GENERAL SAFETY TERMS

Health:
A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.
Occupational Health:
The promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of the physical, mental and social well-being of
all workers in all occupations by preventing departures from health, controlling risks, and adopting
work to people and people to their jobs.
Safety:
The condition of being free form danger, risk and injury.
Well-Being:
A state of being with others, where human needs are met, where one can act meaningfully to pursue
one’s goals, and where one enjoys a satisfactory quality of life.
Injury:
The harmful condition sustained by the body as a result of an accident.
Incident:
An unintended event that disturbs normal operations. Severity of incidents range from near misses to
fatal accidents.
Accident:
An incident which leads to injury, damage or loss.
 Injury accident: Which leads to personal injuries and ill health.
 Damage-only accident: Which leads to loss or damage to property or equipment.
Near Miss:
An incident that has the potential to cause human injury, environmental or equipment damage and
interruption to normal operation, but does not actually do so.
Dangerous Occurrence:
An incident which interrupts the normal operations but does not result in personal loss or injury, and
has to be reported to the relevant authority by statute law.
Ill-Health:
Disease or medical conditions caused by a person’s work.
Risk:
Likelihood of the occurrence of an accident along with its severity.
Safety Policy:
A written statement stating the company's commitment for the protection of the health and safety of
employees and public.

Safety Audit:
The systematic, objective and critical evaluation of an organization’s health and safety management
system.
Safety Program:
Five methods by which accidents can be prevented.
Engineering, Education, Enforcement, Encouragement and Evaluation.

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Emergency Plan:
Safety procedures to control accident, safe guard people and handle media.
Why Manage Health and Safety:
We should manage health and safety at a workplace because of the three reasons. Moral, Legal and
Financial.
Moral Reason:
It refers to the logical process of determining whether an action is right or wrong.
Financial Reason:
It refers to the consequences of an accident or ill-health. Costs the organization faces after an
unwanted event.
Legal Reason:
It refers to statute laws. They must be comply with to avoid civil prosecutions and convictions.
Organization Culture:
The shared attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviors of an organization relating to health and safety.
Attitude:
A person’s point of view or the way of looking at something.
Mistake:
Doing the wrong thing, believing it to be right.
Peer Group:
A group of people of approximately the same age, status and interests.
Workplace Group:
A group in which a person behaves in accordance with the collective accepted behaviors of the
group.
Communication:
The imparting, conveying and exchange of information, ideas and opinions in the form of speech,
writing or graphics.
Tool Box Talks (TBT):
A practical safety briefing at the start of a shift to generate awareness and discuss safety precautions.
Employee’s Hand Book:
A key document which contains the health and safety policy and certain procedures. It can also be
used during induction training.

Work Method Statement (WMS):

Documents submitted by contractor to the client, covering the general work procedures for a task to
be carried out safely according to a standard.
Job Safety Analysis (JSA):
Step by step analysis of a job to determine safe working procedures.
a. Observe the task being done.
b. Break down the task into multiple steps.
c. Evaluate hazards and risks in each step.
d. Identify control measure for each step.
e. Implement the control measures to execute the task.

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Permit To Work (PTW):
A formal documented safety procedure, forming part of a safe system of work, which ensures that all
necessary actions are taken before, during and after particularly high-risk work. Following are some
examples of PTWs.
a. Hot Work Permit.
b. Cold Work Permit.
c. Confined Space Permit.
d. Excavation and Ground Penetration Permit.
e. Work at Height Permit.
f. Ionizing Radiation Permit.
g. High Voltage Electrical Work Permit.
h. Diving Permit.
i. Chemical Permit.
j. Lifting Permit.
k. Night Work Permit.
Competent Person:
A person who has sufficient training, knowledge, experience and skills to be able to carry out their
work safely. A competent person identifies hazards and has the authority to make prompt corrective
actions.
Who makes an accident report?
Concerned area supervisor or site safety representative makes an accident report.
Who makes an accident investigation report?
A team of front line supervisors, HSE manager and subcontractor’s representatives make an accident
investigation report.
What is the use of accident report?
 To find out the root causes of the accident.
 It makes recommendations to prevent re-occurrence.
 To evaluate the effectiveness of the emergency response.
Benefits of Near-miss Reporting:
 To analyse the incident in order to avoid a re-occurrence.
 To rectify its causes before they turn into accidents.
 To identify deficiencies of the site safety performances.
 To find remedial actions.
 To improve safety performances by reducing LTA’s incidents.
Risk Assessment:
The formal process of identifying preventive and protective measures by evaluating the risk arising
from a hazard, taking into account the adequacy of any existing controls, and deciding whether or not
risk is acceptable.
Investigation:
A process conducted for the purpose of accident prevention. It includes the gathering and analysis of
information and drawing conclusions. It also determines the causes and makes safety
recommendations.
Active Monitoring:
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Also called pro-active monitoring. It ensures that health and safety standards are correct in the
workplace before accidents, incidents, or ill-health are caused.
Reactive Monitoring:
A process to highlight areas of concern using accidents, incidents and ill-health.
Maintenance Inspection:
A process to evaluate the condition of equipment or machines. Its purpose is to determine what
tools, materials, and labor are needed to keep them in good working condition. It involves
examining, testing and making repairs/adjustments to equipment, machineries and items, often
specified by manufacturer or supplier.
Safety Inspection:
A formal inspection by a team of inspectors who go round an area or section of work to check on
standards. For example, floor conditions, warning signs, fire equipment etc.
Safety Survey:
An internal activity for the examination of specific procedure such as the introduction of new
equipment, or investigating an accident or incident rise.
Waste Management:
Activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal. This includes
collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the
waste management process.
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS):
A technical document which provides detailed and comprehensive information on a controlled product
related to:
 Health effects of exposure to the product.
 Hazard evaluation related to the product’s handling, storage or use.
 Measure to protect workers at risk of exposure.
 Emergency procedures.
Asphyxiant:
A non-toxic or minimally toxic gas, which causes suffocation by reducing or replacing the normal
oxygen concentration in the breathing air.
Dust:
These are fine, dry, solid particles which are produced during grinding or sieving of solid materials.
Fumes:
Solidified vapors suspended in the air emitted by a substance due to heating, explosion or other
chemical reaction.
Gases:
A formless chemical which occupies the area in which it is enclosed.
Mist:
Finely suspended droplets formed by condensation of a gas or atomizing of a liquid.
Vapors:
It is the gaseous form of a solid or a liquid. Rise is temperature causes vaporization.
Liquid:
A substance that flows freely but have a constant volume.
Toxic:
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These are substances which cause death or acute or chronic damage to health, when inhaled,
swallowed or absorbed via skin.
Corrosive:
A substance which destroys living tissues when come in contact.
Density:
The mass of one cubic meter of a substance. Or mass per unit volume.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Density of water is 1 gram per cubic centimeter.
Specific Gravity:
The ratio between the density of a substance relative to the density of another substance taken as
standard. The standard is usually water.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
A substance with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink in the water and a substance with a
specific gravity less than 1 will float over the water.
Element:
Substance which consists of only one atom. For example, Carbon.
Molecules:
A molecule is a particle made up of two or more atoms that are chemically bonded together. These
atoms may be same like oxygen in 𝑂2 or may be different like hydrogen and oxygen in 𝐻2 𝑂.
Compound:
A substance that is made up of more than one identical molecules. For example, water is a
compound made up of water molecules. In compound, the bonded atoms are different.

