CHAPTER (5)

Q; What are the factors affecting the workability of concrete? (10M)

It is apparent that workability depends on a number of interacting factors:

water content, aggregate type and grading, aggregate/cement ratio, presence of
admixtures and fineness of cement. The main factor is the water content of the
mix since by simply adding water the interparticle lubrication is increased.
However, to achieve optimum conditions for minimum voids, or for maximum
density with no segregation, the influence of the aggregate type and grading has
to be considered. For example, finer particles require more water to wet their
larger specific surface, whilst the regular shape and rougher texture of an angular
aggregate demand more water than a rounded aggregate. The porosity or
absorption of the aggregate is also important since some mixing water will be
removed from that required for lubrication of the particles.

For a constant water/cement ratio, the workability increases as the

aggregate/cement ratio is reduced because the amount of water relative to the
total surface of solids is increased. There are two other factors which affect
workability: time and temperature. Freshly mixed concrete stiffens with time but
this should not be confused with the setting of cement.

CHAPTER (6)

Q: Explain the influence of water/ cement ratio on strength of concrete. (5M)

The ratio of the weight of water to the weight of cement is called

water/cement ratio. It is the most important factor for gaining the strength of
concrete. The lower w/c ratio leads the higher strength of concrete. Generally, the

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water/cement ratio of 0.45 to 0.6 is used. Too much water leads to segregation
and voids in concrete. Water/cement ratio is inversely proportional to the strength
of concrete. When the w/c ratio is increased the strength of concrete gets
decreased and when w/c ratio is decreased then the strength of concrete
increases.

Q: Discuss the effects of the degree of compaction and age on strength of

concrete. (5M)

Compaction of concrete increases the density of the concrete because it is

the process in which air voids are removed from freshly placed concrete which
makes the concrete compact and dense. The presence of are voids in concrete
greatly reduces its strength. Approximately 5% of air voids can reduce the
strength by 30 to 40%. In the fully compacted concrete, strength is higher than
the insufficiently compacted concrete.

With increase in age of concrete, the degree of hydration would be more.

Hydration process is the chemical reaction of water and cement. Hydration
produces the gel which plays the significant role in the bonding of particles of the
concrete ingredients. Therefore, the strength of concrete increases with its age.

Q; What is the effective of water cement ratio? (5M)

The effective of water cement ratio is defined as the amount of water

available to react with the cement of the mixture. The amount of water depends
on the absorption and moisture of the aggregates at the time of the batch. As the
water cement ratio increases, the strength decreases. Complete hydration of
cement generally only requires a water cement ratio of 0.42. Beyond this value,

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extra water increases the workability of concrete for compaction but it is not
necessary for hydration.

CHAPER (9)

Q; What are the effects of hot weather on fresh concrete? (5M)

There are some special problems involved in concreting in hot weather,

arising both from a higher temperature of a concrete and from an increased rate
of evaporation from a fresh mix. If high temperature is accompanied by a low
relative humidity of the air, rapid evaporation of some of the mix water takes
place, causing a higher loss of workability, higher plastic shrinkage, and crazing.
A high temperature of fresh concrete is also detrimental when placing large
concrete volumes because greater temperature differentials can develop between
parts of the mass due to the more rapid evolution of the heat of hydration of
cement; subsequent cooling induces tensile stresses which may cause thermal
cracking.

Q; What are the effects of hot weather on hardened concrete? (5M)

A higher temperature of fresh concrete than normal results in more rapid

hydration of cement and leads to accelerated setting and to a lower long-term
strength of hardened concrete. Air entrainment is more difficult at higher
temperatures, this can be remedied by using larger quantities of entraining agent.
If relatively cool concrete is allowed to expand when placed at a higher air
temperature, then the air voids expand and the strength of the concrete is
reduced. Curing at high temperatures in dry air presents the curing water tends to

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evaporate rapidly, with a consequent slowing down of hydration. As a result,
there is an inadequate development of strength and rapid drying shrinkage takes
place, the latter possibly inducing tensile stresses of sufficient magnitude to cause
cracking of the hardened concrete.

CHAPTER (10)

Q: Why is curing important? (10M)

The necessity for curing arises from the fact that the hydration of cement
can take place only in water-filled capillaries. This is why loss of water by
evaporation from the capillaries must be prevented. Water lost internally by self-
desiccation has to be replaced by water from outside. Self-desiccation occurs in
sealed concrete when the water/cement ratio is less than about 0.5.

