Burgess gave a model to define how different social groups are located in
an urban area. Social groups based on the socio-economic status of households
and distance from central area or downtown. This model is known as concentric
zone model because the different locations were defined in the form of rings around the core urban area around
which city grew. Burgess Model is the another name for this model (given after the name of Ernest Burgess).
Concentric Zone Model or CCD model was developed between 1925 and 1929 based on the study of American
cities. Chicago city was studied for which Burgess provided empirical evidence. This was one of the many
models studied under settlement geography such as Hoyt Model or Sector Model.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

The concentric zone model, also known as the Burgess model or the CCD model, is one of the earliest
theoretical models to explain urban social structures. • The model portrays how cities social groups are spatially
arranged in a series of rings (Modi, 2007). The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains the
same.
Concentric Zone:
Central Business District (CBD) - This area of the city is a non-residential area and it’s where businesses are.
This area s called downtown, a lot of sky scrapers houses government institutions, businesses, stadiums, and
restaurants
Zone of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing available. Created
by subdividing larger houses into apartments.
Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working class families.
A large percentage of the people in this area rent.
Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly families in the middle
class live in this zone.
Commuter’s Zone/Suburbs- This area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly upper class
residents live in this area.

6. The Neighborhood Unit Theory

History and Professional Contributions

Clarence Arthur Perry (1872-Sept 6, 1944) was an American planner, sociologist, author, and educator. He was
born in Truxton, New York. He later worked in the New York City planning department where he became a
strong advocate of the Neighborhood unit. He was an early promoter of neighborhood community and
recreation centers.

Clarence A. Perry was one of the first to give some consideration to the physical form of the neighborhood unit.

Perry’s concept had several unique elements. First, residential neighborhoods were to be organized into units of
about 64 hectares, and each would hold a population large enough to support one elementary school. No child
would be required to walk farther than 500 metres to their school, which was to be located at the center of the
neighborhood along with a community centre, a library, and other community services.
 o Neighborhood idea is an attempt so as to plan residential areas that each neighborhood will be a distinct
physical unit within the neighborhood the internal planning provides for the provision and orderly
arrangement of all those facilities which are shared in common by the residents.

o Clarence Perry first used the word "Neighborhood unit" as a planning concept in 1926.

o In the neighborhood unit system, giving importance on universal needs of family life having similar
parts performing similar functions, have been brought as an organic whole.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

Clarence Perry conceptualised the neighbourhood unit as follows:

• Similar to the super block bounded by major streets
• Has a church,school, and shops
• 200 sqm to 2 sqkm.
The objectives were:
●To make the people socialize with one and
another.
●To enable the inhabitants to share the public
amenities and recreational facilities.
●To support a safe and healthy environment
within the neighborhood.
●To provide safety and efficiency to road users and
pedestrians.
●To maintain, enhance, and improve area for

Neighborhood Design Principles

1. Size of neighborhood unit related to the catchment area of a primary school.

2. No through traffic- residential area bounded on all sides by arterial roads
3. Ample parks and play areas
4. A neighborhood center containing school, local center and other services
5. A hierarchy of roads/ streets (to promote road safety, pedestrian safety, conserve residential environment)
7. Redburn City

History and Professional Contributions

Clarence Stein and Henry Wright prepared the plan for neighborhood
units at Radburn, New Jersy between 1924 and 1928. Like that of
Perry’s ideas, it was based on the school as a community center.

It introduced new features aimed at solving the traffic problem.

Through traffic was channelized on the main roads of the town, and
shopping centers were placed on these roads. The traditional grid-iron
pattern of streets, which are all equally attractive to through traffic, was
abandoned and a logical system of specialized one-purpose road was
devised.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

Through traffic was channelized on the main roads of the town, and shopping centers were placed on these
roads. The traditional grid-iron pattern of streets, which are all equally attractive to through traffic, was
abandoned and a logical system of specialized one-purpose road was devised (Modi, 2007).

o The roads were classified as arterial roads linking with the surrounding area; the main town roads
linking the arterial roads;
o Main estate roads enclosing the super blocks (areas of 30 to 50 acres)
o Access roads (cul-de-sac) serving the individual houses.
o Large areas of open spaces were provided in the center of super blocks on which houses faced and
through which ran footpaths. There was, in fact, complete segregation between the pedestrian and the
motor car.