Hazard:
Something with the potential to cause harm, damage or adverse heath effect on someone or
something. There are five main categories of hazards.
Physical Hazards:
Factors within the environment that can cause harm without necessarily touching it. Noise, vibration,
radiation, extremes of temperatures, work at height, confined spaces, etc.
Chemical hazards:
Something with the potential to cause harm because of their chemical nature and properties. Lead,
mercury, sulphuric acid, silica, cement, dust, fumes, etc.
Biological hazards:
Biological substances that pose a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans.
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, micro-organisms, bio-active substances, etc.
Ergonomic hazards:
Ergonomic hazards are physical conditions that may pose risk of injury to the musculoskeletal
system. Repetitive movement, stooping, twisting, manual handling, awkward postures, stationary
position, etc.
Psychological hazards:

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A psychological hazard is any hazard that affects the mental well-being or mental health. Work-
related stress, bullying, lone working, fatigue, trauma, etc.
Duties of Safety Officer:
 Prepare Toolbox Talks.
 Prepare Monthly Statistics.
 Prepare the Checklists.
 Accident Reports.
 Management Meetings.
 Arrange Safety Training.
 Arrange Monthly Safety Bulletin.
 Inspection of Fire Extinguishers.
 Arrange First Aid Training Classes.
 Arrange Safety Competitions.
Duties of Safety Supervisor:
 Instruct Workers About Working Methods and Procedures.
 To Maintain Discipline Among the Workers.
 Supply Necessary Materials.
 Control Quality and Cost of the Job.
 Supply Suitable PPEs.
 Conduct Periodic Safety Meetings.
 Conduct Safety Inspection of the Workplace.
 Should know about the Firefighting Equipment.
 Should Investigate the Accidents and Find Out the Causes.

SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding:
A temporary structure made up of wooden planks and metal poles, used by workmen while building,
repairing, or cleaning the building.
Types of Scaffolding:
 System Scaffolding
 Mobile Scaffolding
 Under Hang Scaffolding
 Bracket Scaffolding
 Tower Scaffolding
 Tube and Coupler Scaffolding
 Patented Scaffolding
 Steel Scaffolding
 Putlog Scaffolding
 Cantilever Scaffolding
 Trestle Scaffolding
 Suspended Scaffolding
 Birdcage Scaffolding
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Scaffolding Parts:
 Sole Plates
 Base Plates
 Posts
 Ledgers
 Couplers
 Top rail
 Mid rail
 Toe Boards
 Bracing
KENAPI:
To save workers from falling objects we use KENAPI nets and catch platforms.
Types of Fall Protection System:
 Guardrail System
 Safety Net System
 Personal Fall Arrest System
Who Can Erect Scaffold?
Certified Scaffolder.
Who can inspect the components used for erecting scaffolds?
A competent and certified scaffold supervisor.
Tag System:
A signage system put on scaffolds by a competent person indicating the present condition of whether
it can be used or not.
1. Red Tag:
Do not use, scaffold is being erected or dismantled.
2. Yellow Tag:
Scaffold can be used with 100% fall protection. (Scaffold is incomplete or cannot be completed).
3. Green Tag:
Scaffold is complete and safe to use.
Who can place a scaffold tag?
Competent Person (Scaffold Supervisor).
Details in a Scaffold Tag:
 Location
 Maximum Loading Capacity
 Date of Erection and date of Inspection with Foreman’s name and signature.
Conditions in which a scaffold cannot be erected:
 Extreme weather
 Ground is unstable
 No Safe Clearance
 Live Wires and Cables
 Absence of Certified Supervisors
 Permit Not Available

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Overlapping of Two Adjacent Planks:
Overlapping of two adjacent planks on a platform must not be less than 12 inches.
Guard Rail System:
A barrier consists of top rail, mid rail and toe boards, which is erected to prevent men and materials
falling from an elevated work area.
Toe Board:
Barrier secured along the sides and ends of a platform to guard falling of materials, tools and other
objects.
Minimum Height of a Toe Board:
4 inches.
Height of Top Rail from the Platform:
38 to 45 inches.
Requirements of placing Ladder on Scaffold:
 Erect ladder at the correct angle (75o), Ladders are tied at both sides and not by the rungs.
 Extend ladder at least 90 cm above the landing stage.
 When the horizontal travel distance exceeds 15 meters, provide at least two accesses.
 If platform is longer, access shall be provided at every 15 meters.
 Bottom rung must not be more than 24 inches high.
 The ladder should be free from damages.
 All access ladder must be color coded.
 All access ladders must be tagged.
Use of Fall Protection System:
If the person could fall from a height more than 1.8 meters, then a fall protection system should be
used.
Minimum Width of a Walkway:
18 inches.
Requirements for working on Mobile Scaffold:
 Should be plumb, level and square.
 Should be moved through its base.
 No men, equipment and materials while in motion.
 Casters shall be locked at all times except during its movement.
 The temporary foundation or truck set on uneven ground for scaffold movement shall be level
and properly secured.
 Height must not exceed 4 times the minimum base dimension, otherwise, outrigger are
installed.
 Guard rail system must be deployed.
 It must be tagged and inspected before every use.
When to Inspect a Scaffold:
 After completing erection.
 Before every use.
 When altered, adjusted to rain or heavy winds.
 At least once in every seven days.

