Secondary Schools - Advanced Mathematics - Teacher's Book - Senior Five

Advanced Mathematics
for Rwanda Secondary Schools
Teacher’s Guide
Senior Five
Authors
Ngezahayo Emmanuel
Icyingeneye Pacifique
FOUNTAIN PUBLISHERS
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© Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique 2017

First Published 2017
All rights reserved; no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means; electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission from
the authors and the publishers.
ISBN: 978-9970-19-411-7
Contents
Section 1: General introduction.......................................... v

Section 2: Effective tips for brighter learners......................viii
Section 3: Effective tips for slow learners...........................viii
Section 4: Extension knowledge and ideas for teachers......... x
Section 5: Content map..................................................xiii
Section 6: Example of Lesson plan................................. xxiii
Section 7: General Methodology..................................... xxx
Section 8: Description of Units....................................... xxxi
Unit 1 Trigonometric Formulae, Equations and
Inequalities............................................................ 1
1.1. Trigonometric formulae..................................................1
1.2. Trigonometric equations..............................................13
1.3. Trigonometric inequalities............................................19
1.4. Applications.................................................................22
Unit 2 Sequences........................................................... 25
2.1. Generalities on sequences............................................25
2.2. Arithmetic sequences and harmonic sequences...........28
2.3. Geometric sequences...................................................35
2.4. Applications ................................................................40
Unit 3 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations............... 43

3.1. Exponential and logarithmic functions .........................43
3.2. Exponential and logarithmic equations.........................46
3.3. Applications.................................................................49
Unit 4 Solving Equations by Numerical Methods............ 53

4.1. Linear interpolation and extrapolation..........................53
4.2. Location of roots.........................................................57
4.3. Iteration method..........................................................63
iii
Unit 5 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses......... 71
5.1. Generalities on trigonometric functions and
their inverses...............................................................71
5.2. Limits of trigonometric functions.................................80
5.3. Differentiation of trigonometric functions and their
inverses.......................................................................84
5.4. Applications.................................................................91
Unit 6 Vector Space of Real Numbers............................. 95

3
6.1. Vector space  .........................................................95
6.2. Operations on vectors..................................................96
6.3. Linear combination......................................................97
3
6.4. Euclidian vector space  ........................................102
6.5. Applications ..............................................................107
Unit 7 Matrices and Determinant of Order 3................. 117

7.1. Square matrices of order 3........................................117
7.2. Determinant of order three........................................126
7.3. Applications...............................................................132
Unit 8 Points, Straight Lines, Planes and Sphere

in 3D.................................................................. 137
8.1. Points in three dimensions.........................................137
8.2. Straight lines in three dimensions..............................145
8.3. Planes in three dimensions........................................158
8.4. Sphere in three dimensions........................................179
Unit 9 Bivariate Statistics............................................. 189

9.1. Covariance ................................................................189
9.2. Regression lines.........................................................191
9.3. Coefficient of correlation...........................................194
9.4. Applications...............................................................196
Unit 10 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem....... 199

10.1. Tree diagram.............................................................199
10.2. Independent events....................................................202
10.3. Conditional probability...............................................203
10.4. Bayes theorem and applications................................205
References..........................................................................................208
Section 1: General introduction
1.1. General introduction to the new curriculum

The curriculum for Rwandan schools at primary and secondary
levels has been changed from knowledge and content bases
to competence based (CBC). CBC is of great importance in
aligning Rwanda’s education to the social and economic
demands of society. It also presents answers to concerns about
the capability and employability of school graduates.
1.2. General guidance to teachers
In Advanced mathematics-Learner’s Book Five, there are 10
units. There are many activities to be done by learners before
a new lesson. This will help students to understand well the
lesson.
Teacher must help students to do those activities. Form groups
of at least six students and let them do the activities in those
groups.
At the end of the lesson, there is a series of exercises which
summarise the lesson taught. As teacher, let the students do
those exercises and correct them on chalkboard.
Also, at the end of each unit, there is a series of exercises
which summarise the whole unit.
1.3. List of equipment needed for the subject
Students will need geometric instruments for sketching curves
and scientific calculators for some calculations.
1.4. General guidance on assessment both formative and
summative
Assessment is the use of a variety of procedures to collect
information about learning and instruction. Formative
assessment is commonly referred to as assessment for learning,
in which focus is on monitoring student response to and progress
v
Advanced Mathematics Teacher’s Guide Book Five
with instruction. Formative assessment provides immediate

feedback to both the teacher and student regarding the learning
process. Formative and summative assessments contribute in
different ways to the larger goals of the assessment process.
Teacher must provide oral or written feedback to students’
discussion or work. For example, a teacher responds orally to
a question asked in class; provides a written comment in a
response or reflective journal; or provides feedback on student
work.
At the end of each lesson, teacher must give to the students
a small evaluation to see if they understood the lesson. Also
at the end of the units, teacher must give the general test
which summarises the whole unit. When assessments reflect
the stated learning objectives, a well-designed end of unit test
provides teachers with information about individual students
(identifying any student who failed to meet objectives), as well
as provides an overall indication of classroom instruction.
Although formative and summative assessments serve different
purposes, they should be used ultimately within an integrated
system of assessment, curriculum, and instruction. To be
effective in informing the learning process, assessments must be
directly integrated with theories about the content, instruction,
and the learning process and must be valid and reliable for the
purposes for which they are used.
1.5. Guidance on grading and reporting
Academic achievement may be measured in a variety of ways,
including compositions, presentations, oral discussion, student
work samples, observations, tests, and the products of project-
based learning activities. Teachers should use the most current
summative assessment data when determining achievement
marks for the progress report. When determining what marks
to use on daily and weekly assignments, remember that these
vi
Introduction
marks should not conflict with the grades on the progress

report. Teachers should not use letter grades when marking
papers.
Some options may include:
ᇢᇢ Raw scores or ratios (11/12 correct)
ᇢᇢ Written feedback
ᇢᇢ Rubric scores (if using 4, 3, 2, or 1 on papers, there
should be guidance as to what these marks mean).
Keep in mind that work that is sent home provides parents with
a general impression of how students are achieving in school
but does not provide a complete picture. Other assessment data
are collected that encompasses the progress report grade and
some of these assessments are not sent home. Communication
regarding progress should be ongoing.
Homework can be considered as part of the effort grade,
but would not be used to grade academic achievement in
elementary school since the function of homework is to provide
practice in skill areas.
Achievement marks will be reported on a 4-point scale and
cannot be equated to former guidelines for letter grades. A grade
of “4” indicates a high level of achievement; it communicates
that a student has a strong understanding of all the concepts
and skills taught for that standard during the quarter and
can demonstrate understanding independently and with very
few errors. When determining grades for students, teachers
should consider the most current assessment data as evidence
of learning. Earlier assessments may no longer be relevant if
students have demonstrated further progress.
vii
Section 2: Effective tips for brighter learners
Teacher must encourage learners to;

