CH A’ Py... Solar Energy—Basic Concepts Learning Objectives In this chapter you will be able to: > Explain the estimation of availabil- ity of solar radiation at a location > Observe the effect of tilting the sur- face of collector with respect to hori- zontal surface > Know about the origin of solar energy Discuss the characteristics and distri- bution of solar radiation lar radiation ‘Analysé the collection and interpre- tation of solar radiation data > > Measure various components of so- > —Non-Conventionol Er ‘Resources * —————_—_ SOC ‘The sun radiates energy uniformly in all directions in the form of electro, Bnet Waves, When absorbed by a body, It increases its temperature, It provides the St le Needed to sustain life in our solar system, It is a clean, inexhaustible, abun, dani) universally available renewable energy source. Major drawbacks of solar ene,.) ind it Is a dilute form of energy, which is available intermittently, uncertainly ang steadily and continuously, However, it is more predictable than wind energy, Ait Peak solar insolation (incident solar radiation) often coincides with Peak da demand; it can be well matched to commercial power needs, The outp, % 10”’kW, The energy reaching the earth Is 1.5 x 10!*kWh/year, Solar energy can be utilized directly in two ways: (1) by collectin, heat and using it ina thermal system or (ii) by collecting and conyer; to electrical energy using Photovoltaic system. The former is referr ‘Thermal’ and the later as ‘Solar Photovoltaic’ (SPV) system. Solar energy Is also used by yarious well-known natural effects and Aature in some other forms of energy. These are indirect forms of solar e, Solar energy is the mother of all forms of energy: conventional or non-c renewable or non-renewable, the only exception being nuclear ene; sources of energy find their origin in sun, as mentioned below: 1, Wind energy 2. Biomass energy 3, Tidal energy 4 5. “tof sun is 2 1B the ragi th ‘UNG It direc ed to as ‘Solar Pears in NEIBY. Thus “Onventiona, TBY: Various Ocean wave energy Ocean thermal energy 6. Fossil fuels and other organic chemicals 7. Hydro energy Warming the body during winters is perhaps the earliest uses of direct solar heat man has made, Indeed drying of clothes, timber, fodder, salt water (to get salt) an ‘igriculture produce remained the most extensive use of direct solar energy in the history of mankind, All other devices for harnessing direct solar energy have fairly recent origin, Archimedes (212 BC), itis said, set the Roman fleet on fire by concentrating Solar radiation using large number of small plane mirrors at a distance of several hundred feet. Antoine Lavoisier (1740-1794), achieved temperatures up to 1700 °C by concentrating sun’s rays, Solar steam boilers were developed in late 19" century to Produce steam to run steam engines. In 1870s, a large-scale project using solar energy was Installed in Chile where 6000 gallons of fresh water was produced per day ina desalination plant by collecting solar energy in an area of 50,000 sq, ft. In subsequent years the development of solar energy declined due to availability of cheap fossil fuels. However, after oil crisis of 1973 solar energy (as well as other non-conventional energy sources) received renewed interest.Solar Energy—Basie Concepts ro ‘The sun, which is the largest member of hot gaseous matter with a diameter of 1, 1,495 x 10'! m from the earth. As observ the solar system, is a sphere of intensely 39 x 10° m and, at an average distance of ed from the earth the sun rotates on its axis about once in every four weeks, though it does not rotate as a solid body. The equator takes about 27 days and the polar region takes about 30 days for each rotation. At the innermost region, the core, the temperature is estimated between 8 x 10° to 40 x 10° K. The core has density of about 100 times that of water and pressure of 10" atm. Such a high inner temperature is maintained by enormous energy released due to continuous fusion reaction. ‘Thus, the sun is a big natural fusion reactor with its constituent gases as the “containing vessel” retained by, gravitational forces. Several fusion reactions have been suggested to be the source of the energy radiated by the sun. Most important of them is a reaction in which four hydrogen atoms (protons) combine to form one helium atom. ‘The mass of the helium nucleus is less than that of four protons, the|difference of mass having been conyerted to energy in fusion reaction as follows: 4(,H') — ,He!* 26.7 Mev ‘The surface of the sun is maintained at a temperature of approximately 5800 K. The earth is shaped as an oblate spheroid — a sphere flattened at the poles and bulged in the plane normal to the poles. However, for most practical purposes, the earth may be considered ‘as a sphere with a diameter of about 1.275 x 10” m: The earth makes one rotation about its axis every 24 hours and completes a revolution about the sun in a period of approximately 365.25 days, Its axis is inclined at an angle of 23.5°. As a result the length of days and nights keep changing. The earth reflects about 30 per cent of the sunlight that fall on it. This is known as earth’s albedo. ‘The geometry of earth-sun relationship is shown in Fig. 4.1. The eccentricity of earth’s orbit is such that the distance between the sun and the earth varies by +1.7 per cent. The sun subtends an angle of 32’ on earth at an average sun“earth distance of 1.495 x 10'' m, a distance of one astronomical unit. Earth Sun (1275x107 m fe 1.495 x 101 m >| Figure 4.1 Sun-earth relationshipNon-Conventional Energy Resources PECTRUM The wavelength distribution of radiation emitted by a black body is given by Pa law: epee ** exp(C,/AT)-1 where, C, and C, are often called Plancks first and second radiation ¢o mesa Si aie values are C= 3.74% 10" Wm’, and C,= 0.01435 %8 Lis the wavelength in m and T is temperature in Kelvin. Total energy emitted black body at temperature Tis obtained by integrating W,, over the wavelen Using this formula the power density distribution of solar radiation at the gi, ofthe stn considering the surface temperature to be 5760 K can be calculated. Alsat same for the earth surface can be found out assuming the average earth temperate to be 288 K (15 °C). The comparison of these radiations from the sun and the is shown in Fig. 4.2. It is clear from Fig. 4.2 (a) and (b) that the radiation emitted (W/m?