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Angle of Ladder:
Angle of the ladder with the ground must be 75o.
Space between two Ladder Rungs:
The gap between two rungs of a ladder must be 12 inches (30 cm).
Color of a Ladder:
Aluminum and wood ladders shall not be painted, as it would conceal cracks and defects.
Life Line:
A fall protection safety device consists of a flexible line which connects to an anchorage at one end to
hang vertically or connects to anchorages at both ends to stretch horizontally, used to connect
components of personal fall arrest systems.
Safe Anchorage of a Life Line:
 Life lines shall be fastened to fixed safe points of anchorage capable of supporting 2300 kg.
 Life lines shall be independent and protected from sharp edges and abrasion.
 Safe anchorage points may include structural members (minimum 4 inches).
 Safe anchorage points shall not include guard rails, vents, and other small diameter piping
system, electric conduits, outrigger beams or counter weights.
 Life lines shall be made from 10 mm diameter wire ropes.
 Horizontal life lines shall be installed at a highest feasible points, preferably above shoulder
height.
 The sag at the center of the horizontal life line shall not exceed 12 inches (30 cm) for every 10
meters of the life line length between attachment points.
Types of Bracing:
 Cross Bracing
 Knee Bracing
 Sway Bracing
Types of Safety Net:
 For Man (Hole Diameter = 100 mm, Rope Diameter = 8 mm)
 For Material (Hole Diameter = 25 mm, Rope Diameter = 12 mm)
Coupling:
It is used to connect one pipe to another pipe or structure.
Types of Scaffolding Coupling:
 Single Coupler (Put Log Coupler)
 Board Retention Coupler (BRC)
 Double Coupler (Right Angle Coupler)
 Swivel Coupler
 Girder Coupler (Beam Clamp)
 Ladder Coupler
 Sleeve Coupler (Box Clamp)
 Joint Pin.
Hazards of Scaffolding:
 Falls from Elevation.
 Struck by Electrocution.

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  Scaffold Collapse.
 Bad Planking.
 Falling of Materials.
 Falling of Tools.
 Loose Soil.
 Excavation near Scaffold.
 Incompetent Scaffolder.
Precautions of Scaffolding.
 Protection from falls by Installing Guard rails. (Toe boards, mid rails, top rails).
 Personnel fall arrest system. (Anchorage, life line, body harness)
Inspection of Scaffold:
 Level and firmness of ground.
 Sole plate: LWH = 300 × 300 × 4 𝑚𝑚
 Base plate: LWH = 150 × 150 × 4 𝑚𝑚
 Standards.
 Ledgers are properly clamped.
 Transoms are in good condition.
 Coupler are not loose.
 Planks are in good condition.
 Toe board (Minimum height = 4 inches)
 Guardrails. (Top rail’s height = 950 to 1200 mm and mid rail = 450 to 600 mm)
 Ladders are properly secured at 75o.
Calculation of Safe Working Load (SWL):
Scaffold SWL = Dead load + (4 × live load)
Dead Load = Weight of scaffold components + Working platforms.
Live weight = Weight of workers + Materials + Tools.
Hazards of Mobile Scaffolding:
 Scaffold collapse.
 Accidental movement of mobile scaffold.
 Mobile scaffold toppling.
 Moving it without unlocking the wheels.
 Moving it with workers standing on the platform.
 Contact with overhead power lines.
Precautions of Mobile Scaffolding.
 Check green tag.
 Do not move while workers standing on it.
 Do not move it with locked wheels.
 Do not over reach out of the platform.
 Unlock the wheels before moving.
 Never position it near surface edges and overhead cables.
Distance between Gin Wheel to platform:

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  750 mm
Distance between two Planks:
 50 mm

CONFINED SPACES
Confined Spaces:
Areas that have limited entry and exit points and are large enough for a person to enter and work, but
are not safe to work in for a long period of time.
Confined spaces are not designed for continuous human occupancy but for work, inspection,
cleaning, maintenance and repair.
Confined Space Examples:
Pipes, vessels, tanks, boilers, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, pits, manholes, tunnels, equipment
housings, ductwork, etc.
Confined Space Hazards:
 Oxygen Deficient Atmosphere
 Oxygen Enriched Atmosphere
 Flammable Atmosphere
 Toxic atmosphere
 Temperature extremes
 Engulfment
 Liquid and flow-able Solids
 Unguarded machinery
Safe Oxygen Level in Confined Spaces:
The safe oxygen level in confined spaces is 19.5% to 23.5%.
Circumstances in which confined space work permit can be issued:
 Space is properly ventilated.
 Gas test readings are satisfactory.
 Properly barricaded and warning signs are posted.
 Trained, competent, certified personnel are present with the log sheet.
 Sufficient lighting.
 Low voltage electricity (up to 24V).
 Effective means of communications.
 Lifeline retrieval system if necessary.
 Provision of personal protective equipment.
 Proper emergency procedures are in place.
Confined Space Attendant:
A designated person who will remain outside the confined space and maintain constant
communication with all confined space entrants. This person must have completed all confined space
training requirements.