1. explain to each other as best they can the lesson learned.
2. have an exercise book, homework book and note book of
course.
3. have geometric instruments and scientific calculator.
4. work out exercises and homework and check their answers
to gain practice with every lesson.
5. do their own research on learned lessons or lessons to be
learned next time.
Section 3: Effective tips for slow learners
Mathematics may be challenging for a slow learner, but not

impossible. Slow learners also want to learn mathematics, but
lack of learning ability and mathematics education system, they
are not able to learn faster. The following are some techniques
which can help slow learners:
1. Slow learners need more time to understand any problem
or to find out the answer. Give extra time to slow learners.
This will increase their confidence. Do not pressurize
learners to perform on time beyond their ability. This will
only decrease confidence.
2. Slow learners need extra attention. With a small students
group, you can effectively respond to each student.
3. Environment is more potent than willpower. Create a fun
environment for learners. Use new learning techniques,
especially for slow learners. Teacher can provide
mathematics games and activities to learners.
viii
Introduction
4. Build a helpful environment for learners. Encourage

learners to ask questions and let them feel free to ask for
any help.
5. Most slow learners face difficulty to understand the new
concepts. Try to relate the new concepts with previous
concepts. This will help them to catch the new concepts
relatively fast.
6. One of the best ways to teach mathematics not only to
slow learners but even for normal students is, explain
concepts using real life examples.
7. Whenever possible, provide opportunities to show them
their work. Let the students teach you about mathematics.
This will help students to reduce mathematics fear.
8. Because slow learners need more time to understand
the concepts, frequent reviewing can help them out.
Reviewing mathematics concepts time to time will allow
them to master the mathematics concepts.
9. Slow learners tend to have lack of confidence, if you
pressurize them for time management or anything, this
will only reduce their confidence.
10. Slow learners tend to have low confidence. Low confidence
impedes anyone’s learning ability. If you reward them time
to time, this will help them to raise their confidence.
ix
Section 4: Extension knowledge and ideas for
teachers
The following are the most important principles in mathematics

teaching.
1.1. Principle 1: Let It Make Sense

Let us strive to teach for understanding of mathematical
concepts and procedures, the “why” something works, and not
only the “how”.
The “how” something works is often called procedural
understanding: the learner knows how to work/solve a linear
equation. It is often possible to learn the “how” mechanically
without understanding why something works. Procedures
learned this way are often forgotten very easily.
The relationship between the “how” and the “why” - or between
procedures and concepts - is complex. One doesn’t always
come totally before the other, and it also varies from learner
to learner.
Try alternating the instruction: teach how to solve a linear
equation, and let the learner practice. Then explain why it
works.
As a teacher, don’t totally leave a topic until the student both
knows “how” and understands the “why”.
Teacher can often test a student’s understanding of a topic by
asking him “Tell me an example of where linear equation is
used in daily life.”
x
Introduction
1.2. Principle 2: Remember the Goals

Teacher must;
ᇢᇢ cover the curriculum by the end of school year.
ᇢᇢ make sure the learners have a lot formative and summative
assessments.
Generally, teacher must
ᇢᇢ enable the learners to understand information around us,
ᇢᇢ prepare learners for further studies in mathematics,
ᇢᇢ let learners see some beauty of mathematics and learn
them to like it.
1.3. Principle 3: Know Tools

First of all of course comes a black or white board or paper
— something to write on, then we have pencils, compass,
protractor, ruler, eraser.... and the book the teacher is using.
Then we have computer software, interactive activities,
animated lessons and such. There are workbooks, fun books,
work texts, books, and online tutorials.
Teacher has to start somewhere, probably with the basics,
and then add to his/ her “toolbox” little by little as you have
opportunity. It’s important to learn how to use any tool that
teacher might acquire.
Basic tools
1. The board and/or paper to write on. Essential. Easy to
use.
2. The learners’ book and teacher’s guide
The extras
1. Computer and projector
2. Internet connection
xi
If computer lab is available at the school, teacher can show the

learners how ICT is used in mathematics. For example;
ᇢᇢ Writing mathematical expression using Microsoft Office,
Word or other software tools like Math-Type,
ᇢᇢ Sketching a function in Cartesian plane using Microsoft
Office Excel or other software like Geogebra, Graph,
Grapes, …
ᇢᇢ Determine the mean, standard deviation, variance,… of a
set of data using Microsoft Office Excel formulae or other
software like Geogebra, …
ᇢᇢ Performing mathematical operations using Microsoft Excel
or other software like Mathlab, Geogebra, …
1.4. Principle 4: Living and Loving Mathematics

Mathematics teacher has to ensure that he/she
1. uses mathematics often in daily life,
2. likes mathematics,
3. loves mathematics,
4. is happy to teach mathematics.
Some ideas for teacher:
ᇢᇢ Let it make sense. This alone can usually make quite a
difference and learners will stay interested.
ᇢᇢ Read through some fun math books. Get to know some
interesting mathematics topics besides just schoolbook
arithmetic. There are lots of story books (mathematics
readers) that teach mathematics concepts.
ᇢᇢ Consider including some mathematics history if you have
the time.
ᇢᇢ When you use mathematics in your daily life, explain how
you’re doing it, and include the children if possible. Figure
it out together.
xii
Section 5: Content map
The following table summarises every unit in Learners’ Book.