—unit wavel velength) cn 1.00E + 08 1.00E +07 4,00E + 06 1,00E +05 1,00E + 04 1.00E + 03 1,00E + 02 0 Spectral emissive power, (Wim@um) 40} 5) 47120 25.30 Wavelength, Aum) (a) Blackbody emissive power at T = 5760 K (surface of sun) a 8 ‘Spectral emissive power, (Wim?um) Salona ° 5 10 15 20 25 30 Wavelength, 4, (um) (b) Blackbody emissive power at T = 288 K (surface of earth) Figure 4.2 Radiant powers per unit wavelength at the surface of sun and earthaes Solar Eneray~Basic Concepts a from the sun at about 5760 K lies in the range of short wavelengths, peaking around 0.48 pm and that from earth at 288 K (15 °C) lies in the range of long wavelengths, aking around 10 jum. ‘A useful term, Solar Constant, I,. is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time, on a unit area of surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation, at the earth’s mean distance from the sun. The World Radiation Center (WRC) has adopted a value of solar constant as 1367 W/m? (1.940 cal/cm? min, 432Btu/ft? hr or 4.921 Mj/m? hr), This has been accepted universally asa standard value of solar constant. TAL AND TERRESTRIAL RADIATIONS ‘The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as it propagates away from the surface of the sun, though the wavelengths remain unchanged. Solar radiation incident on the outer atmosphere of the earth is known as Extraterrestrial Radiation, I,.,. The extraterrestrial radiation deviates from solar constant value due to two reasons. The first is the variation in the radiation emitted by the sun itself. The variation due to this reason is less than +1.5 per cent with different periodicities. The second is the variation of earth-sun distance arising from earth's slightly elliptic path. The variation due to this reason is +3 per cent and is given by: Tex. = Ipc U1 + 0.033 cos (360 n/365)) W/m? (4.2) where, nis the day of the year starting from January 1. ‘The extraterrestrial radiation, being outside the atmosphere, is not affected by changes in atmospheric conditions. While passing through the atmosphere it is subjected to mechanisms of atmospheric absorption and scattering depending on atmospheric conditions, depleting its intensity, A fraction of scattered radiation is reflected back to space while remaining is directed downwards. Solar radiation that reaches earth surface after passing through the earth’s atmosphere is known as Terrestrial Radiation, The terrestrial radiation expressed as energy per unit time per unit area (i.e. W/m?) is known as Solar Irradiation. The term Solar Insolation (incident solar radiation) is defined as solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time (in J/m* or kWh/m?). The positions of extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions are indicated in Fig, 4.3.Figure 4.3. Propagation of solar radiation through atmosphere DISTRIBUTION OF SOLAR RADIATION Solar radiation covers a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiation in a wide frequency range. About 99 per cent of the extraterrestrial radiation has wavelengths in the range from 0.2 to 4 wm with maximum spectral intensity at 0.48 jum (green portion of visible range). About 6.4 per cent of extraterrestrial radiation energy is contained in ultraviolet region (A < 0.38 1m); another 48 per cent is contained in the visible region (0.38 pm < 2 < 0.78 ym) and the remaining 45.6 per cent is contained in the infrared region (2 > 0.78 um). There is almost complete absorption of short wave radiation in range (A < 0.29 ym) and infrared radiation in range (A > 2.3 um) in the atmosphere. Thus, from the point of view of terrestrial applications of solar energy, the radiation only in the range of wavelengths between 0.29 and 2.3 um is significant. ‘The spectral solar irradiation distribution both for extraterrestrial and terrestrial radiation is shown in Fig. 4.4. The areas under these curves indicate the total radiation intensities in W/m’ respectively for extraterrestrial and terrestrial regions.Solar Eneray— Ultraviolet | Visible po neared a Terrestrial radiation Solar irradiance distribution, Wim? jum 8 8 03) 4405 1.0 15 20 Wavelength, ym Figure 4.4 Special solar irradiation, extraterrestrial and terrestrials [EGUDEPLETION OF SOLAR RADIATION The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents, suspended dust and other minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These are air molecules, ozone, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water vapour, dust, and water droplets. ‘Therefore, solar radiation is’ depleted during its passage’ through 'the atmosphere. Different molecules do different things as explained below: 1, Absorption Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different ‘molecules. ‘The absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing miolecules, thus raising their temperatures: (a) ‘Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiations. (b) Ozone absorbs a’ significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range (A< 0.38 um). (©) Water vapour (H,O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost ‘completely’ the infrared radiation in the range (A > 2.3 um) and deplete to some extent the near infrared radiation below this range. (@) Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy irrespective of wavelength.Non-Conventionol Energy Resources, 1. Scattering eee ey cist ee and air molecules (or gaseous particles of di ution of incident energy. A part of scattered radiati ferent (reflected back) to space while remaining is directed downwards to the eai 8 lost from different directions as diffuse radiation. It is the scattered signee the sky blue. Without atmosphere and its ability to scatter sunlight, th at makes appear black, as it does on the moon. * the sky would In cloudy atmosphere, (i) a major part ofthe incoming solar radiation back into the atmosphere by the clouds, (ii) another part is absorbed by eae and (iil) the rest is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffs: radio "The energy is reflected back to the space by (ieeaectiont orn ciseiaeee (ii) scattering by the atmospheric gases and dust particles, plus (it) the r Aue from the earth's surface is called the albedo of earth-atmosphere system andes value of about 30 per cent of the incoming solar radiation for the earth as a ia Thus on the surface of earth we have two components of solar radiation: (i) tas beam radiation, unchanged in direction and (ii) diffuse radiation, the direc which is changed by scattering and reflection. Total radiation at any location a Surface of earth is the sum of beam radiation and diffuse radiation, what is nae global radiation. These terms may be properly defined as follows: a Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at th aah surface without change of direction, Le. in line with sun is called beam onde radiation. Diffuse radiation: Solar radiation scattered by aerosols, dust and molecules js known as diffuse radiation. It does not have a unique direction. it radiation: The sam of beam and diffuse radiation is referred to a5 total or global radiation. rer on clear days, there will be some diffuse radiation depending upon the amount of dust particles, ozone and water vapour present in the atmosphere. On avrcast days when the sun isnot visible all he radiation