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Responsibilities of Confined Space Attendant:
 Knows the hazards. In the case of the attendant, this can often include using air monitoring
equipment to keep a close watch on the atmospheric conditions inside the confined space and
communicate any changes observed.
 Know the behavioral effects of the hazards.
 Be able to identify the authorized entrants.
 Remain outside until relieved.
 Communicate with entrants throughout the work period.
 Monitor and evacuate entrants if necessary.
 Summon rescue, if needed.
 Warn away unauthorized persons.
Hazardous Jobs in Confined Space:
 Welding.
 Grinding.
 Chemical use.
 Gas cutting.
 Erection of materials.
Other key point related to confined spaces:
 If depth of an excavation is more than 1.2 meters then it is called confined space.
 Log sheet is a blank sheet with the confined space attendant in which names, trades and ID
numbers of workers are recorded.
Precautions of Confined Spaces:
 PTW
 Confined space entry training.
 Gas testing by AGT.
 Hole watcher with entry exit log sheets.
 Regular communications with the entrants.
 Ventilation.
 Illumination.
 Access and egress.
 Emergency rescue plan. ERP
 Emergency rescue equipment.
H2S Gas:
 It is poisonous and corrosive and can destroy life even in small concentration.
 Also known as: hydrogen sulphide, stink damp, sulphurated hydrogen, sour gas, rotten egg
gas, hydrosulphuric acid and Sulphur hydride.
Physical Characteristics of H2S:
 Colorless, highly toxic, poisonous gas.
 Soluble in water.
 Rotten egg smell up to 1 ppm and then loss of sense of smell once its concentration increase.
 Explosive range by volume in the air 4.3%-46%.
 Auto ignition temperature is 2600C (5000F)
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  Vapor density 1.2 times that of water.
 Burn with blue flame and produces Sulphur dioxide which is another toxic gas.
 Highly corrosive to certain metals.
 10 ppm beginning of eye irritation, 20 to 30 ppm coughing irritation, loss of smell, 50 ppm
effect on pulse and respiratory track, 100 ppm dangerous to life and health.
Precautions of H2S.
 H2S training.
 Personnel H2S gas monitor. If concentration is more than 10 ppm.
 Emergency escape breathing apparatus. EEBA
 Windsock.
 H2S alarm.
 Emergency escape route.
 Emergency evacuation plan.
 Emergency standby vehicles.
How to Evacuate in Case Of H2S Leak.
 Stop the work activity.
 Wear EEBA
 Stop the equipment if possible.
 Look at the windsock for wind direction.
 Go cross wind until the H2S alarm stopped ringing then go upwind to the assembly point.
 Do a head count.
 Inform emergency contact number about the H2S leak and evacuation.
 If anyone is missing in the head count, inform the emergency contact number to send a rescue
team.
Types of Respirators:
 Air Purifying Respirator.
1. Air purifying disposable particular respirator
2. Air purifying half mask respirator
3. Air purifying full face mask respirator
4. Powered Air purifying respirator
5. Gas masks
 Supplied Air Respirators.
1. Airline respirators
2. Emergency escape breathing apparatus (EEBA)
3. Self-contained breathing apparatus.
SCBA:
Self-contained breathing apparatus, typically used by firefighters or hazmat unit.
SCUBA:
Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus, used under water.
Difference between SCBA and SCUBA:
 SCUBA gear is designed to operate under much higher pressure where as SCBA is not designed
that way.
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 SCBA tanks are a lot lighter because of the amount of gear that a firefighter has to carry.
 When you are diving, you actually want a little bit of extra weight to help you go down.
 SCBA and SCUBA both breathing apparatus should be inspected periodically. Normally once in a
month or check after each use.
Consumption Calculation:
 For 1 minute = 1.5 cubic ft.
 For 30 minute = 1.5*30 = 45 cubic ft.
 Pressure left in pressure gauge = volume of air.
 100 bar = 15 minutes, 200 bar = 30 minutes, 300 bar = 45 minutes.
Hazards in Confined Space:
 Lack of oxygen.
 Toxic gases.
 Fire.
 Slips and trips.
 Access and egress.
 Free flowing materials.
Do not Work if:
 No permit to work.
 Incompetent.
 No gas test performed.
 No ventilation provided.
 No EEBA available.
 Extreme temperatures.
 No access and egress.
 No supervision.
Always Work if:
 PTW approved.
 Competent to work.
 Personal gas monitor present.
 Gas test performed.
 Ventilation provided.
 EEBA available.
 Temperature acceptable.
 Access and egress.
 Supervision available.
TVL: Threshold Limit Value
The concentration to which it is believed that a person can be exposed continuously for short period
of time without suffering from irritation, chronic of irreversible tissue damage and reduce work
efficiency.
TWA: Time Weighted Average:
Concentration of the contaminant in air over the normal work shift of eight hours to which workers can
be exposed without respiratory protection in a forty hours work week.
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STEL: Short Term Exposure Limit:
The concentration to which workers can be exposed continuously for a short period (15 minutes) of
time without suffering from:
1. Irritation
2. Chronic or irreversible tissue damage
3. Narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue or
materially reduce work efficiency.
For example H2S 15 ppm = 15 minutes.
IDLH: Immediate Danger to Life and Health:
An atmosphere that poses an immediate threat to life. Would cause irreversible adverse health
effects or would impair an individual’s ability to escape from the dangerous atmosphere. H2S 100
ppm.
OEL: Occupational Exposure Limit:
The maximum allowable concentration of airborne contaminants to which a person may be exposed
for certain reference time.
Auto Ignition Temperature:
Lowest temperature at which a fuel will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an
external source of ignition such as flame or spark.
This temperature is sometimes referred to as the kindling point of the fuel.
For H2S, it is 500 F (260 C)

Inert, Noble Gases:

An inert gas is a gas which does not change under a given set of conditions. Inert gases are often
used in welding, sealing, or marking applications in an effort to avoid unwanted chemical reactions
which may degrade a part.
Lower Explosive Limit: LEL
The lowest concentration of a gas or vapor (percentage by volume in air) that will burn in air.
Upper Explosive limit: UEL
The highest concentration of a gas or vapor (percentage by volume in air) above which a flame will
not spread in the presence of an ignition source.


EXCAVATION
Excavation:
The removal of soil or rock to form cavity in the ground. There are two types of excavation.
1. Manual Excavation:
Excavation carried out by manual means using tools such as picks, shovels and wheelbarrows.
 Small Sites
 Confined Spaces
2. Mechanical Excavation:
Excavation carried out by heavy machineries and equipment such as excavators, bulldozers and
tractors.
 Mining
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  Tunnels
Trench:
A narrow excavation where the depth is greater than its width.
Excavation Protection Methods:
There are many methods to protect excavation from cave-ins. Some of them are following.
1. Sloping:
Sides of the excavation are inclined away from the excavation. Sides are sloped.
2. Benching:
Sides of excavation are made in multiple levels. Sides are made like stairs.
3. Shoring:
Wooden or metallic structure that supports the face of an excavation.
4. Shielding:
Consists of trench boxes and steel plates, which provides safe working area for the workers.
Shielding does not protect excavation from cave-inns, rather it protects workers.
Hazards related to Excavation:
 Underground utilities.
 Collapsing of excavation walls (cave-ins).
 Presence of toxic gases.
 Fall of people, materials and tools in the excavation.
 Falling of removed soil.
 Water accumulation in the excavation.
 Nearby structures and their conditions.
 Improper access and egress.
 Flooding.
 Confined space.
 Overhead power lines.
 Falling of vehicles.
 Surface or ground water.
Precautions of Excavation:
 Underground utility scanning.
 Trial pits
 Drawing and surface marking of underground utilities.
 Excavation sloping or benching.
 Excavation shielding and shoring.
 Gas testing.
 Hard barricades and sign boards.
 Alternate access if excavation is near to the road.
 Create bund walls for preventing outside water from coming inside.
 Dewatering for the internal water.
 Confined space precautions, if excavation becomes a confined space.
 Safe access and egress.
 Remove excavated soil from the edge of excavation.
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  Avoid vehicle movement.
Soil Types:
1. Stable Rock:
A natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides. Examples are,
 Granite
 Sandstone
2. Type-A soil:
Cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength of 1.5 ton per square foot (1.5 tsf). Examples
are,
 Clay
 Salty Clay
 Sandy Clay
 Clay loam.
Minor Benching is needed to protect its excavation from cave-ins.
No soil is Type-A soil if:
 Fissured.
 Subjected to vibration.
 Previously disturbed.
 Part of a sloped, layered system.
3. Type-B soil:
Cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength greater than 0.5 tsf but less than 1.5 tsf.
Examples are,
 Silt
 Silt loam
 Sandy loam
 Angular gravel.
 Previously disturbed soil
 Type-A soil but is fissured or subject to vibration.
 Dry rock that is not stable.
Benching or sloping or both are needed to protect its excavation from cave-ins.
4. Type-C Soil:
Cohesive soil with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf or less. Examples are,
 Granular soils including gravel, sand and loamy sand.
 Submerged soils
 Soil from which water is freely seeping.
 Unstable submerged rock.
Combination of benching, sloping, shoring and sheet piling are needed to protect its excavation from
cave-ins.
Maximum Allowable Slopes:
Maximum allowable slopes for excavation less than 20 feet based on soil type and angle to the
horizontal are as follows.
Soil Type Height: Depth ratio Slope Angle
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 Stable Rock Vertical 90o
Type-A ¾:1 53o
Type-B 1: 1 45o
Type-C 1½ : 1 34o
Type-A (short term) ½:1 63o