It must be stressed that for a satisfactory development of strength it is not

necessary for all the cement to hydrate, and indeed this is only rarely achieved in
practice. If curing proceeds until the capillaries in the hydrated cement paste have
become segmented, then the concrete will be impermeable and this is vital for
good durability. Evaporation in the early stages after placing depends on the
temperature and relative humidity of the surrounding air and on the velocity of
wind which effects a change of air over the surface of the concrete.

CHAPTER (11)

Q: Discuss the relation between compressive strength and tensile strength of

concrete. (10M)

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 The ratio of tensile to compressive strengths is lower the higher the
compressive strength. There are several other factors which affect the relation
between the two strengths, the main ones being the method of testing the
concrete in tension, the size of the specimen, the shape and surface texture of
coarse aggregate, and the moisture condition of the concrete. It is difficult to test
concrete in direct tension because of the problem of gripping the specimen
satisfactorily.
There is little influence of the type of the aggregate on the direct and
splitting tensile strengths, but the flexural strength of concrete is greater when
angular crushed aggregate is used than with rounded natural gravel. The
moisture condition of concrete influences the relation between the flexural and
compressive strengths. The compressive strength of drying concrete is greater
than when continuously wet-stored; the splitting and direct tensile strengths are
not affected in a similar manner. The flexural strength of drying concrete is
lower than that of wet concrete, probably because of the sensitivity of this test to
the presence of shrinkage cracks.

CHAPTER (12)
Q : Discuss the main factors affecting the creep of concrete. (5M)

The water/ cement ratio is the main factor influencing the porosity and, the
strength of concrete, so that a lower water/ cement ratio results in a higher
strength. For a constant cement paste content, the effect of a decrease in water/
cement ratio is to decrease creep and it can be expected that creep and strength
are related. Within a wide range of mixes, creep is inversely proportional to the
strength of concrete at the age of application of the load. One of the most
important external factors influencing creep is the relative humidity of the air

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surrounding the concrete. Creep is higher the lower the relative humidity, for
specimens cured at a relative humidity of 100 per cent, then loaded and exposed
to different humidities.

CHAPTER (13)

Q; What is the effect of wind on fresh concrete? (5M)

Concrete is not only affected by extreme temperatures but also by humidity

levels as well as velocity and intensity of the wind. The wind velocity can affect
freshly poured concrete by allowing too much water or moisture to evaporate
from the concrete’s surface at a fast rate. High wind velocity under hot weather
due to the similar excessive loss of moisture concrete can experience when
poured in warmer temperatures. When concrete is poured during extremely
windy weather, the rapid velocity of air will only contribute to excess moisture
evaporation from the slab of concrete. Because of this, the abrasion resistance
and curing condition of concrete will subsequently suffer.

Q; Discuss the main factors affecting the shrinkage of concrete. (5M)

Shrinkage of hardened concrete is influenced by various factors in a similar

manner to creep under drying conditions. The most important influence is exerted
by the aggregate, which restrains the amount of shrinkage of the cement paste
that can actually be realized in the concrete. The magnitude of shrinkage can be
determined using a measuring frame fitted with a micrometer gauge. The actual
shrinkage of a given concrete member is affected by its size and shape. The
lower shrinkage of large members is due to the fact that only the outer part of the
concrete is drying and its shrinkage is restrained by the non-shrinking core.

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 CHAPTER (14)

Q: What is the action of acids on concrete? (10M)

No Portland cement is resistant to attack by acids. In damp conditions,

sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide, as well as some other fumes present in the
atmosphere, from acids which attack concrete by dissolving and removing a part,
of the hydrated cement paste and leave a soft and very weak mass. This form of
attack is encountered in various industrial conditions, such as chimneys, and in
some agricultural conditions, such as floors of dairies.

Concrete is also attacked by water containing free carbon dioxide in

concentrations of at least 15 to 60. The degree of protection achieved by the
different treatments varies, but in all cases, it is essential that the protective coat
adheres well to the concrete and remains undamaged by mechanical agencies, so
that access for inspection and renewal of the coating is generally necessary.

CHAPTER (16)
Q : Explain how incorrect curing of compression test specimens can affect the
test result. (5M)
A major disadvantage of the standard compression test is the length of time
needed before the result are known, 28 days or even 7 days by which time a
considerable quantity of additional concrete may have been placed in the
structure. It would be advantageous to be able to predict the 28-day strength

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within a few hours of casting. The 1-to-3-day strength of a given mix cured under
normal conditions is not reliable because it is very sensitive to small variations in
temperature during the first few hours of casting. To predict the 28 days strength
it is, necessary for the concrete to have achieved, within a few hours of casting.