reaching the ground wil be diffuse radiation. In general, the intensity of difuse radiation comin the sky is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is therefore said to be anisotropic in nature. However, in many situations (like heavy cloud cover), the intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably uniform and it thus becomes isotropic in nature: ion ation thus available on earths surface is less than that is received ousie the curth's atmosphere and this reduction in intensity depends on the atmosphe conditions (amount of dust particles, water vapour, ozone content, cloudiness, etc) contthe distance traveled by beam radiation through atmosphere befors reaches sire surface. The later factor in turn depends on solar altitude. The phere is accounted for in the term “Ait th through the atmosphere, ig from various directions in a location on ear path length of solar beam through the atmos Mrase’, which is defined as the ratio of the path leng d to the vertical path length which the solar beam actually traverses up to the groun (which is minimum) through the atmosphere. Thus at sea level the air mass is unity When the sun ist the ‘zenith’ (highest position), ic., when inclination angle ais 90° Mathematically:Solar Energy—Basic Concepts _a airmass, m = Pathlength traversed by beam radiation, | vertical’ path length of atmosphere The abbreviation AMO refers to zero (no) atmosphere, AMI refers to m = 1 (ie. sun overhead, 8, =0), AM2 refers to m = 2 (0, = 60°); and so on. From Fig. 4.5, the air mass may be written as: m= (BA)/(CA) = sec 8, = cosec a (as a+ 6, = 90°) where avis inclination angle and 6, is zenith angle (a and 0, are defined later in Section 4.10) Vertical Extraterrestrial radiation Atmospherie optical path- eee 6370 km, Figure 4.5. Direction of sun's ray with respect to atmosphere MENT OF SOLAR RADIATION Solar radiation data are measured mainly by following instruments: (i) Pyranometer: A pyranometer is designed to measure global radiation, usually on a horizontal surface but can also be used on an’inclined surface. When shaded from beam radiation by using a shading ring, it measures diffuse radiation only. (ii) Pyrheliometer: An instrument that measures béam radiation by using along and narrow tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence. (iii) A sunshine recorder measures the sunshine hours in a day. ®>. Non-Conventional Energy Resources 4.8.1 Pyranometer A precision pyranometer is designed to respond to radiation of al] Wavelen, hence measures accurately the total power in the incident spectrum. cone td thermopile whose sensitive surface consists of circular, blackened, hoy "'4ias, exposed to the sun and cold junctions are completely shaded. The a PCtiong, difference between the hot and cold junctions is the function of radiation the sensitive surface. The sensing element is covered by two concentric hemispp © glass domes to shield it from wind and rain. This also reduces the convection Pet A radiation shield surrounding the outer dome and coplanar with the sensing qr Prevents direct solar radiation from heating the base of the instrument. The ins “me has a voltage output of approximately 9 uV/W/m’ and has an output im, dane 650 . A precision spectral pyranometer (model: PSP) of Eppley laboratory qh in Fig 4.6. The pyranometer, when provided with a shadow band (or occutin o'™ to prevent beam radiation from reaching the sensing element, measures the 8 dis radiation only. Such an arrangement of shadow bandstand (model: SBS) jg el Fig. 4.7. nin Many inexpensive instruments are also available for measuring light int including instruments based on cadmium sulphide photocells ang mind photodiodes. These instruments give good indication of relative intensi n ity but spectral response is not linear and thus cannot be accurately calibrated. their Figure 4.6 Pyranometer Figure 4.7. A pyranometer with shadow band (Courtesy: Eppley Laboratory) (Courtesy: Eppley Laboratory) 4.8.2 Pyrheliometer ‘The normal incidence pyranometer, shown in Fig. 4.8, uses a long collimator tube to collect beam radiation whose field of view is limited to a solid angle of 5.5° (generally) by appropriate diaphragms inside the tube. The inside of the tube is blackened to absorb any radiation incident at angles outside the collection solid angle. At the base of the tube a wire wound thermopile having a sensitivity of approximately 8 L.V/W/m’ and an output impedance of approximately 200 Q is provided. The tube is sealed with dry air to eliminate absorption of beam radiation within the tube by water vapor. A tracker is needed if continuous readings are desired. 4.8.3 Sunshine Recorder This instrument measures the duration in hours, of bright sunshine during the course of the day. It essentially consists of glass sphere (about 10 cm in diameter) mounted Jar Solar Energy—Basic Concepts sun ray 09 collimator tube Diaphragm Sensing element Qcpivots oF 2-axis Figure 4.8 Pyrheliometer on its axis parallel to that of earth, within a spherical section (bowl) as shown in Fig. 4.9. The bowl and glass sphere is arranged in such a way that sun's rays are focused sharply at a spot on a card held in a grooye in the bowl. The card is prepared from special paper bearing a time scale. As the sun moves, the focused bright sunshine urns a path along this paper. The length of the trace thus obtained on the paper is the measure of the duration of the bright sunshine. Three overlapping pairs of grooves are provided in the spherical segment to take care ofthe different seasons of the year. \<— (Spherical Bow! section) Figure 4.9 Sunshine recorderNon-Conventional Energy Resources The radiation data are mostly measured on a horizontal surface. Typical reco slobal and defuse radiation versus solar time on a horizontal surface for a «je and partially cloudy day are shown in Fig. 4.10. Daily radiant energy is obtaing cv the area under the corresponding curve. Monthly average of the daily raqiay, obtained by averaging over a span of the corresponding month and expres na bs kJ/m*. An alternative unit for expressing solar radiation is Langley pe, where one Langley is equal to 1 calory/cm*, of in T Unit time <= 800 Global ig = 600 % 400 g e200] 0 ‘Solar time 6am. Noon 6pm. (a) Clear day 800) one Global. £ = 600) 2 400 = 5 200) 8 aA ol Solar time 6am Noon 6pm (b) Cloudy day Figure 4.10 Daily variation of global and diffuse radiation on typical (a) clear and (b) cloudy days on horizontal surface Thus, solar radiation data are presented in three ways: (i) Flow of energy per unit area per second, ( kJ/m?-s) (ii) Flow of energy per unit area per hour, (kJ/m?-h) (iii) Flow of energy per unit area per day, (kJ/m?