The detail planning of the residential quarters was, however, the most striking feature in Radburn Layout.
Ideally people want to bring their cars right up to their dwellings and to garage them inside; and the residents
want to live in conditions of maximum safety and freedom from nuisances of moving vehicles, and want to be
able to send their children out to play and to school with the minimum of risk. The nearest of these
requirements have come to be completely satisfied through Radburn Layout. The main principles of the
Radburn system in designing the residential areas are:-
  The creation of superblock (or an environmental area) free from through traffic, and

 The creation of a system of pedestrian footpaths entirely separate from vehicular routes and
linking together the place of pedestrian generating traffic.

8. Sector Theory

History and Professional Contributions

Homer Hoyt (1895–1984) was a land economist, a real estate appraiser,

and a real estate consultant. In his long and accomplished life, he
conducted path-breaking research on land economics, developed an
influential approach to the analysis of neighborhoods and housing
markets, refined local area economic analysis, and was a major figure
in the development of suburban shopping centers in the decades after
World War II. His sector model of land use remains one of his most
well-known contributions to urban scholarship.

Theory of urban structure also known as Hoyt Model developed in

1939 by Homer Hoyt states that a city develops in sectors, not rings
certain areas are more attractive for different activities because of an environmental factor or by mere chance.
Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for major transportation routes according to this model
most major cities evolved around the nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports,
and trolly lines that eminated from the city's center. Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-
shaped patterns, or sectors, eminating from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

It is a model of the internal structure of cities. Social groups are arranged around a series of sectors, or wedges
radiating out from the central business district (CBD) and centred on major transportation lines. On the other
hand, low-income households to be near railroad lines, and commercial establishments to be along business
thoroughfares.

9. Central Place Theory

History and Professional Contributions

Central places theory takes its origin from the work of the German
geographer Walter Christaller who studied the urban system of Southern
Germany during the 1930s. In the flat landscape of southern Germany
Christaller noticed that towns of a certain size were roughly equidistant.
By examining and defining the functions of the settlement structure and
the size of the hinterland he found it possible to model the pattern of settlement locations using geometric
shapes.

He was mainly looking for a relationship between the size, the number of settlements and the spatial distribution
of cities. His observations enabled the elaboration of an important theory of spatial structure and order,
mandatory in the study of urban, economic and transport geography.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

Arrangement of Central Place

As transport is equally easy in all direction, each central place

will have a circular market area as shown in C in the following
diagram: However, circular shape of the market areas results in
either un-served areas or over-served areas. To solve this
problem, Christaller suggested the hexagonal shape of the
markets as shown in D in the above diagram. Within a given
area there will be fewer high order cities and towns in relation to
the lower order villages and hamlets. For any given order,
theoretically the settlements will be equidistance from each
other. The higher order settlements will be further apart than the
lower order ones.

Three Principles in the Arrangement of CP theory

Christaller noted three different arrangements of central places according to the following principles:

1. The marketing principle (K=3 system);

2. The transportation principle (K=4 system);

3. The administrative principle (K=7 system).

The different layouts predicted by Christaller have K-values which show how much the Sphere of Influence of
the central places takes. The central place itself counts as 1 and each portion of a satellite counts as its portion.
Marketing Principles

The marketing or supply principle gives maximum choice of

central places to individual sub-centres. In this hierarchy the
central place has the allegiance of one third of each of six sub-
centres plus the original centre, giving a total equivalent of three
dominated centres. Christaller termed this three the k-value which
is the total number of settlements of a certain order served by a
central place of the next higher order.

However, a major problem here is that of logistics and transport.

In simple terms, the K=3 states that if Mumbai / London are the
central places, than they may have a market of 1/3rd of
surrounding areas.

Transportation Principles

The transporting principle leads to a hierarchy which minimises

the distance between the sub-centres and the main centres, with
as many important places as possible lying on one traffic route
between main centres. Thus under the transporting principle the
k-value is four.

According to the transport principle of central place theory, the

arrangement is of a hexagon and the lower areas are located at
the edge of the hexagon due to which there is share of market
area of 1/2 of the lower areas in the central place. For example,
if you were in a Tier 2 city, the Tier 2 city will have 1/2 market
area share of the Tier 3 city. In this case, because of the
proximity of places, the transport is the easiest.