Unit 1 Unit 2
Trigonometric formulae, Sequence
equations and inequalities
Number of 35+ homework 25+ homework
Periods
Introduction The techniques in trigonometry By a sequence, we mean
are used for finding relevance ordered list having a first
in navigation particularly element but not the last.
satellite systems and That means, there is an
astronomy, naval and aviation order in the numbers; that
industries, oceanography, land is we actually have the first
surveying and in cartography number, the second number
(creation of maps). Now and so on… A sequence is
those are the scientific a set of real numbers with
applications of the concepts natural order.
in trigonometry, but most of
the maths we study would
seem (on the surface) to have
little real-life application.
Trigonometry is really relevant
in our day to day activities.
Classroom Whole class orientation; then Whole class orientation; then
Organisation working in pairs or in groups. working in pairs or in groups.
Equipment • Instruments of geometry Scientific calculator
Required • Scientific calculator
Activities Group work, pairing, practical, Groups discussion, research
research
Competences • Team work • Critical thinking
Practiced • Creativity • Team work
• Research • Analysis
Language Discussion in group, Discussion in groups,
Practice presentation of findings presentation of findings
Vocabulary Sequence or progression,
Acquisition arithmetic and geometric
sequence
xiii
Unit 1 Unit 2
Trigonometric formulae, Sequence
equations and inequalities
Study Skills Application of transformation Analysis, critical thinking
formulae, solve, explain and
analyse
Revision Revision of provided exercises Revision of provided
and end unit assessment exercises and end unit
assessment
Assessment • Formative assessments • Formative assessments
through activities. through activities.
• Summative assessments • Summative assessments
through exercises and end through exercises and end
of unit assessments. of unit assessments.
Learning • Use transformation formula • Define a sequence and
Outcomes to simplify the trigonometric determine if a given
expressions. sequence increases or
• Analyse and discuss the decreases, converges or
solution of trigonometric does not.
inequalities. • Determine the “nth” term
• Solve problems involving and the sum of the first
trigonometry concepts. “n”terms of arithmetic
• The relationship between progressions or geometric
trigonometry and other progression.
subjects. • Apply the concepts
of sequences to solve
problems involving
arithmetic or geometric
sequences.
• Relationship between
the sequences and other
subjects.
xiv
Introduction
Unit 3 Unit 4
Logarithmic and Exponential Solving Equations by
Functions Numerical Method
Number of 14 + homework 21 + homework
Periods
Introduction People such as scientists, You should know how
sociologists and town planners to solve linear equations
are often more concerned with and quadratic equations,
the rate at which a particular either by factorizing or by
quantity is growing than with completing the square. In
its current size. The director of some instances it may be
education is more concerned almost impossible to use
with the rate of at which the an exact method to solve
school population is increasing equation, for example,
or decreasing than with what θ − 1 − sin θ = 0 precisely.
the population is now, because In this unit we reconsider
he has to plan for the future other techniques which give
and ensure that there are good approximations to the
enough(and not too many) solution in a more formal
school places available to way.
meet demand each year. The
scientists may need to know
the rate at which a colony
of bacteria is growing rather
than how many of the bacteria
exists at this moment, or the
rate at which a liquid is cooling
rather than the temperature of
the liquid now, or the rate at
which a radioactive material
is decaying rather than how
many atoms current exist.
The above events show us the
areas where this unit finds use
in our daily activities.
Classroom Whole class orientation; then Whole class orientation; then
Organisation working in pairs or in groups. working in pairs or in groups.
Equipment • Instruments of geometry • Instruments of geometry
Required • Scientific calculator • Scientific calculator
xv
Unit 3 Unit 4
Logarithmic and Exponential Solving Equations by
Functions Numerical Method
Activities Group work, practical Group work, practical
Competences Drawing, Creativity Team work, data analysis,
Practiced Critical thinking.
Language Presenting result obtained in Presenting result obtained in
Practice activities. activities.
Vocabulary Exponential growth and decay Interpolation, extrapolation
Acquisition
Study Skills • Define logarithms and • Locate the roots of
exponentials. equation.
• Properties of logarithms • Approximate solutions of
and exponentials and their equations.
applications. • Selection of numerical
• To model and solve problem method appropriate to a
involving logarithms given problem.
• Convert the logarithm to
exponential form.
and end unit assessment exercises and end unit
assessment
Learning • State and demonstrate • Use numerical methods to
Outcomes properties of logarithms and approximate solutions of
exponentials. equations.
• Carry out operations using • Select a numerical
the change of base of method appropriate to a
logarithms. given problem.
• Apply logarithms or
exponential to solve problem
involving logarithms such
radioactive-decay problems,
Carbon dating problems, …
xvi
Introduction
Unit 5 Unit 6
Trigonometric and Inverse Vector Space of Real
Trigonometric Functions Numbers
Number of 37 + homework 21+ homework
Periods
Introduction Trigonometry has become an A vector space (also called a
essential part of today’s world. linear space) is a collection
There are so many places of objects called vectors,
where trigonometry is used; it which may be added
is impossible to list them all. together and multiplied by
For example, there would be numbers, called scalars in
no space travel, or even air this context. In physics,
travel without trigonometry. vectors are often used to
describe forces. Classical
Mechanics: Block sliding
down a ramp: You need to
calculate the force of gravity
(a vector down), the normal
force (a vector perpendicular
to the ramp), and a friction
force (a vector opposite the
direction of motion).
Classroom Whole class orientation; then Research, Whole class
Organisation working in groups, Research orientation; then working in
groups.
Equipment Geometric instruments and • Geometric instruments
Required graph paper and graph paper.
Scientific calculator • Scientific calculator.
Manila papers and markers • Manila papers and
markers.
Activities Group work, pairing, research Group work, pairing,
practical, research.
Competences Numeracy, Drawing and Creativity
Practiced creativity

xvii
Unit 5 Unit 6
Trigonometric and Inverse Vector Space of Real
Trigonometric Functions Numbers
Vocabulary • Restricted domain Geometric interpretation
Acquisition • aperiodic of dot product and cross
product.
Study Skills Solving and discussion Calculation, discussion,
explanation.

and end unit assessment. exercises and end unit
assessment.
Learning • Extend the concepts of • A basis and the dimension
Outcomes function, domain, range, of a vector space and give
period, inverse function, examples of bases of 3 .
limits to trigonometric • Operations of vectors of
functions.
3 .
• Solve problems involving
• Dot product and the cross
trigonometric functions.
product of two vectors
• Calculation of limits of
in a three dimensional
trigonometric functions and
vector space and their
remove their indeterminate
properties.
forms.
• Magnitude of a three-
• Calculation of high
dimensional vector.
derivatives of trigonometric
• Explain geometrically the
functions.
dot product and the cross
product.
xviii
Introduction
Unit 7 Unit 8
Matrices and Determinant of Points, Straight Lines and
Order 3 Sphere in 3 D
Periods
Introduction Matrices play a vital role In plane, the position of a
in the projection of a three point is determined by two
dimensional image into a two numbers x y , obtained with
dimensional image. Matrices reference to two straight
and their inverse are used lines in the plane intersecting
by programmers for coding at right angles. The position
or encrypting a message. of point in space is, however,
Matrices are applied in the determined by three numbers
study of electrical circuits, x, y , z .
quantum mechanics and The physical world in
optics. A message is made which we live is in three
as a sequence of numbers dimensional because through
in a binary format for any point they can pass
communication and it follows three, and no more, straight
code theory for solving. Hence, lines that are mutually
with the help of matrices, perpendicular. That is,
those equations are solved. equivalent to the fact that
Matrices are used for taking we require three numbers to
seismic surveys. locate a point in space with
respect to some reference
point (origin).
Classroom Whole class orientation; then Home work, Whole class
Organisation working in groups orientation; then working in
groups.
Equipment Scientific calculator • Geometric instruments
Required and graph paper.
• Scientific calculator.
• Manila papers and
markers.
Activities Group work, pairing Group work, pairing,
practical
Competences Creativity, data analysis, Drawing, Analysis
Practiced communication skills, solve
xix
Unit 7 Unit 8
Matrices and Determinant of Points, Straight Lines and
Order 3 Sphere in 3 D
Vocabulary • Upper and lower triangular Line and plane in space