-day) The incident solar radiation is also a functiou of the orientation (or tilt, due south in northern hemisphere) of solar collector from horizontal. A typical pattern of relative irradiation throughout a year for three tilt angles equal to: (i) latitude, (ii) (latitude - 15°) and (iii) (latitude + 15°) is shown in Fig. 4.11, The radiation pattern indicates favouring of certain tilt during certain periods of the year. Therefore, seasonal— Solar Energy—Basic Concepts justment of tilt angle may result in enhanced radiation collection, However, overall sil gy changes om place to place and also on the type of application. 1.2 \ Tilted at latitude ~15° 10 Relative irradiation 08 cre ai aetonS mona 8 § 5B 5 3 seegeessae3 ss 8 Figure 4.11 Relative Irradiation at tilted surfaces throughout a year Maximum solar radiation is received on a collector surface placed normal to incident rays. Butas the position of the sun in the sky changes throughout the day, the collector has to adjust itself continuously to collect maximum radiation. Therefore, maximum energy canbe collected if collector tracks the sun along two axes. However, providing for 2-axis tracking is expensive and complicated. A compromising but less expensive option is to fix the collector at suitable tilt and track the sun along 1-axis only. The most cost effective method with further compromise in the performance is to have a fix orientation for collector and possibly with some arrangement for seasonal adjustments only. For designing a solar system or for predicting the potential of any solar application atalocation, we need monthly average, daily solar radiation data (both global and diffuse) on a horizontal and possibly at certain positions of tilt angle of the surface. ‘These data are measured at certain measuring stations in a country (at present 51 locations in case of India) and computed for other locations. This record is produced in the form of charts and tables and an atlas,is prepared to help in solar systems design. Typical record of measured daily solar radiation data for New Delhi is shown inTables C1, C2 and C3 in Appendix C, [Hioisovar time LOCAL APPARENT TIME) Solar time is measured with reference to solar noon, which is the time when the sun is crossing observer's meridian. At solar noon the sun is at the highest position in the sky. The sun traverses each degree of longitude in 4 minutes (as earth takes 24 hours to complete one revolution). The standard time is converted to solar time by incorporating two corrections, as follows: Solar time = Standard time + 4 (Ly ~ Lige) (min) + E (min) (4.3)mm _ Mon Conmenttonal Uner gy Resources where Ly and 1i,, are the standard longitudes used for measuring styy the country a ‘the longitude of observers location, respectively, Thatta Une y is used if the standard meridian of the country Iles in western hemi) v4) reference to prime meridian) and (~ve) if that lies jn the eastern hemisphe, Te vig correction arising out of the variation in the length of the solar day due te a G the in earth's rotation and orbital revolution, and I called equation of tiynye “Tsong day, which ts the duration between two consecutive solar noons, Is not ex4ct Sly hours throughout the year, £.can be determined either by calculation Using f Y Ay, equation (within an accuracy of half minute) or from the chart given jn fly £=987sin2B-7.53cosB~1.5sinBmin, © *%2, where B= (360/364)(n ~ 81) (sy) and n= day of the year, starting from 1° January Day of the year, n Figure 4.12 The equation of time as function of day of the year | GEOMETRY (a) Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (9) The latitude of a location on eanty, surface \s the angle made by radial line, joining the given location to the Center of the earth, with its projection on the equator plane as shown in Fig. 4.13(a). The latitude is positive for northern hemisphere and negative for southern hemisphere. (b) Declination, (6) It is defined as the angular displacement of the sun fromthe plane of earth’s equator as shown in Fig. 4.13(b). It is positive when measured above equatorial plane in the northern hemisphere. The declination dcan be approximately determined from the equation: 360 = x sin| —— (284 + n)| degrees 6 = 23.45% sol 3 a mi | Bre (4.5) where 1 is day of the year counted from 1" January,s (2) Latitude Equatorial . plane find : a) ‘Sun Earth “s (b) Declination angle 6 Figure 4.13 Latitude and declination angle 0 2 10 3 g Bo 6 -10 20 30 Sept. 21 Dec. 24 Mar. 21 June 21 Figure 4.14 Variations in sun's declinationNon-Conventional Energy Resources the ang} (©) Hour Angle, (a) ‘The hour angle at any moment is t threo the earth must turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line Fe ch rays. Suny 12:00 hrs (solar time) Solar noon e =0 ‘orenoon Aftemoon S hag oo +ve 09:00 hrs (solar time) Evening Moming @=-90: @= +99 18:00 hrs 08:00 hrs (solar time) (Solar time) Figure 4.15 Hour angle @ In other words, at any moment, itis the angular displacement of the sun toway east or west of local meridian (due to rotation of the earth on its axis), The ao completes one rotation in 24 hours. Therefore, one hour corresponds to 15° rotation. At solar noon, as sunrays are in line with local meridian, hour angle jg yr Ttis +ve in the forenoon and -ve in the afternoon. Thus at 06:00 hrs itis 499° 4" 18:00 hrs it is -90° as shown in Fig. 4.15. We adopt the convention of measy, from noon based on LAT, being +ve in the morning and —ve in the afternoon, Itcan be calculated as: ‘@ = [12:00 — Solar Time] (im hours) x 15 degrees and at ring it (46) (d) Inclination Angle (Altitude), (a) The angle between sun's Tay and its Projection on horizontal surface is Known as inclination angle, as shown in Fig 4 1¢ (e) Zenith Angle, (6,) It is the angle between sun's ray and Perpendicular (normal) to the horizontal plane. (Refer Fig. 4.16) (f) Solar Azimuth Angle (y,) {tis the angle on a horizontal plane, between the line due south and the projection of sun's ray on the horizontal plane. It is taken a +ve when measured from south towards west. (Refer Fig. 4.16) (9) Slope (Tilt Angle), (8) _ itis the angle between inclined plane surface, under consideration and the horizontal. Itis taken to be +e for the surface sloping towards south. (Refer Fig, 4.17) (h) Surface Azimuth Angle, (y) It is the angle in horizontal plane, between the line due south (0S) and the horizontal projection of normal to the inclined plane surface (OQ). It is taken as +ve when measured from south towards west (Refer Fig. 4.17)Solar Energy—Basic Concepts __ ee 5) Normal to horizontal plane ‘ Horizontal plane QP Horizontal projection of sun's ray Figure 4.16 Solar inclination angle, solar azimuth angle and zenith angle Normal to inclined surface Inclined Horizontal E Plane 0Q, Horizontal projection of, normal to inclined surface, OR Figure 4.17 Surface azimuth angle and slope (tilt angle) (i) Angle of Incidence, (0,) It is the angle between sun’s ray incident on the plane surface (collector) and the normal to that