Top width calculation:

Top Width = (Depth × 2) × Type Slope Ratio + Width of Original Excavation.
Maximum distance between two adjacent accesses in a long excavation:
 A ladder must be present within 25 feet, if employees are working inside the excavation.
In an open excavation:
 At every 30 meter on the perimeter, if excavation is less than 1.2 meters deep.
 At every 7.5 meters on the perimeter, if more than 1.2 meters deep.
CRANES
Crane:
A tall metallic structure used for lifting and moving heavy objects, by suspending them from a
projecting arm or beam.
Types of Cranes:
1. Mobile Cranes
 Truck-Mounted Crane
 Crawler Crane
 All-Terrain Crane
 Hydra Crane
 Floating Crane
2. Stationary Cranes
 Tower Crane
 Gantry Crane
 Bridge Crane
 Overhead Crane
 Bulk-Handling Crane
Parts of Crane:
 Boom
 Sling
 Flying Jib
 Anti-Two Block Device
 Outriggers
 Auxiliary Hoists
 Pulley
 Web Sling
 Load Movement Indicator (LMI)
Working Radius:
Maximum distance from the center of gravity of the crane to the center of gravity of the load.
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Safe Working Load (SWL):
Maximum load that can be applied to a lifting tool.
Lifting Plan:
A document which describes the plan for safe lifting. It shows details of the
 Crane
 Lifting tackles
 Load
 Crane set up
 Lifting steps
 Lifting crew responsibilities
Tandem Lifting:
When two cranes are used simultaneously instead of using higher capacity single crane, then the
lifting is called Tandem Lifting.
They are often used to
 Place structural beams for bridges.
 Move large loads.
 Lift long components from horizontal to vertical position.
Load Chart:
A schematic and graphic device used to indicate the amount of authorized work yet to be performed
by a machine.
Proximity Warning Alarm System (PWASS):
Installed in equipment which gives alarm when anything comes within a 5 meter radius.
Load Movement Indicator (LMI):
Also called RCL (Rated Capacity Limiter), is an operational aid that warns a crane operator of
approaching overload conditions and over hoists conditions.
Rigging Load Capacity:
 Rigger 1: Required for lifts over 40 tons.
 Rigger 2: Can’t rig a load over 40 tons.
 Rigger 3: Can’t rig a load over 10 tons.
Safety Devices in Cranes:
 Anti-Two Block Device
 Buffer
 Anemometer
 Limit Switch
 Level Indicator
Lifting Accessories:
 Slings
 Chains
 Hooks
 Eyebolts
 Spreader Beams
 Lifting Magnets
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  Vacuum Devices
Types of Slings:
 Synthetic or Nylon Webbing
 Wire Rope Slings
 Chain Slings
Sling Inspection:
 Clean sling before inspection.
 Inspect all slings before every use.
 Check identification tags.
 Discard if the wear exceeds 15% of the sling diameter.
 Discard if the sling is stretched, cut and distorted.
 Color Coding.
 Heat Damage.
Unsafe Sling:
 Ten randomly distributed broken wires in one rope lay, or five broken wires in one strand in
one rope lay.
 Wear and scraping of one-third the original diameter of outside individual wires.
 Kink crushing, bird caging or other damage of wire rope structure.
 Evidence of heat damage.
 End attachments are cracked, worn or damaged.
 Hooks opened than 15% of the normal throat.
 Twisted more than 10 degrees from the plane.
Causes of Crane Accidents:
 Improper use of outriggers.
 Dropping loads.
 Rigging failure.
 Overturned cranes.
 Boom collapsing.
 Improper dismantling or assembly of crane.
Lifting Hazards:
 Suspended Load.
 Crane Collapse.
 Fall of Loads.
 Damaged Tools and Tackles.
 Improper Signaling.
 Uneven Ground Conditions.
 Nearby Structures.
 Overhead Power Lines.
 Mechanical Failures.
 Improper Rigging.
 Uncontrolled Movement of Load.

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Control Measures for Lifting:
 Permit To Work.
 Lifting Plan.
 Third Party Inspection.
 Color coding of crane, tools and equipment.
 Third party certified crane operator, rigging supervisor and riggers.
 Only trained and approved riggers shall give the signal.
 Crane should be positioned away from the nearby structures and power lines.
 Preventive maintenance of crane.
 Do not stand or stay under the suspended load.
 Outriggers shall be full extended.
 Safety devices must be installed.
 Crane should be positioned on the level ground.
 Outriggers should be placed on the outrigger’s pads.
 Two taglines should be used.
Safe Crane Operation:
 Position crane on a firm ground.
 Fully extend outriggers.
 Use mats for stability.
 Get tires off the ground.
 Clear operator’s cabin view.
 Certified operators and riggers are available.
 Make sure that Safe Load Indicator is working.
 Inspect the crane before lifting.
 Do not exceed SWL.
 Do not by pass Safety Devices.
 Barricade the swing radius.
 Make sure that Lifting Tools are free from any defects.
 Avoid lifting if wind speed is more than 32 km/h.
 Fill Check List by a competent person.
 Make sure that Load Chart is available in the cabin.
 Only one rigger is authorized to signal the operator.
 Make sure that Anti-Two Block system is working.
 Load Movement Indicator is operating.
 Telescopic boom free movement.
Requirement for Man Basket:
 Designed and fabricated according to the standards.
 Third Party Certificate.
 Use two Tag Lines to control swinging of man basket.
 Install Life Line above the crane hook.
 Inspection of all PPEs before use.