Acquisition matrices. Sphere.
• Adjoint matrix.
Study Skills Solving, modeling and Calculation, Analysis,
creativity. explanation, discussion.
assessment.
through activities through activities
Learning • Define operations on • Define the position of
Outcomes matrices of order 3. point and represent it in
• Apply the properties on 3D.
calculation of determinant of • Determine equations of a
order 3. line in 3D.
• Identify invertible matrix • Calculate the distance
and determine inverse of between two points in 3D.
matrix of order 3. • Determine equations of
• Determine a matrix from a plane in 3D.
linear transformation in 3D • Solve problems related
• Define and perform various to equations of line and
operations on linear plane.
transformation of 3 . • Determine the diameter,
• Reorganise data using radius and centre from
matrices. equation of sphere.
• Apply matrices in solving • Determine intersection
related problems . of a sphere and plane;
intersection of a sphere
and a line.
xx
Introduction
Unit 9 Unit 10
Bivariate statistics Conditional Probability and
Bayes Theorem
Periods
Introduction In descriptive statistics data Probability is a common
may be qualitative such sense for scholars and
as sex, color and so on or people in modern days. It is
quantitative represented by the chance that something
numerical quantity such as will happen-how likely it is
height, mass, time and so on. that some event will happen.
The measures used to describe No engineer or scientist
the data are measures of can conduct research and
central tendency and measures development works without
of variability or dispersion. knowing the probability
Until now, we know how theory. Some academic fields
to determine the measures based on the probability
of central tendency in one theory are statistics,
variable. In this chapter, we communication theory,
will use those measures in two computer performance
quantitative variables known evaluation, signal and
as double series. image processing, game
theory.... Some applications
of the probability theory are
character recognition, speech
recognition, opinion survey,
missile control, seismic
analysis...
Classroom Homework, Whole class Homework, Whole class

Organisation orientation; then working in orientation; then working in
groups. groups.
Equipment • Instruments of geometry Scientific calculator
Required • Scientific calculator
Activities Group work, pairing, research Group work, pairing
Competences Analysis, discussion Analysis, discussion
Practiced
xxi
Unit 9 Unit 10
Bivariate statistics Conditional Probability and
Bayes Theorem
Vocabulary Bivariate data, covariance, Independent events
Acquisition coefficient of correlation,
scatter diagram, regression line
Study Skills Explanation, analyse, Calculation, explanation,
calculation, critical thinking analysis
assessment.
Learning • Plot visually data on scatter • Calculate number possible
Outcomes diagram and represent outcomes of occurring
correlation between two independent events
variables. under equally likely
• Calculate covariance and assumptions.
determine coefficient of • Compute the probability
correlation. of an event B occurring
• Analyse and interpret data when event A has already
critically. taken place.
• To use correctly Bayes’s
theorem in solving
problems.
xxii
Section 6: Example of Lesson plan
School: ……………………… Academic year: ………..

Teacher’s name: ……………
Term Date Subject Class Unit No Lesson Duration Class

No size
1 ………. Mathematics S5 1 ………. 80 35
MEG minutes
Type of Special Educational Needs and number of learners
For low vision learners: to avail big printed documents and facilitate these learners.
Avoid making a group of low vision only otherwise it can be considered as
segregation.
Gifted learners: to encourage them to explain, to each other and help their
classmates.
Unit title TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS
Key Unit Solve trigonometric equations, inequalities and related problems

Competence: using trigonometric functions and equations.
Title of the Trigonometric inequalities

lesson
Instructional Given instruments of geometry, learners should be able to
objective represent a trigonometric inequality on trigonometric circle and
find the solution accurately.
Plan for this Location: Classroom
Class Learners are organised into groups.
Learning Exercise book, pen, calculator, ruler

Materials
References Learners’ Book
Description of teaching and learning activity

In groups, learners will do the activity 1.9 from learner’s book page 23, make
presentation of group findings. In conclusion, learners will do questions 1 and 2 of
exercise 1.9 from learner’s book page 30 in their respective groups and solve them
on chalkboard. Learners will do question 3 of exercise 1.9 as individual quiz and
question 4 will be an assignment. At the end of the lesson learners are also given
another assignment to be discussed as an activity of the next lesson “Application:
Simple harmonic motion”.
xxiii
Timing for each step Teacher’s activities
Introduction Ask questions on previous lesson.

5 minutes
Body of the lesson Step 1:

15 minutes Form groups
• Request the learners to do activity 1.9 from
learner’s book page 23 in their groups
• Goes round to check the progress of the
discussion, and intervenes where necessary.
• Guides learners with special educational needs
on how to do activity.
10 minutes Step 2:
Request a reporter from each group to present the
work on the chalkboard.
xxiv
Introduction
Learners’ activities Competences and cross cutting

issues to be addressed
Question: Students are developing
Solve the following equations communication skills when they are
2 explaining and sharing ideas
cos x =
2
1
sin 2 x =
2
Respond to questions on the chalkboard
Answers:
π
x=± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
4
π
12 + kπ
=x  , k ∈
5π
 + kπ
 12
In their groups, learners will do activity 1.9 • Cooperation and interpersonal
• Draw a trigonometric circle management developed through
• Represent the given inequality on trigonometric working in groups .
circle.
• Reporter represents the work.