surface. (Refer Fig. 4.18) In general, the angle of incidence can be expressed as, c0s 6, = cos 5cos «(cos $cos + sin gsin B cos 7) + cos dsin wsin Bsin y +sin5(sin @ cos B—cos dsin Bcos) — _ (4.7) Special Cases: > For surface facing due south, y= 0 cos 8, = cos (¢ ~ B) cos Scos w+ sin dsin (9 - ) (48) > For horizontal surface, B =0, 0, = @,(Zenith angle) 08 8, = cos $cos Scos w+ sin dsin g (49)> Fora vertical surface facing due south, y = 0, p = 90° €08 8, = Horizontal plane 4 'o) sult ts Normal to Inclined surface * a Sun's ray Equatoriay Plane a + Earth (Cross section in vertical plane) Figure 4.18 Angle of atitude, tilt angle, angle of incidence ———— 2 Sunrise the sunrays are parallel to the horizontal surface. Hence the g tocidence, 8, = 6, = 90°, the corresponding hour angle, ©, from Eq, (4.7) 0s 8, = 0 = cos $ cos 5cos w, + sin Ssin 6 @, = +cos"'(-tan ¢ tan 6) gle of (4.11) The hour angle, @, at sunrise (or sunset) for horizontal surface is given by Eq. (4.11), which yields positive and Negative values for @, ‘The positive value Corresponds to sunrise while the negative to sunset. The hour angle between sunrise and sunset is given by: 2@, = 2cos(-tan @ tan 8) Since 15° of hour angle is equivalent to one-hour duration, the duration of sunshine hours, t, or daylight hours is given by: t= (2/15) cos"'(-tan @ tan 6) hours (4.12) ‘The variation of t, with latitude (9) for different days (n) of the year is shown in Fig. 4.19. The hour angle (@,) at sunrise or sunset as seen by the observer on an inclined surface facing due south (ie, y= 0) will also be given by Eq, (4.11) ifthe day undet consideration lies between September 22 and March 21, and the location is in the northern hemisphere, However, if the day under consideration lies between March 21 and September 22, the hour angle at sunrise or sunset would be smaller in magnitude than the value given by Eq. (4.11) and would be obtained by substituting 8, = 90° i Eq. (4.8). =Solar Energy—Basic Concepts March 21 and Sept. 21 Total sunshine hours, hours, 0 10 20 30 40 50 60. 70 North latitude, degrees Figure 4.19 Variation of sunshine hours, t, with latitude, on certain days of the year Thus: @, = + cos '[-tan (¢— B) tan 5] ‘Therefore, in general, for any day of the year, in northern hemisphere, the hour angle at sunrise or sunset on inclined surface may be given as: yy @,= + min [|cos"' (tan ¢ tan )|, [cos {-tan (~B) tan 5}|] (4.13) totus Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation on a plane surface, tilted by 45° from horizontal plane and pointing 30° west of south located at Mumbai at 1:30 PM (IST) on 15" November. The longitude and latitude of Mumbai are 72° 49 E and 18°54’ N respectively. The standard longitude for IST is 81° 44’ E. Solution From given data: n=319 from Eq, (4.5) 6 = =19.148° from Eq. (4.4) E = 14.74 min. Standard Time = 1:30 PM = 13:30 hrs from Eq, (4.3) Solar Time = 13 hours 30 min - 4(81.733° ~ 72.816°) min + 14.74 min = 13:9.072 hrs from Eq, (4.6) hour angle, @ = -17.27° Also given that, y= 30°, B= 45°, 9 = +18.9° Now the angle of incidence can be calculated using Eq. (4.7): cos 6, = [cos(+18.9°) cos(45°) + sin(+18.9° )sin(45®) cos(30°)] cos(—19.148°) cos(-17.27°) + cos(-19.148°) sin(-17.27°) sin(45°) sin(30°) + sin (-19.148°) [sin (+18.9°) cos (45°) ~ cos (+18.9°) sin (45°) cos (30°)] a‘Non-Conventional Energy Resources = 0.78229 - 0.09915 + 0.11305 , = cos"'(0,79619) = 37.23 Calculate the number of day light hours (sunshine hours) in Srin and July 1. The latitude of Srinagar is 34° 05’ N. Solution From given data: n= 1 and 182 respectively for January 1 and July 1, from Eq. (4.5), §=-23,01° and 23.12° respectively for January | ang July from Eq, (4.12): 4 onJanuary1, —_¢, = (2/15) cos [-tan (34.083°) tan (~23.01°)] = Bar o, n Jay Uap Y 977 hours on July 1, ty= (2/15) cos” {-tan (34.083°) tan (23.12°)] = 14.94 boa Soe) For New Delhi (28° 35’ N, 77° 12/8), calculate the zenith angle of the sun a3 on 20 February 2015, The standard IST latitude for India is 81° 44’ E 0PM Solution Given, = 28° 35’N = 28.58 degrees For 20" February, n = 51 From Eq, (4:5), 6 =23.45x sl Sess + =| fiegrces =-11.58 degrees From Eq. (4.4), E=9.87 sin 2B - 7.53 cos B~ 1.5 sin B min B = (360/364) (51 - 81) = -26.67 E=-14.29 min From Eq. (4.3), Solar time :30 hrs + 4 x (81° 44’ - 77° 12’) (min) - 14.29 (min) 7.59 hrs From Eq. (4.6), @ = (12:00 - 1:57.59] (in hours) From Eq. (4.9), cos 6, = cos (28° 35’) cos (-11.58) cos (-14,398) + sin (-11,58) sin (28°35), = 0.7366 Zenith angle, 0, = 42.557 degrees x 15 degrees = -14.398 degrees ATION ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE At any point of time, the solar radiation (power) outside the atmosphere incidentoa | a horizontal plane is given as (using Eq. (4.2) and Eq. (4.9)]: Text, = Text 608 8, 4) Tega, n= Tec{1 + 0.033 cos (360 1/365)] (cos 6cos 5cos w+ sin dsin @) (4! where, I,. is solar constant and n is the day of the year.mae _ re paily Radiation traterrestrial radiation (energy), on a horizontal surface, over a day, H, may be obtained by integrating, I.., , ver a day (where t is expressed in hours). Hy = Jlex,nCO89,dt ‘The relationship between hour angle, «(in radian) and ¢ (in hours) is given as: Hence, dt = iy hours. in 3600x22do d or dt = q 1m seconds 12 H, = 3600X— I. [ +0,033cos-™ 1 15 5 | J (cos@cosé cos + sindsiné)do ts 360n 3 24 = 3600 x=I,,| 1+#0.033cos: n 65 [orososoxino, +0, sindsin@) (4.15) if lis substituted in kW/m? than units of H, will be kj/m? Hourly Radiation proceeding on similar lines, the Extraterrestrial radiation (energy), on a horizontal surface, over an hour, J, may be obtained by integrating, I... , over an hour. Thus: 8 sin(@, — @, y= 3600x"1,, 1003 coe ee ee ay (4.16) n 365 +(@, —@, )sindsin® where, one hour period is defined by hour angle from ©, to @j, (@, is larger) ‘Alternatively, as change in solar radiation occur at slow pace, I, may also be calculated by considering the instantaneous radiating power (kW/m ) at the mid- 0, +0; point of the hour, i.e, @ = and multiplying by 3600, thus: 601 he san’, +0153cos tedden SS )ssnsuna| (417) EQUATIONS FOR ESTIMATING TERRESTRIAL SOLAR ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE Since meastirements of solar radiation often are not available at every location of ee attempts have been made by many researchers to establish relationships linking ie values of radiation (global or diffuse) with meteorological parameters like number‘Non-Conventionol Energy Resources of sunshine hours, cloud cover and precipitation etc. Some of these Riven in the following sections. 