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  Wear approved Fall Protection Equipment.
 Do Load Test with sand bags.
 Sling angle should be more than 45o.
Critical Lifting Plan is needed when:
 Load weight is greater than 75% of the rated capacity of the crane.
 Lifting which is placed out of the operator’s view.
 Lifts made with more than one crane.
 Lifting loads of 40 tons or greater.
 Operating crane around pressurized piping areas.
 Crane suspended personnel platform is used.

FIRE
Fire:
A chemical reaction which involves rapid oxidation or burning of fuel. It is a chemical reaction in which
energy in the form of heat is produced. Three elements are required to make a fire. Fuel, oxygen and
heat.
Fuel:
Any combustible material is called fuel. It can be solid, liquid or gas. Examples are coal, oil and gas.
Oxygen:
Oxygen helps burning. Air contains 21 percent oxygen. Fire only needs atmosphere with at least 16
percent oxygen.
Heat:
It is the energy necessary to increase the temperature of the fuel to a point where sufficient vapors
are produced for ignition.
Fire triangle:
Combination of oxygen, fuel and heat is called fire triangle. Along with the chain reaction, it is now
called fire tetrahedron.
Fire = fuel + oxygen + heat + chain reaction. If one element misses, then fire will not occur.
Flash point:
It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel produces enough vapors for ignition.
Combustion:
It is a process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen to produce heat.
Flammability Limit:
The range of gas or vapor amounts in air that will burn or explode if an ignition source is present.
Gas Lower Limit in % by Upper Limit in % by
volume of air volume of air
Hydrogen 4 75
Carbon monoxide 12.5 74.2
Methane 5 15
Butane 1.5 9
Ethylene 2.7 28.6
Acetylene 5.5 80

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Precautions to be taken while handling and storing compressed cylinders:

 If cylinders are to be kept for a significant amount of time then ensure that they cause no
hazard to workers or public in the area.
 Cylinders should be stored in a well ventilated area, preferably in open air but protected from
bad weather.
 The store must be kept away from fire risks and sources of heat and ignition. Nothing else
should be stored in the area.
 Cylinders should be stored upright on a firm, leveled and well-drained surface free from
hollows and cavities. Long grass and weeds should be removed.
 Cylinders should be secured so as they are prevented from falling over, when in storage or
use.
 Cylinders should be segregated within the store according to their type, whether full or empty.
 Oxygen and oxidizing gases should be separated from flammable gases by 6 meters or by fire
resistant partition.
 No electric apparatus should be installed within a cylinder store unless it is constructed to a
suitable standard for the hazard.
 No cylinder should be used in the storage area.
 Appropriate warning signs, like “Highly Flammable”, “No Smoking”, “Full/Empty” etc. should be
displayed.
 Suitable fire-fighting equipment should be kept adjacent to the store. Preferably Dry Powder
Fire extinguishers, and should be inspected and maintained at intervals not exceeding one
year.
 When cylinders are required to be stored in a compound, this should be located not less than 3
meters from any building, site or public road access. The compound fence should be at least 2
meters high, and it should have two means of escape with gates opening outwards.
 Where it is necessary to take precautions against vandalism or theft, suitable protection cages
must be used.
 Each cylinder should be marked to include the manufacturer’s mark and serial number,
together with the indication of the specification to which the cylinder is constructed and its year
of manufacture. A date of test and pressure test, together with the weight of cylinder and the
name of the product should be displayed.
 When gas cylinders are to be transported, they should be protected from physical damage and
the consequences of any leaks must be minimized.
 Move cylinders by hand in proper cylinder trolleys where the cylinder is secured in the trolley.
 Take great care while handling cylinders as they can be very heavy and awkward to handle.
 Before moving any cylinder remove all attached equipment including regulators. Safety caps
must be provided.
 The cylinder must be properly supported and secured within the vehicles so they cannot move
during the journey.
 The cylinder should be checked to ensure that the valves are closed and there are no leaks.
 The vehicle should be equipped with suitable fire extinguishers. Typically dry powder fire
extinguisher with a minimum capacity of 2 kg.
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  There should be no smoking within the vehicle while carrying cylinders.
 The driver of the vehicle should be conversant with the load and have written information on
the hazards and the action to be taken should any problem occur. The driver should also have
training in the operations of fire extinguishers and any other safety equipment carried.
Classes of Fire:
Class A: Combustible materials (flammable solids), examples are wood, paper, rubber.
Class B: Flammable liquids. Examples are petrol, diesel, paint etc.
Class C: Flammable gases, examples are hydrogen, butane, methane.
Class D: Combustible metal, examples are magnesium, aluminum, potassium.
Class E: Electrical equipment: examples are computer, generators etc.
Class K: Cooking oils, kitchen oil and fats.
Methods of Extinguishing a Fire:
 Smothering
 Starving
 Cooling
 Chain Breaking
Any one of the above methods will extinguish fire.
Smothering:
In this method fire extinguishers are used to cut off oxygen (close the ventilation) to extinguish fire.
Using CO2 and DCP (Dry Chemical Powder).
Starving:
In this method fuel is removed to extinguish fire.
Cooling:
In this method water is used to reduce the heat.
Chain Breaking:
Break the chain reaction using DCP or blanketing. Apply agents to interfere with the chemical chain
reaction of breaking down the product of combustion through heat and oxidation.
Types of Fire Extinguishers:
 Multipurpose Dry Chemical
 Carbon Dioxide
 Halon
 Wet chemical or foam
 Pressurized water
Multipurpose Dry Chemical:
 Used to extinguish class A, B and C fires.
 Color blue.
 Weight varies from 2.5 lbs to 20 lbs.
 Dry chemicals (Ammonium Phosphate) is pressurized to 10.5-18 bars by carbon dioxide gas.
 Discharge time is from 8 seconds to 25 seconds.
 Has pressure gauge to allow visual capacity check.
 Effective range varies from 5 feet to 20 feet.
 It extinguishes fire by smothering.