• Learners interact through questions and • Communication: learners
comments. communicate and convey
Answers: information and ideas through
sine is less than 0 speaking when they are
presenting their work.
• Self confidence: learners will gain

self confidence competence when
they are presenting their work.
xxv
10 minutes Step 3:
Capture the main points from the presentation of
the learners and summarise them.
xxvi
Introduction
1 • In group activities, the fact of

cosine is greater or equal to being convinced without fighting,
2
peace and education values are
developed too.
sine is greater than

3
2
2
cosine is less or equal to −
2
xxvii
Conclusion
10 minutes Request learners to give the main points of the
learned lesson in summary.
15 minutes Request learners to do exercise 1.9 in their

respective groups.
Goes round to check the progress of the
discussion, and intervenes where necessary.
15 minutes Request some learners to answer to questions 1

and 2 of exercise 1.9 on chalkboard.
Ensures that the learners understood the learned
lesson and decide to repeat the lesson or to
continue with new lesson next time
10 minutes Give to the learners an individual evaluation (quiz)

and homework to the leaned lesson.
Lead into next lesson
Request learners to do activity 1.10 at home.
Teacher self evaluation Even if the objective has been achieved, some
learners had no instruments of geometry and
calculators. The time management has been
disturbed by the fact of borrowing materials
from their classmates. For this reason, next time
each learner must have his/her own materials
(instruments of geometry, calculator, …)
xxviii
Introduction
Summarize the learned lesson Learners develop critical thinking

When solving inequalities, first replace the through generating a summary.
inequality sign by equal sign and then solve. Find
all no equivalent angles in [ 0, 2π ] . Place these
angles on a trigonometric circle. They will divide
the circle into arcs. Choose the arcs containing the
angles corresponding to the given inequality.
Do questions 1 and 2 of exercise 1.9, from Through group activities, cooperation

learner’s book page 30, in their respective groups. is developed.
Do questions 1 and 2 of exercise 1.9, from Through presentation on chalkboard,

learner’s book page 30, on chalkboard. communication skills are developed
Do question 3 of exercise 1.9, from learner’s book

page 30, as individual quiz.
Do the given quiz individually
xxix
Section 7: General Methodology
Follow the following three steps when teaching any lesson.

Introduction
Reviews previous lesson through asking the learners some
questions. If there is no previous lesson, ask them pre-
knowledge questions on the day lesson.
Body of the lesson
Give an activity to learners that will be done in groups or
individually. Invite one or more groups for presentation of their
work to other groups. If the activity is individual, ask one or
more learners to present his/her work to others. After activities,
capture the main points from the presentation of the learners
and summarise them.
Conclusion
Ask learners what they learned in day lesson. Request learners
to do exercises in their respective groups. Request learners
to correct exercises on chalkboard and give them individual
evaluation. Remember to give homework to the learners. Give
them two home works: one for the lesson of the day and another
which will be activity for the next lesson.
xxx
Introduction
Section 8: Description of Units
Unit 1. Trigonometric formulae, Equations and Inequalities

Unit 2. Sequences
Unit 3. Logarithmic and Exponential Equations
Unit 4. Solving Equations by Numerical Methods
Unit 5. Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses
Unit 6. Matrices and Determinant of Order 3
Unit 7. Vector Space of Real Numbers
Unit 8. Points, Straight lines, Planes and Sphere in 3D
Unit 9. Bivariate Statistics
Unit 10. Conditional Probability and Bayes theorem
xxxi
Unit 1 Trigonometric
Formulae, Equations
and Inequalities
Learner’s Book page 1 – 38
Aim
Solve trigonometric equations and related problems using
trigonometric functions and equations
Objectives
After completing this unit, the learners should be able to:
ᇢᇢ Use trigonometric formulae
ᇢᇢ Solve trigonometric equations
ᇢᇢ Solve trigonometric inequalities
Materials
Exercise books, pens, instruments of geometry, calculator
Contents
1.1. Trigonometric formulae
Recommended teaching periods: 14 periods

This section looks at trigonometric formulae
ᇢᇢ Addition and subtraction formulae (compound formulae)
cos ( =
x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
cos ( =
x − y ) cos x cos y + sin x sin y
sin ( x=
+ y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin ( x=
− y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y
1
tan x + tan y
tan ( x + y ) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
tan ( x − y ) =
1 + tan x tan y
cot x cot y − 1
cot ( x + y ) =
cot y + cot x
cot x cot y + 1
cot ( x − y ) =
cot y − cot x
ᇢᇢ Double angles
cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x and sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
cos
= 2 x cos 2 x − sin 2 x
2 tan x
tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
cot 2 x − 1
cot 2 x =
2 cot x
ᇢᇢ Half angle formulae
x 1 − cos x
sin = ±
2 2
x cos x + 1
cos = ±
2 2
x 1 − cos x x sin x
tan = or tan =
2 sin x 2 1 + cos x
ᇢᇢ Transformation of product in sum
1
cos x cos
= y cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 
2
1
− cos ( x + y ) − cos ( x − y ) 
sin x sin y =
2
1
sin x cos
= y sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y ) 
2
1
cos x sin
= y sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y ) 
2
2
Trigonometric Formulae, Equations and Inequalities
ᇢᇢ Transformation of sum in product formulae

p+q p−q
cos p + cos q =
2 cos cos
2 2
p+q p−q
cos p − cos q =−2sin sin
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p + sin q =
2sin cos
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p − sin q =
2 cos sin
2 2
ᇢᇢ t-Formulae
A 2t 1− t2 1+ t2
If t = tan then sinA =
,= , cos A = , tan A
2 1+ t2 1+ t2 1− t2
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know basic relations in trigonometry like
1 1 sin x 1 cos x .
sec
= x , csc
= x , tan
= x , cot
= x =
x sin x cos x tan x sin x
Help them to recall those basic relations.
ᇢᇢ Organise class into groups. Request each group to have
a group leader who will present their findings to the
class.
ᇢᇢ Request each group to do activity related to the lesson
they are going to learn. The learners may need your
assistance to do any activity. Help them to understand
the activity. After group discussion, invite some or all
groups for presentation of their work.
ᇢᇢ After activity presentation, capture the main points from
the presentation of the learners and summarise them.
Guide the learners through given examples in Learner’s
book or through your own examples.
ᇢᇢ Ask learners what they learned in day lesson to ensure
that they understood what they have learned.
3
ᇢᇢ Request learners to do exercises in their respective

groups. Request learners to correct exercises on
chalkboard and give them individual evaluation.
Remember to give them homework.
Answers to activities and exercises
Activity 1.1 Page 2
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
PR
a) sin ( A + B ) =
OP
PQ + QR
=
OP
PQ + TS
=
OP
PQ TS
= +
OP OP
 PQ PT   TS OT 
= × + × 
 PT OP   OT OP 
= cos A sin B + sin A cos B
So, sin ( A=
+ B ) sin A cos B + cos A sin B .
OR
b) Similarly, cos ( A + B ) =
OP
OS − RS
=
OP
OS − QT
=
OP
OS QT
= −
OP OP
 OS OT   QT PT 
= × − × 
 OT OP   PT OP 
= cos A cos B − cos A cos B
4
Thus, cos ( A
= + B ) cos A cos B − sin A sin B .
sin ( A + B )
Now, tan ( A + B ) =
cos ( A + B )
From the identities for sin ( A + B ) and cos ( A + B ) , you