4.14.1 Monthly Average, Daily Global Radiation The monthly average of the terrestrial global radiation may be rela “ation, ited tos hours by a simple linear relationship [23]: Un, o A, ty feat (=| H, Havas (ay where, H, = monthly average of the daily global radiation on a horizontal * alocation Macey A, = monthly average of the dally extraterrestrial radiation which, * ona horizontal surface at the same location in absence of gyn "%d iy = monthly average of the sunshine hours per day at a location "°SPhere = monthly average ofthe maximum posible sunshine hours pep 4 location (ie, day length of the average day of the month) aya, fj is obtained by measurement for the whole month, while {, oan from calculation for a day close to middle of the month as discussed in supe td lines. sequen ‘The coefficients ‘a’, ‘b’ are related to latitude, elevation and the sunshine h, follows: Ours ag th n Haman @ a = 0.309 +0.539cos 0 — 0.0693E,. + on( =] ‘max (19) b = 1,527 -1.027cos6 +0.0926E, —0. as( 7] : imax (429) where @= latitude and E, = elevation of the location above mean sea level (in kilometers) The calculation of H, can be simplified from the fact, that in each month the is particular day on which, H,is nearly equal to the monthly mean value 77 dates on which the value of H, is equal to H, are: January 17, February 16, Mach i April 15, May 15, June 11, July 17, August 16, September 15, October 15, Novem, 14, December 10. As expected, these dates are close to the middle of the month, The values of sunshine hours for these dates are used as 7, for that month Equation (4.18) can be used to determine monthly average of daily global radiation on horizontal surface at a location for known sunshine hours and where the values of latitude and altitude are known. eee For Coimbatore (11.0183° N, 76.9725° E, and elevation of 411 m above sea level), estimate the value of average daily global radiation on horizontal surface during the month of March, The average sunshine hours per day for the month of March may be assumed as 9.5 h.Solar Energy—Basic Concepts = 11.0183°, F, =0.411 km, % =95h Given, > | or the month of March, the daly extraterrestrial radiation H, on March 16 may be | jake as average radiation H, for the whole month. : ‘Also day length on March 16 may be taken as Tyas yor March 16, n = 75, the corresponding angle 6 from Eq. (4.5); 6 = 23.45xsin [20m + 73 degrees =-2.4177° ‘The hour angle at sunrise (/ sunset) may be calculated using Eq, (4.11) as: @, = + cos '{-tan (11.0183°) tan (-2.4177°)} = 90.47° (or 1.579 rad) Fou may de calculated using Eq. (4.12): = (2/15).cos {-tan (11,0183*) tan (-2.4177°)} h 2.0628 h Tanax H, may be calculated using Eq. (4.15): 4 Hy= 360% 7x1 367% [140083000227 F n 365 {cos(1 1.018°)cos(-2.4177°)sin(90.47°) + 1.579 x sin(—2.4177°)sin(11.018°)} = 37595.1987 x [1.0091] x {0.98066 — 0.01273} = 36,720.66 kJ/m* ‘Thus: A, =H, = 36,720.66 kj/m* the coefficients ‘a’ and ‘b’ can be calculated using Eq, (4.19) and Eq. (4.20) Now, a = -0.309 +0.539 x cos(11.0183°) —0.0693 x 0.411+0.29x oa 12.0628 | | | = -0.309 + 0.52906 - 0.02848 + 0.2284 = 0.42 b = 1.527 -1.027 x cos(11.0183°) + 0.0926 x 0.411 =0.359 x Sm 12.0628 = 1,527 - 1.00807 + 0.03806 - 0.28273 Therefore, from Eq, (4.18), the average daily global radiation, on horizontal surface, in Coimbatore, during the month of March may be calculated as: i = 0.27426‘ Non-Conventional Energy Resources ere ty Hx oof] Hamax Oe rey = sono sex{aeasoz706 + 72.0628 }} = 23,354.05 kJ/m* 4.14.2 Monthly Average, Daily Diffuse Radiation An empirical expression given below is suggested by Gopinath and Sole, (24) g estimation of diffused radiation: ‘ot 3 if; = —0:53039|——— 0.87813 —0.3328K; —0.5. nae (42y is called the monthly average clearness index. ‘The above expression was examined for radiation data available from 40 wi Spread locations all over the world in latitude range from 36° N to 36° when applied to Indian locations, the estimated value is found to be lower than the actual data. This is due the fact that the diffuse compon larger in India. A more accurate estimation for Indian conditions, Prop. and Garg [25], is given below: 4 Sihoaa Significantly ent is much osed by. Garg ity 0.8677 -0. no| Z| famax (4.22) eae From the data given in Example 4.4 for Of the! daily-diffused radiation on a horizo estimate as well as Garg and Garg estimate. imbatore, estimate the monthly average nntal surface as per Gopinath and Soler Solution As per calculation of Example 4.4: H, = 36,720.66 kj/m’, H, _ 23,354.05 _ 36,720.66 Also from given data in Example 4.4: 1, =95h 3,354.05 kJ/m* Therefore, K, 0.636 As calculated in Example 4.4: 7, = 12.0628h Therefore, = eS 0.7875, Ep Opa aeSe ow from Eq, (4.21), as per Gopinath and Soler estimate: i 87813 — 0.3328 x 0.636 — 0.53039 x 0.7875 Hyg = 23354.05 x 0.2488 = 5,810.19 kJ/m? prom Eq. (4.22), as per Garg and Garg estimate: Ag F_ = 08677 - 0.7365 x 0.7875 g Hy = 23354.05 x 0.2877 = 6,719.106 kj/m? 4.14.3 Monthly Average, Hourly Global Radiation pirical expression given below is suggested for estimation of monthly average, Anem| hourly, global radiation [26]: T, I, (atbcosw) EL ee (4.23) @, =sina@, cosa, =a+0.5b| += ee ds es = @, cos, | (4.24) inthe above expression the value of ois substituted in radians) ( a= 0.409 + 0.5016 sin (@, ~ 60°) (4.25) b= 0.6609 - 0.4767 sin (@, - 60°) (4.26) = monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface , = monthly average of the hourly extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface ‘The corfelation is found to be satisfactory for predicting the average hourly global radiation for cities all over the world within latitude 65° S to 65° N. 1, if Example 4. From the data given in Example 4.4 for Coimbatore, estimate the monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface during 11:00 to 12:00 hrs (LAT) forthe month of March. Solution: For Coimbatore, g = 11.0183° The representative day for the month of Marc Ascalculated in Example 4.4, 6=-2.4177° and the hour angle at sun rise @, = 90. 47° (or 1.579 rad) H, = 36,720.66 kJ/m? A, 54.05 k]/m? : +h is 16", therefore, n = 75Now, hourly radiation: I, on representative day (n= 75) may be taken as I,» ‘Also hour angle atthe middle of the hour (11:00 to 12:00 hrs) Lay Ths = a =75° From Eq. (4.17), (2.50 1832) we eerie I, = 0x1 367] +0030 re +sin(-2.4177")sin(1} 6 = 3600 x 1.367 x [1.009] x {0.9642} = 4,787,925 kj/m* Thus, T, =1, = 4.787.925 k)/m* “The coefficients ‘a’ and b’ may be calculated using Eqs (4.25) and (4.26) a = 0.409 + 0.5016 sin (90.47° — 60°) = 0.66335 b = 0.6609 — 0.4767 sin (90.47° - 60°) = 0.41917 {canbe calculated from Eq, (4.24), using @, = 90.47° (or 1.579 rad) 1.579=sin(90.47°)cos(90.472) = 0.66335+0.5x0.41917 x == 2b leet 47°)-1.579% c0s(90.479, 1,587 =0. sossaa0sx| 57] =0.9919 Now, substituting the above calculated values in Eq. (4.23) I, 4787.925 23,354.05 36720.6¢ 36335 +0.41917 x cos(7.5°)} 0.9919 23,354.05 0.9919 T, =3,312.22kj/m* The estimated value of monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface, during 11:00 to 12:00 hrs. (LAT) for the month of March, is 3,312.22 kj/m! 4.14.4 Monthly Average, Hourly Diffuse