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  Organic materials, flammable liquids, flammable gases, liquid petroleum gas LPG and
acetylene.
Do not use in the following cases.
 1000 v electric equipment fire.
 Fire involving cooking oil.
Carbon Dioxide:
 Used to extinguish class B and C fires. Electrical fires, paint and petrol, flammable liquids.
 Color black.
 Weight varies from 2.5 lbs to 100 lbs.
 Carbon Dioxide gas is pressurized to 150 to 200 psi.
 Discharge time is from 8 seconds to 30 seconds.
 Has no pressure gauge and is verified by weight.
 Effective range varies from 3 feet to 8 feet.
 It extinguishes fire by smothering.
 Its effectiveness decreases as temperature increases.
Do not use in the following cases.
 Kitchen fires.
 Combustible materials.
 Flammable metals.
Halon:
 Used to extinguish class A, B and C fires.
 Smaller sizes are ineffective against class A.
 Weight varies from 9 lbs to 17 lbs.
 Halon 1211 (pressurized liquid) is released as vapors.
 Discharge time is from 8 seconds to 18 seconds.
 Has pressure gauge to allow visual capacity check.
 Effective range varies from 9 feet to 16 feet.
 Works best in confined areas.
 Ideal for electronic fire due to lack of residue.
 It extinguishes fire by smothering.
 Its fumes are toxic if inhaled.
 Halon is ozone depleting.
 It production is halted in January, 1994.
Wet Chemical or Foam:
 Used to extinguish class F fire. Cooking oil and fats.
 Yellow color.
 1.5 gal of stored pressure PRX wet chemical extinguishing agent.
 Discharge time is 40 seconds.
 Has pressure gauge to allow visual capacity check.
 Effective range varies from 10 feet to 12 feet.
 Don’t use it on class K fires until extinguishing system is activated.

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  Works best in confined areas.
 It extinguishes fire by cooling and forming foam blanket to prevent reigniting.
Do not use in the following cases.
 Electric equipment fire
 Flammable metals.
 Flammable liquid and gas fires.
Difference between Flash Back Arrester and Check Valve:
A check valve can only prevent the reverse gas flow. However, a Flash Back Arrestor prevents
reverse gas flow and arrests the flashback. A check valve cannot arrest a flash back.
Types of fire extinguishers:
 Water (water mist, water spray)
 Foam
 Dry powder, standard, (Dry powder, specialist)
 Carbon dioxide CO2
 Wet chemical.
Water Extinguishers:
 For class A fires
 Bright red.
 Organic materials. Paper, wood etc.
Do not use water extinguishers in the following cases.
 Electric equipment fire.
 Kitchen fires.
 Flammable gas and liquids.
PASS rule:
 P: Pull the pin in the handle. This will also break the seal.
 A: Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire.
 S: Squeeze the level slowly.
 S: Sweep side to side.
Fire Sprinkler System:
 Fixed firefighting system.
 Automatic sensitive.
 Oil and gas, manufacturing industry.
It is important because it immediately extinguish small fires which can create big ones.
Body Parts of Sprinkler:
 Deflector
 Temperature sensitive glass tube.
 Sealing or cap
How it works.
 The liquid in the glass is a mixture of alcohol and water or glycerin and water.
 Installed in office and high rise building and manufacturing industries.
 It senses temperature and at a particular temperature the glass tube breaks and the sealing
gets out and the water comes out of the deflector.
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Types:
 Depends on atmospheric temperature.
 Different color code of glass tube.
Orange glass bulb: temperature = 57 C. living homes and offices.
Red glass bulb: temperature = 60 C. living homes and offices.
Yellow glass bulb: temperature = 79 C. kitchens and small workshop.
Green glass bulb: temperature = 93 C. kitchens and workshops.
Blue glass bulb: temperature = 141 C. industries and chemical plants.
Mauve glass bulb: temperature = 182 C. oil industries and chemical plant.
Black glass bulb: temperature = 204 to 260 C. oil refinery, metal molting.

ELECTRICITY
Electricity:
 Flow of energy from one place to another.
 Source of power is called generating station.
 Electron flows through a conductor, which is called current.
 Energy travels in a closed circuit.
Current:
Electrical movement which is measured in amperes.
Circuit:
Complete path of the current: (from source through a conductor and through output device called
load).
Resistance:
Restrictions to electrical flow.
Conductors:
Substances with little resistance and which allow current to flow.
Grounding:
A conductive connection to the earth which acts as a protective measure.
Insulators:
Substance with high resistance such that it does not allow the current to pass. Glass, plastic, wood
etc.
Electrical Injuries:
 Direct: Electrocution or death due to electrical shock and burns.
 Indirect: Falls.
Shock Severity:
 Path: Path of current through the body.
 Amount of current: Flowing through the body (Amperes).
 Duration: Duration of the shocking current through the body.
 Low voltage does not mean low hazard.
Path of current flow in body:
The most critical path of current flow through the body is where the heart is in the path of the flow.
 Contact form hand to hand.
 Hand to foot
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  Head to foot
Dangers of electrical shock:
 Currents above 10 mA can paralyze or freeze muscles.
 Current more than 75 mA, can cause a rapid ineffective heartbeat. Death will occur in a few
minutes unless a defibrillator is used.
Hazards:
 Inadequate wiring.
 Exposed electric part.
 Wires with bad insulation.
 Ungrounded electrical systems and tools.
 Overloaded circuits.
 Damaged power tools and equipment.
 Using the wrong PPEs and tools.
 Overhead power lines.
 Wet conditions.
Protective Measures:
 Proper grounding.
 Use GFCIs or ELCB
 Use fuses and circuit breaker.
 Guard live parts.
 Lock out / Tag out
 Proper use of flexible cords.
 Close circuit panels.
 Avoid wet conditions.
 Close electric panels.
 Training
Electric Area Classification:
 Class 1 division 1: High voltage > 650 V
 Class 1 division 2: Medium voltage 250 V-650 V
 Unclassified: low voltage < 250 V
ELCB and RCCB:
 Earth leakage circuit breaker ELCB
 Residual current circuit breaker RCCB
RCCB is the updated version of ELCB.
Function of RCCB:
It is an electrical wiring device whose function is to disconnect the circuit when it detects currents
leaking to the earth wire. It also gives protection against electric shock or electrocution caused by
direct contacts.
Difference between ELCB and RCCB:
ELCB RCCB
Earth Leakage Residual Current
Circuit Breaker Circuit Breaker
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 Voltage Operated Current Operated
Requires Earth Does Not Require
Connection Earth Connection
Leakage current Compares the
must flow through difference in current
earth values between live
and neutral wires