sin A cos B + cos A sin B
have tan ( A + B ) =
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin A sin B
+
= cos A cos B
sin A sin B
1−
cos A cos B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+
cos A cos B cos A cos B
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
−
cos A cos B cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B
tan A + tan B
So, tan ( A + B ) =
1 − tan A tan B
ᇢᇢ Replacing B by −B in the identity for sin ( A + B ) gives
sin ( A=
− B ) sin A cos ( − B ) + cos A sin ( − B )
Or sin ( A=
− B ) sin A cos B − cos A sin B
ᇢᇢ Replacing B by −B in the identity for cos ( A + B ) gives
cos ( A=
− B ) cos A cos ( − B ) − sin A sin ( − B ) .
Thus,
cos ( =
A − B ) cos A cos B + sin A sin B
ᇢᇢ Replacing B by in the identity for tan ( A + B ) yields
tan A + tan ( − B )
tan ( A − B ) =
1 − tan A tan ( − B )
tan A − tan B
Hence, tan ( A − B ) =
1 + tan A tan B
5
Exercise 1.1 Page 4
1. 2sin θ sin 4θ + 2 cos θ cos 4θ = 2 ( sin θ sin 4θ + cos θ cos 4θ )

= 2 cos ( 4θ =
− θ ) 2 cos 3θ
a) sin 75= sin ( 45 + 30 =) sin 450 cos 300 + cos 450 sin 300
0 0 0
2.
0
sin 75= sin ( 450 + 300=
) sin 450 cos 300 + cos 450 sin 300
2 3 21 6+ 2
= + =
2 2 2 2 4
13π  π
= cos  2π + 
b) cos
6  6
π π
= cos 2π cos − sin 2π sin
6 6
3
=
2
tan 3300 tan ( 3600 − 300 )
c) =
3
0−
tan 3600 − tan 300 3 = − 3
= =
1 + tan 3600 tan 300 1 3
6+ 2 3
5. a) 2 + 3 b) c)
4 2
1
d) e) −1
2
Activity 1.2 Page 5
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. cos (=
x + x ) cos x cos x − sin x sin x
⇒ cos 2 x = cos 2 x − sin 2 x
2. cos (=
x − x ) cos x cos x + sin x sin x
⇔ cos 0 = cos 2 x + sin 2 x
6
⇔
= 1 cos 2 x + sin 2 x
⇒ cos 2 x + sin 2 x =
1
3. sin ( x=
+ x ) sin x cos x + cos x sin x
⇒ sin 2 x =
2sin x cos x
tan x + tan x
4. tan ( x + x ) =
1 − tan x tan x
2 tan x
⇒ tan 2 x =2
1 − tan x
cot x cot x − 1
5. cot ( x + x ) =
cot x + cot x
cot 2 x − 1
⇒ cot 2 x =
2 cot x
Exercise 1.2 Page 7
1. 4sin x cos3 x − 4 cos x sin 3 x

2. cos8 x + sin 8 x − 28cos 2 x sin 6 x + 70 cos 4 x sin 4 x − 28cos 6 x sin 2 x
1
3. 2sin150 cos150 = sin ( 2 ×150 ) = sin 300 =
2
1
4.
2
4 3 4 4 3 4
5. a) , , b) − , , −
5 5 3 5 5 3
Activity 1.3 Page 7
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answer
From the double angle formulae, you have
1. cos
= 2 x cos 2 x − sin 2 x
(1 − sin 2 x ) − sin 2 x from cos2 x + sin 2 x =
= 1
= 1 − 2sin 2 x
7
So, cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin x

Letting θ = 2x , cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin 2 x gives
θ
cos θ = 1 − 2sin 2
2
θ θ 1 − cos θ
Or 2sin 2 1 − cos θ ⇒ sin
= =
±
2 2 2
θ
1 − cos θ
So, sin = ±
2 2
2. cos
= 2 x cos x − sin 2 x
2
= cos 2 x − (1 − cos 2 x ) from cos 2 x + sin 2 x =

1
= 2 cos 2 x − 1
cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x − 1
So, =
Letting θ = 2x , =
cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x − 1 gives
θ θ
cos θ = 2 cos 2 − 1 ⇔ 2 cos 2 = 1 + cos θ
2 2
1 θ θ 1 + cos θ
cos 2 = (1 + cos θ ) ⇒ cos =±
2 2 2 2
θ 1 + cos θ
Thus, cos = ±
2 2
θ
sin
θ 2
3. tan =
2 θ
cos
2
1 − cos θ
±
θ θ 1 − cos θ
⇔ tan = 2 ⇔ tan =
2 1 + cos θ 2 1 + cos θ
±
2
By rationalizing denominator, you get
θ 1 − cos θ 1 − cos θ
tan =
2 1 + cos θ 1 − cos θ
8
(1 − cos θ )
2
θ θ 1 − cos θ
⇔ tan = ⇔ tan =
2 1 − cos 2 θ 2 1 − cos 2 θ
θ ± (1 − cos θ ) θ ± (1 − cos θ )
⇔ tan = ⇔ tan =
2 1 − cos 2 θ 2 sin θ
θ 1 − cos θ
⇔ tan =
2 sin θ
θ 1 − cos θ
So, tan =
2 sin θ
θ 1 − cos θ
From tan = , conjugating numerator,
2 1 + cos θ
you get
θ 1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
tan =
2 1 + cos θ 1 + cos θ
θ
1 − cos 2 θ θsin 2 θ
⇔ tan = ⇔ tan =
2 (1 + cos θ )
2 2 (1 + cos θ )
2
θ sin θ θ sin θ
⇔ tan = ⇔ tan =
2 1 − cos θ 2 1 + cos θ

θ sin θ
⇔ tan =
2 1 + cos θ
θ sin θ
So tan =
2 1 + cos θ
θ 1 − cos θ θ sin θ
Therefore, tan = or tan =
2 sin θ 2 1 + cos θ
9
Exercise 1.3 Page 8

7
1. If cos A = − ,
25
 7  32
1−  − 
1 1 − cosA  25  = 16 4
sin A =
± =
± ± 25 =
± ± ;
=
2 2 2 2 25 5
7 18
1−
1 1 + cosA 25 = 9 3
cos A =
± =
± ± 25 =
± ± ;
=
2 2 2 2 25 5
7
1+
1 − cosA 25 = 32 4
tan A = ± = ± ± = ±
1 + cos A 7 18 3
1−
25
7 π
2. If tan 2=A , 0 < A < , to find tan A
24 4
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
7 2 tan A
⇒ = 2
24 1 − tan A
⇒ 7 − 7tan 2 A = 48 tan A
⇒ 7tan 2 A − 48 tan A − 7 =0
⇒ ( 7 tan A − 1)( tan A + 7 ) =
0
1 π
⇒ tan A = since tanA = 7 is impossible for 0 < A <
7 4
2− 2 2+ 2 2
3. , ,1 −
2 2 2
4− 2 − 6
4.
2 2
Activity 1.4 Page 9
Materials
Exercise book, pens
10
Answer
1. sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x=
− y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y + sin x cos y − cos x sin y
= 2sin x cos y
2. sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x=
− y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y − ( sin x cos y − cos x sin y )
= sin x cos y + cos x sin y − sin x cos y + cos x sin y
= 2cos x sin y
3. cos ( x + y ) + cos (=
x − y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y + cos x cos y + sin x sin y
= 2cos x cos y
4. cos ( x + y ) − cos (=
x − y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y − ( cos x cos y + sin x sin y )
= cos x cos y − sin x sin y − cos x cos y − sin x sin y
= −2sin x sin y
Exercise 1.4 Page 10