Radiation An empirical expression given below is suggested for estimation of monthly average hourly, diffuse radiation [27]: I, a +beoso) (421) a 6 where, a= asonel (H/F,) | for 0.1< (H,/H,) <07 (4.28)Solar Eneray—Basic Concepts [13 | (4.29) (4.30) from the data given in Example 4.4 for Coimbatore, estimate the monthl yf t 44 ly average of the hourly diffuse and beam radiations on a horizontal surface during 11:00 to 12:00 hrs (LAT) for the month of March. solution Weshall use Eq. (4.27) for calculation of 7, , Hour angle @is considered at the middle of the hour (11:00 to 12:00 hrs) LAT, O,+0, ‘Thus Oa 75° As calculated in Example 4.4, the hour angle at sun rise w, = 90.47° (or 1.579 rad) ‘As calculated in Example 4.5, using Eq. (4.22), Hy =6,719.106 kj/m*™ As per calculation of Example 4.4: H, = 36,720.66 kj/m?, H, = 23,354.05 k]/m? ‘As calculated in Example 4.6, T,, = 4,787.925 kJ/m? ‘As the ratio (H,/H,) = 0.287, Eq. (4.28) will be used to calculate coefficient ‘a’ Thus, a = 0.4922 + {0.27/0.2877} = 1.4307, and from Eq. (4.30), b =2(1 a) (sin @, - @, cos @)/(@,- 0.5 sin2 @), =2x(1-1.4307)x{sin(90.47°)-1 579x.cos(90.47°)}/{1.579-0. 5xsin(2x90.47°)} = 2x (-0.4307) x {1.0129}/{1.5872} =+0.5497 From Eq, (4.27), ae {1.4307 + (0.5497) x cos(7. 5°)} peepee) 6719.106 36720.66 iy = 6719.106 x {0.8857} x 0.13039 Ty = 775.97 kim? As calculated in Example 4.6, [, = 3,312.22 kJ/m*the calculated 88: : erie % oly wn pggg7 = 2536.28 KITE ‘Therefore, Ty = 775.97 km ation, Ty = 775.97 ki/m Danity average hourly diffuse radiation, | as rourty beam radiation, T, = 2536.25 kJ/my? ‘Monthly average ED PLANE SURFACE inclined surface consists of three co, Sa temranss nobel ‘Mriation and (i radiation reflected from gr" Peng, (i) beam radiation, ee mentioned here that both beam and diffuse compa ang surroundings. It may rom the ground and surroundings. Total raq jay be evaluated as: +11, ae iation ont ‘surface of arbitrary orientation ™m: a tp=hr tates as ti factors forbeam, diffuse and reflected com Paani a expressions for these factors are given below. nets of fux of beam radiation incident on ay (43 where, rand, / The defini try Itis defined as the ratio surface (Ij) to that on a horizontal surface (1). clingy 1; = Ty, 608 8, 1, =I 008 8, where, Ij, is the beam radiation on @ surface normal to the dire, tion of o sunrays (432) Fors tilted surface facing south, 7=0", the expression for r, may be writen as: sin6 sin(g— B) + cos6 cos@ cos(¢ — B) "s~ “sind sing + cos6 cosw cos (433) rg. Ibis defined as the ratio of flux of diffuse radiation falling on inclined surface to that on the horizontal surface. The value of this tilt factor depends upon the distribution of diffuse radiation over the sky and on the portion of the sky dome seen by the tilted surface. Assume that the sky is an isotropic source of diffuse radiation; we have for a tilted surface with slope B, "= ae (434) rz The reflected component comes mainly from the ground and surrounding objects. Since (1 + cos f)/2 is the radiation shape factor for tilted surface with respect to the sky, it follows that (1 - cos )/2 is the radiation shape factor for the surface with respect to surrounding ground. Assume that the reflection of the beam and diffuse radiation falling on the ground is diffuseTNO COE and tsotropic and the reflectivity 1s the tlt factor for reflected! radiation may be written as: r, fs?) (435) where p is reflection coefficient of the ground (equal to 0.2 for ordinary grass or concrete and 0.6 for snow-covered ground respectively) For vertical surface, 8 = 90°, r, = 0.5 and r, = 0.5p. This indicates that half of the diffuse and half of the total reflected radiation is received by a vertical surface. For horizontal plane, rj = 1 and r, = 0, which indicates that maximum diffuse radiation is received by horizontal surface and that a horizontal surface receives no ground reflected radiation. The ratio r’of total solar energy incident on an inclined surface to that on a horizontal surface is given as: i pre eo eee (436) +l, |, ity I, Equation (4.31) can be used for calculating hourly radiation falling on tilted surface if the hour angle @ is considered at the mid-point of the hour concerned. The monthly average, hourly value Ir can be obtained by considering the representative day of the month for calculation of I;. The equation (4.36) will then be modified as: I, = (4. 5 (4.37), Where ¥ =", on representative day of the month, also aN =r, On similar lines the’ratio of daily total radiation on tilted surface H, to daily global radiation on a horizontal surface may be written as: Ar A, -fs—Ha)g, Herve < 5 tec eae (438) For south facing surface, y= 0°, @,, sind sin($ — B)+cos6 sinw, cos(@— B) = 4. 4 ©, sind sing + cosd sin@, cos @ Keo) where @, = sunrise hour angle expressed in radians on tilted surface @, = sunrise hour angle expressed in radians on horizontal surface 1+ cos, And Bg eiyretttee, (4.40)falling on inclined surface if the ‘of the month. Equation (4.33) may then be written in its |B Be Baek cap ae, Ay He Sia where Rs =R, Saeco iseneP and =R= See Calculate the monthly average, total daily radiation falling on a flat | facing south (y = 0°) and tilted by 30° from ground, at New Delhi (28°35 for the month of November. Assume ground reflectivity as 0.2. Solution ‘Given data: = 28.58° B=30° y Monthly average of the daily global radiation for the month of November| Delhi (from Table Cl in Appendix C), H, = 16,282.8 kJ/m* Monthly average of the daily diffuse radiation for the month of November Delhi (from Table C2 in Appendix C), Hi, = 41,07.6 kj/m> ‘The representative day for the month of November is 14". Therefore, the day year on November 14, = 318 : Using Eq, (4.5), 5= -18.91° Using Eq. (4.11), 9,245°, or 1.383 radians From Eq, (4.13), @,=79.245°, or 1.383 radians Using Eq, (4.39), @,, sind sin($ ~ B) + cosd sinw,, cos(g— B) @, sind sing + cosd sinw, cos @ R=India Solar Resource Direct Normal Solar Resource Figure 4.20 Annual average of the daily radiation in kWh/m’ in India Using Eq, (4.43), = 1+¢0s30 y= Using Eq, (4.44), and substituting p = 0.2, ss = cos 30 R =0ax( ==") = 0.0134 = 0.933Resources ‘Now, monthly average total daily radiation, Hr on tilted surface may he using Bq. (4.42), Metlag Ha)\= Has 5 se Ra +R, { mei s 162828 16282.8 = 23/083.89 kj/m*-day wel ath falling on a flat plate collector = 23,043.99 Kim? @ Review Questions Whaat are the disadvantages of solar energy? ‘What are the indirect forms of solar energy? Vow is the energy continuously being produced in the sun? ‘What do you understand by earth’s albedo? At what wavelengths the radiation emitted from sun and that reflected from ean centered? ‘tte Define solar irradiance, solar constant, extraterrestrial and terrestrial ra is the standard value of solar constant? % Describe percentage wise distrfbution of various components in extrateresa radiation. 