Hazards of Power Tools:

 Electric shocks
 Sparks
 Burn injuries.
 Fire and explosions
 Cut injuries.
 Noise.
 Vibration.
Precautions of power tools.
 110 v power with 30 mA ELCB.
 Dead man’s switch.
 Machine guard.
 Area should be free from combustible and flammable materials.
 Disc RPM (rotation per minute) must be greater than machine RPM.
 100 % spark containment.
 Welding booth.
 Fire extinguishers, fire blankets, trained fire watcher.
 Double eye protection (safety goggles and face shield)
 Leather gloves. Apron.
 Hearing protection. (ear plugs and ear muffs)
 Job rotation for long duration of work.

RADIOGRAPHY
Isotopes:
Two or more forms of the same atom having the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
Which means that the number of neutrons in their nuclei are different.
Isotopes Are Hazardous:
Isotopes are hazardous because they emit uncontrolled energy in the form of radioactive waves,
which are hazardous to all living things and can destroy living tissues that causes fatality or convert it
to cancer.
Radiography:
An imaging technique using X-rays, gamma rays or similar ionizing radiation and non-ionizing
radiation to view the internal form of an object. (Structural integrity of a structure).
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Radioactivity:
The emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the spontaneous disintegration of atomic
nuclei. These radiations may be in the form of alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays or
electromagnetic rays.
Radiation Dose:
Radiation dose may be expressed in terms of absorbed dose, equivalent dose, and effective dose.
1. Absorbed Dose:
The amount of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of an organ or tissue.
 Gray is the (SI) unit of absorbed dose.
 One gray is equal to one joule of radiation energy per kilogram of matter.
 Other unit is the rad, (radiation absorbed dose).
 One rad is equal to 1/100th of one gray.
2. Equivalent Dose:
The absorbed dose to an organ, adjusted to account for the effectiveness of the type of radiation.
 Equivalent dose is calculated for individual organs.
 The correction factor is 1 for x-rays.
 Unit is J/kg and is given the special name “Sievert” (Sv)
 Sv replaces the units of rem. (roentgen equivalent in man)
 1 Sv = 100 rem
 The equivalent dose in Sv is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in Gy.
3. Effective Dose:
It is the addition of equivalent doses to all organs, each adjusted to account for the sensitivity of the
organ to radiation.
 Effective dose is calculated for the whole body.
 Takes into account relative harm level of radiation.
 Takes into account sensitivity of each organ to radiation.
 Effective dose is expressed in Sieverts (Sv).
 More frequently expressed in millisieverts (mSv).
Conditions for PTW:
 Certified radiographer.
 Valid documents for the source.
 Trained crew.
 Barricading.
 Sign boards are placed.
 Properly use of radiation monitors.
 Area is evacuated.
Safety Measures during Radiography:
 Competent person is surveying outside the barricaded areas with survey meters.
 Crew is following the safety precautions.
 The area is calculated, evaluated and barricaded.
 Warning lights are deployed.
Controlled Area:
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A limited access area in which the occupational exposure of personnel to radiation is under the
supervision of an individual in charge of radiation protection.
An area in which the radiation dose does not exceed 0.75 millirem (7.5 microsievert) is called
controlled area.
Geiger Meter:
A radiation monitoring equipment which is used to measure radiation dose.
Use of Film Bandage:
It is worn by the person who is exposed to radiation. It measures the amount of radiations to which
the person is exposed to.
Decay Chart:
It shows the rate of decomposition of a radioactive element over a period of time.
Authorized Exposed Person:
A person who is formally trained in the use of sealed sources and X-ray equipment used in industrial
radiography.
In what condition work permit can be issued for radiography.
 Ensure a competent person is surveying outside the barricades area with survey meter.
 The crew is authorized for the following safety precautions.
 The controlled area is to be calculated. Black and yellow warning tapes to be placed in 360 o
and at night red or yellow flash light must be used.
Safety Devices for Radiography:
 TLD Badge and Personal Dossi Meter.
 Koli Meter.
 Surveyor Meter.
 Emergency Kit.
 Emergency Action Plan.
HSE Requirements for Radiography.
 Experience history.
 Medical history.
 Radiation protection supervisor shall be qualified with certification. (NRBP from UK).
 Work instruction.
 Method statement.
 Emergency action plan.
 Emergency contact numbers.
 Emergency kit.
 Personal Dossi meter and calibration certificate.
 Surveyor meter and calibration.
 TLD badge for personal.
 Source transportation vehicle shall be approved from FARN.
 Source storage requirements and source movement control log.
Hazards of Radiography:
 Personnel exposed to radiation for a long term.
 Loss of hair.
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  If radiation dose is more, it can burn skin.
 Exposure to high radiations cause cancer.
 Fatality.
Control Measure:
 PTW
 Work method statement with HIRA or TRA or JSA.
 Medical history.
 Barricade the area, mark with black and yellow warning tape, post sign board.
 No un-authorized entry.
 Warning light and alarm in night work activity.
 Personal Dossi meter with TLD badges.
Radiation Safe Distance Calculation:
Sievert (SV) = Gray × Quality Factor (QF)
Gray: The amount of radiation that will deposit 1 joule of energy per kilo gram of absorber.
Quality Factor: The degree of biological damage caused by a quality of radiation.
𝑄𝐹 = 1 (For Gamma and X-rays).
Dose rate at 1𝑚 (also called OUTPUT)
 Cobalt 60: 13 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟/𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒
 Iridium 192: 4.8 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟/𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒
 Ytterbium 169: 1.25 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑦/ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟/𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒
Maximum allowable dose rate at the barrier = 7.5 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑟𝑜 𝑆𝑣/ℎ
Inverse square law:
𝐷1 2 × 𝑅1 2 = 𝐷2 2 × 𝑅2 2
𝐷1 = Original Distance, 𝑅1 = Original Dose Rate
𝐷2 = Required Distance, 𝑅2 Required Dose Rate
𝐷1 2 × 𝑅1 2
𝐷2 = √
𝑅2 2

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