1
x cos 3 x
1. a) sin = ( sin 4 x − sin 2 x )
2
1
b) cos12= x sin 9 x ( sin 21x − sin 3x )
2
1
c) − ( cos 20 x − cos 2 x )
2
d) sin 8 x − sin 2 x
1
e) ( cos 4 x + cos x )
2
Activity 1.5 Page 10
Materials
Exercise book, pens
11
Answers
The formulae for transforming product in sum are
1 (Equation 1)
cos x cos
= y cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 
2
1
− cos ( x + y ) − cos ( x − y ) 
sin x sin y = (Equation 2)
2
1
sin x cos
= y sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y )  (Equation 3)
2
1
cos x sin
= y sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y )  (Equation 4)
2
 p+q
 x=
x + y = p  2 (i)
 ⇒
x − y q
= y = p − q
 2
From (i)
Equation (1) becomes
p+q p−q 1
cos cos
= ( cos p + cos q )
2 2 2
p+q p−q 1
sin sin =− ( cos p − cos q )
2 2 2
p+q p−q 1
sin cos= ( sin p + sin q )
2 2 2
p+q p−q 1
cos sin= ( sin p − sin q )
2 2 2
1. a) cos x + cos 7 x =
2 cos 4 x cos 3x
13 x 5x
b) sin 4 x − sin 9 x =
−2 cos sin
2 2
c) sin 3 x + sin x =
2sin 2 x cos x
d) cos 2 x − cos 4 x =
2sin 3 x sin x
12
1.2. Trigonometric equations

The solutions of a trigonometric equation for which 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
are called principle solutions while the expression (involving
integer k ) of solution containing all values of the unknown angle
is called the general solution of the trigonometric equation.
When the interval of solution is not given, you are required to
find general solution.
When solving trigonometric equation, note that general
solution for
ᇢᇢ =
sin x = 0 is x kπ , k ∈ 
π
ᇢᇢ ( 2k + 1) , k ∈ 
cos x = 0 is x =
2
ᇢᇢ =
tan x = 0 is x kπ , k ∈ 
ᇢᇢ all angles having the same sine i.e. sin x = sin θ is
( −1) θ + kπ , k ∈ 
k
x=
ᇢᇢ all angles having the same cosine i.e. cos x = cos θ is
x =±θ + 2kπ , k ∈ 
ᇢᇢ all angles having the same tangent i.e. tan x = tan θ is
x= θ + kπ , k ∈ 
The sum or difference of trigonometric functions containing
unknown are transformed into the sum.
Remember that
p+q p−q
cos p + cos q =
2 cos cos
2 2
p+q p−q
cos p − cos q =−2sin sin
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p + sin q =
2sin cos
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p − sin q =
2 cos sin
2 2
13
To find the general solution, the equation of the form

c where a, b, c ∈  such that c ≤ a + b
2 2
a sin x + b cos x =
a) Divide each term by a 2 + b 2 and convert it in the form
a b c
sin x + cos x =
2 2 2 2
a +b a +b a + b2
2
b b a
b) Let tan θ = = , then sin θ = , cos θ .
a a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
The given equation reduces to the form
c
r cos θ cos x + r sin θ sin x =c or cos θ cos x + sin θ sin x =
r
c c
c) Then, cos ( x − θ ) = cos α ,where cos α= =
r a 2 + b2
d) Therefore, x =±α + θ + 2kπ , k ∈ 
Alternative method: in a sin x + b cos x =

c
2t 1− t2 x
=
Using t-formula, sin x = 2
, cos x 2 , where
t = tan ,
1+ t 1+ t 2
gives
2t 1− t2
a 2
+b 2
= c ⇒ 2at + b − bt 2 = c (1 + t 2 )
1+ t 1+ t
⇔ ( b + c ) t 2 − 2at + c − b =0 which is quadratic equation in t.
x
Remember that t = tan .
2
Notice
In solving the trigonometric equation, it is helpful to remember
the following identities:
sin α =sin (α + 2kπ ) , k ∈  sin
= α sin (π − α )
cos α =cos (α + 2kπ ) , k ∈  α cos ( −α )
cos=
tan α = tan (α + kπ ) , k ∈  tan α tan (α + π )
=
14
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know what inverse function is. Help them to
recall that f −1  f ( x )  = x . Make sure that learners have
scientific calculators.
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens and calculator
Answers
π
 6 + 2kπ π
1.  , k ∈ 2. ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
5π
 + 2 kπ 4
 6
3. π
+ kπ , k ∈ 
6
15
π 2π 2π 5π π 5π
1. a) , b) , c) ,
3 3 3 3 3 3
π π 2π
d) e) ,
6 3 3
5π π
2. a) + 2 kπ , k ∈  b) − + kπ , k ∈ 
6 3
π π π
c) + kπ , + kπ , k ∈  d) kπ , ± + kπ , k ∈ 
3 4 6
Materials
Answers
1
a) cos 2 x = is positive, thus, 2x lies in the 1st or
2
4th quadrant.
1 π  π
2x
cos = or cos  2π − 
= cos
2 4  4
π 7π
⇒ 2 x = + 2kπ or 2 x = + 2kπ , k ∈ 
4 4
1 π
General solution of cos 2 x = is + kπ , k ∈  or
2 8
7π
x = + kπ , k ∈ 
8
x 1 x
b) sin = − is negative ⇒ lies in the 3rd or 4th
2 2 2
quadrant.
x 1  π  π
Here, sin
=− = sin  π +  or sin  − 
2 2  6  6
x 7π x π
⇒ = or = −
2 6 2 6
16
x 1 x π
The general solution of sin = − is = − + 2kπ or
2 2 2 6
7π
+ 2 kπ , k ∈ 
6
π 7π π
⇒x= − + 4kπ or + 4 kπ ≡ + 4 k π , k ∈ 
3 3 3
sin mx + sin nx = 0 ⇔ 2sin
( m + n) x
cos
(m − n) x =
0
c)
2 2
( m + n ) x 0 or cos ( m − n=
⇒ sin ( m +=
)x
n) x ( m − n) x 0
⇒ sin 2 = 0 or cos 2 = 0
( m + n ) x2 kπ or ( m − n ) x =
⇒ ( m + n ) x=
2π
+ kπ
⇒ 2 = kπ or 2
(m − n) x = 2π + kπ
22kπ ( m − n ) x 2π 2
⇒
= x 2kπ or ( m −= n ) x π( 2kπ + 1)
⇒
= x m + n or 2 = 2 ( 2kπ + 1)
m+n ( 22kπ + 1) π2
2 kπ
⇒x
= =
2 kπ or x ( 2mkπ− n+ 1) π
=⇒ x m + n= or x
m+n m−n
2 kπ ( 2kπ + 1) π
=
General solution is x = or x
m+n m−n
d) cos 4 x − cos 2 x =
0 ⇔ 2sin 3 x sin x =
0
x 0 or sin=
⇒ sin 3= x 0
⇒= 3 x kπ or
= x kπ
kπ
=⇒x or x kπ
=
3
kπ
=
General solution is x = or x kπ
3