8. Explain the depletion process of solar radiation ait pases through the atmosphere reach at the surface of the earth 9. What is solar time and why it is different from standard clock time of the country? 10. Define the terms: altitude angle, incident angle, zenith angle, solar azimuth angle, latitude angle, declination angle, and hour angle. (Gujarat Technological Univer 4107.6 Fir =v (1- S08 )siss amon] veers ® idiations. What 2014) / IL. Derive an expression for solar day length. 12. Define beam, diffuse and global radiation. Derive an expression for total radiation onan inclined surface. Show that a horizontal surface receives no ground reflected radiation, 13. Write short notes on beam and diffuse radiation. (Visvesrayya Technological University, 2006) _/'4 Explain the construction and principle of operation of a sunshine recorder. 15. How does the collection of solar energy is affected by tilting a flat plate collector with respect to ground? 16. How does sun tracking helps in energy collection by a flat plate solar collector? 17. What are the basic features required in an ideal pyranometer?rere cepts 10, Te ProsLems Calculate the number of daylight hours (day length) at Bangalore on 21 June and 21 December in a leap year. The latitude of Bangalore is 12° 58’N. (Ans. 12.76 h, 11.23 h) Calculate the angle made by beam radiation with normal to a flat plate collector, tilted by 30° from horizontal, pointing due south, located at Delhi, at 11:00 hrs (IST), on June 1. The latitude and longitude of Delhi are 28° 35” N and 77° 12’ E respectively. The standard IST longitude is 81° 44’ E, (Ans. 29.92") Calculate the angle of incidence on a horizontal plane surface at Kolkata, at 14:00 hrs (IST), on March 21, in a leap year. ‘The longitude and latitude of Kolkata are 88° 20’ E and 22° 32’ N respectively. The standard longitude of IST is 81°44’E. (Ants. 40.6°) For Jaipur (26° 55” N, 75° 49’ E), calculate the zenith angle of the sun at 9:30 A.M. on 10 October 2015. The standard IST latitude for India is 81° 44’ E. (Ans, 22.298%) Estimate the value of average daily global radiation on horizontal surface during the month of September in Chandigarh (30° 44’ N, 76° 47’ E, and elevation of 321 m above sea level). The average sunshine hours per day for the month of September may be assumed as 9.5 h. (Ans. 21,130.3 kJ/m?) From the data given in Problem 5 for Chandigarh, estimate the monthly average of the daily diffused radiation on a horizontal surface as per Gopinath and Soler estimate as well as Garg and Garg estimate. (Ans. 4,805.19 kJ/m?, 5,757 kj/m*) From the data given in Problem 5 for Chandigarh, estimate the monthly average of the hourly global radiation on a horizontal surface during 9:00 to 10:00 hrs (LAT) for the month of September. (Ans, 3,312.22 kj/m?) From the data given in Problem 5 for Chandigarh, estimate the monthly average of the hourly diffuse and beam radiations on a horizontal surface during 9:00 to 10:00 hrs (LAT) for the month of September. (Ans, 627.52 kj/m®, 2131.76 kJ/m*) Calculate the hour angles at sunrise on June 21 and also on December 21 for a flat plate solar collector inclined due south (i.e. y = 0°) at an angle equal to latitude of the place. The collector is located at Nagpur (21°°06" N, 79° 03” E) (Ans. 90°, 80.36°) An inclined surface, facing due south, tilted at 60° with horizontal, is location at Aligarh (latitude 27° 54’ N, longitude 78° 05’ E). The reflection coefficient, p of the ground is 0.2, Calculate total monthly average, hourly radiation received at the surface, in the month of March at 1 PM (LAT), (The hourly radiation data for horizontal plane given. in Appendix C for New Delhi may be adopted for Aligarh.) (Ans. 2,855.82 kJ/m*) Calculate the monthly average, total daily radiation falling on a flat plate collector facing south (y= 0°) and tilted by an angle equal to latitude from ground, at Mumbai (19° 07’ N, 72° 51’ E) for the month of September. Assume ground reflectivity as 015, For the month of September at Mumbai the daily average data are given as: 17560.8 kJ/m?-h and Hy = 10296 kj/m?-b. (Ans, 17202.8 kJ/m?-h)i 2 ‘Non-Conventionol Energy Resources Osyective TYPE QUESTIONS {Which process is responsible for production of energy in the sun? (a) Nuclear fission reaction (b) Nuclear fusion Teaction (©) Exothermal chemical reaction (d) Allof the above Which one of the following statements is not true for solar energy? (a) Itisa dilute form of energy. (b) Its availability is diurnal. (©) Availability at any instant of time is uncertain. (d) Its harnessing at large scale is easy. }. The diffuse radiation: (a) has no unique direction. (b) has unique direction (©) has short wavelength as compared to beam radiation, (4) has larger magnitude as compared to beam radiation, 4. In extraterrestrial radiation, what is the approximate Percentage content of component? (a) 45.5% (b) 55.5% (©) 20% (d) 80% 5. Terrestrial radiation has a wavelength in the range of; (a) 0.2umté4 pm (b) 0.2m to 0.5 um (©) 0.380 um to 0.760 um (4) 0.29 um to 2.3 pm 6. Whatis the standard value of solar constant? (a) 1 kW/m? (b) 1.367 kW/m? (©) 1.5 kW/m? (@)_ SkW/m? 7. When incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere of the earth: (@) radiation of all wavelengths is absorbed uniformly by different types of molecule, (b) different molecules selectively absorb the radiation of different wavelengths (c) there is no absorption of radiation in the atmosphere (d) there is total absorption of radiation &._ The percentage of the incoming radiation reflected back to space by the earth (a) 10% (b) 20% (©) 30% (4) 40% 9. Air mass ratio is minimum: (a) when the sun is at zenith, (b) at sunrise. (©) atsunset. (d) at 0600 Gar. 10._Atthe inclination angle of 30°, what vill be magnitude of zenith angle? (a) 30° (b) 120° (©) 150° (d) 60° 11. For 1 degree change in longitude, the change in solar time is (a) 4min (b) 4 sec (©) 1 min (a) hour 12. On September 21, the declination angle will be: (a) zero (b) +23.45° (©) -23.45° (d)_ +180"Solar Energy—Basic Concepts 13. Atsolar noon, the hour angle is: (a) +90° (b) -90° (c) zero (d) +180° 14. On the representative day of each month, the extraterrestrial daily radiation may be taken as equal to: (a), beam radiation at the location (b) diffuse radiation at the location (©) global radiation at the location (d) monthly average, daily extraterrestrial radiation at the location 15. A horizontal surface receives: (a) no reflected component of radiation. (b) 50% of the reflected component of radiation. (c)_ 50% of the diffuse component of radiation. (d) 50% of the beam component of radiation. 16, A vertical surface receives: (a) no reflected component of radiation. (b) 50% of the reflected component of radiation. (©) 100% of diffuse component of radiation. (d) 50% of the beam component of radiation.