Administrative Principles

The administrative principle requires that each centre has

complete control of the six surrounding sub-centres with no
divided allegiances. In this case the k-value is seven.
A very simple layout with the central place connected to different lower places directly. Thus the lower places
play a minimal role and the central place generally takes major control. A gram panchayat of India or rural
villages abroad are best examples of the K=7 principle.

10. Broadacre City

History and Professional Contributions

Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect,
interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 structures, 532 of which were completed.
Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity and its environment, a philosophy
he called organic architecture. This philosophy was best exemplified by Fallingwater (1935), which has been
called "the best all-time work of American architecture". His creative period spanned more than 70 years.

Wright was the pioneer of what came to be called the Prairie

School movement of architecture and he also developed the
concept of the Usonian home in Broadacre City, his unique vision
for urban planning in the United States. In addition to his houses,
Wright designed original and innovative offices, churches,
schools, skyscrapers, hotels, museums and other structures. He
often designed interior elements for these buildings as well,
including furniture and stained glass. Wright wrote 20 books and
many articles and was a popular lecturer in the United States and
in Europe. Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American
Institute of Architects as "the greatest American architect of all
time".

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

The principles of broadacre city theory are:

 Champion and proponent of urban decentralisation

 Involved communities
 Designed the 1000-hectare Broadacre City
 Included social services in the forms of schools,trains, and museums, as well as employment in the
forms of markets, offices, nearby farms, and industrial areas.
11. Multiple Nuclei Model

History and Professional Contributions

Multiple nuclei model of 1945 by C.D. Harris and Edward L. Ullman is based on the argument that the cities
have multiple growth points or ―nuclei‖ around which growth take place. This model was given in an article by
them ―The Nature of Cities‖. This is one of the widely adopted models which were applicable to modern cities
unlike older models studied under settlement geography.

This model is based on the structure of Chicago just like the Burgess model or Concentric zone model of 1925.
It can be considered as an attempt to explain the structure of city taking into account the complexity and growth
over time. Harris and Ullman argued that a city might start with a single central business district (CBD) but over
the time the activities scatter and gets modified. The scattered activities attracts people from surrounding areas
and acts as smaller nuclei in itself. These small nuclei gain importance and grow in size and starts influencing
the growth of activities around them.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

The main theme of the theory is:

• City grows from several independent points rather than from one central business district.
• As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area.
• Ports, universities, airports and parks also act as nodes
• Based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership.

The model has four geographic principles:

• Certain activities require highly specialised facilities.
• Accessible transportation for a factor
• Large areas of open land for a housing transition
• Certain activities cluster because they profit from mutual association
• Certain activities repel each other and will not be found in the same area.
• Certain activities could not make a profit if they paid the high rent of the most desirable locations
12. Urban Realm Model

History and Professional Contributions

The Urban Realms model was created by James E Vance Jr. in 1964. Vance was also a world authority on
transportation, the growth and change of urban form, and the historical geography of North America. His
pathbreaking books are still classics in their subjects. He was the first urban geographer to be permanently
appointed at Berkeley, and the first geographer to receive the campus's Distinguished Teaching Award. His
popular courses influenced two generations of geographers, historians, city planners, and architectural
historians.

He observed the urban ecology and the economic activities in San Francisco to create this model. The model
states that urban cities today are not like previous cities where most or all of the economic activities are in the
Central Business District (CBD), shopping malls and offices can also be in the residential areas. Having
shopping centers and offices outside of the CBD it makes up realms that could be independent from one
another.

The model proposes the idea that some of the functions in the CBD can be
moved to the suburbs therefore diminishes the importance of the CBD. Each
realm is independent from another like little cities but they connect with each
other to create a huge urban city. This model describes some of the
characteristics of urban growth because as an automobile dependent model
urban growth would not be an issue therefore it expands more and more. The
suburbs would become so big that it would have exurbs and would then make
up another urban realm.

Planning Considerations and Management Issues

The Principles of the theory are:

� Each realm is a separate economic, social and political entity that is linked together to form a larger metro
framework
�suburbs are within the sphere of influence of the central city and its metropolitan CBD
�Now urban realms have become, so large they even have exurbs, not just suburbs
Urban realm depends on
�Overall size of the metropolitan region
�Amount of economic activity in each urban realm
�Topography and major land features
� Internal accessibility of each realm

References:

1. Modi, A. A. (2007). Urban Planning Theories. Journal of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 6(2),
Portugal.

2. Memisevic, T. T., Stachura, E. (2017). A linear City Development Under Contemporary Determinants.