π kπ π π
1. ± + , k ∈ 2. 
0, , 
12 4  14 3 
{30 ,150 ,199.5 ,340.5 } 4. {170.7 ,350.7 }
0 0 0 0 0 0
3.
kπ π π π
5. or ( 2kπ + 1) , k ∈  6. ( 2k + 1) , ( 2k + 1)
2 2 2 8
17
kπ π kπ
7. ,± + , k ∈
3 12 2
π π π
8. ( 2k + 1) , ( 2k + 1) , ( 2k + 1) , k ∈
8 4 2
Materials
Answers
3 cos x − sin x =3
sin x
1. ⇒ cos x − =1
3
1 sin α 1 π
2. tan α =
− ⇒ =
− or α =
−
3 cos α 3 6
sin x sin α
3. cos x − 1 ⇒ cos x −
= sin x =
1
3 cos α
⇔ cos α cos x − sin α sin x =
cos α
⇔ cos ( x − α ) =
cos α
  π   π  π 3
⇔ cos  x −  − =
 cos  −  ⇔ cos  x +  =
  6   6  6 2
π  3
⇒ x+ = cos −1  
6  2 
 π π π
 x + 6 =− + 2 kπ 
6 x = − + 2 kπ
⇒ , k ∈ ⇒  3 , k ∈
π π
 x + = + 2 kπ  x = 2kπ
 6 6
4. cos α cos x − sin α sin x= cos α ⇔ cos ( x − α =
) cos α
  π   π  π 3
⇔ cos  x −  − =
 cos  −  ⇔ cos  x +  =
  6   6  6 2
π  3
⇒ x+ = cos −1  
6  2 
18
 π π π
 x + 6 =− + 2 kπ 
− + 2 kπ
6 x =
⇒ , k ∈ ⇒ 3 , k ∈
π π
 x + = + 2 kπ  x = 2kπ
 6 6
 π π   π 
1.  x =+ kπ , x =, k ∈   2.  x =+ kπ , k ∈  
 6 2   4 
3π π π π
3. ± − + 2 kπ , k ∈  4. ± + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
4 4 6 4
π π π
5. ± + 2 kπ , k ∈  6. − + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
6 3 4
1.3. Trigonometric inequalities

To solve inequalities:
ᇢᇢ First replace the inequality sign by equal sign and then
solve.
ᇢᇢ Find all no equivalent angles in [ 0, 2π ] .
ᇢᇢ Place these angles on a trigonometric circle. They will
divide the circle into arcs.
ᇢᇢ Choose the arcs containing the angles corresponding to
the given inequality.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know what inverse function is and what
trigonometric circle is. Help them to recall how to draw
a trigonometric circle. Make sure that learners have
mathematical instruments and scientific calculators.
class.
19

Materials
Exercise book, pens, instruments of geometry and calculator
Answers
1. sine is less than 0
1
2. cosine is greater or equal to
2
20
3. sine is greater than 3

2
2
4. cosine is less or equal to −
2
 π   2π 
1.  2kπ , 3 + 2kπ  ∪  3 + 2kπ , ( k + 1) 2π  , k ∈ 
 π   3π   5π 7π 
2.  2kπ , 4 + 2kπ  ∪  4 + 2kπ , π + 2kπ  ∪  4 + 2kπ , 4 + 2kπ  , k ∈ 
 7π 11π   19π 23π   31π 35π 
3.  18 + 2kπ , 18 + 2kπ  ∪  18 + 2kπ , 18 + 2kπ  ∪  18 + 2kπ , 18 + 2kπ  , k ∈ 
  19π 23π   31π 35π 

∪
  18 + 2 k π , + 2 k π  ∪  + 2 k π , + 2 kπ  , k ∈ 
18   18 18 
4. kπ , k ∈ 
21
1.4. Applications
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
By reading text books or accessing internet, learners will
discuss on harmonic motion and how trigonometry is used
in harmonic motion.
An object that moves on a coordinate axis is in simple
harmonic motion if its distance from the origin, d , at time
t is given by either d = a cos ωt or d = a sin ωt . The motion
has amplitude a , the maximum displacement of the object
2π
from its rest position. The period of the motion is , where
ω
ω >0.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
discuss on Snell’s law.
The degree of bending of the light’s path depends on the
angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface,
and on the ratio between the refractive indices of the two
media.
Snell’s law state that: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
22
End of Unit Assessment Page 36
4 tan x − 4 tan 3 x cot 4 x − 6 cot 2 x + 1

1. 2.
1 − 6 tan 2 x + tan 4 x 4 cot 3 x − 4 tan x
120
3. sin 2θ =
169
2
4. 2 cot 2a =
tan 2a
 1 − tan 2 a   1 tan 2 a 
= 2 =  2 − 
 2 tan a   2 tan a 2 tan a 
1
= − tan a = cot a − tan a
tan a
1 2
5. a) b)
2 2
3
c) −1 d)
2
7 120
6. − 7. −
25 119
17 x
8. a) 2 cos cos b) 2sin 7 x cos 4 x
2 2
1 1
9. a) ( sin15 x − sin 7 x ) b) ( sin16 x + sin 2 x )
2 2
π π 5π π π 5π
10. a) , , b) , ,
6 4 6 6 2 6
11) 169.60 ,349.60 12) 600 , 2400
13) 126.20 ,306.20 14) 85.90 , 265.90
15) 22.50 ,112.50 , 202.50 , 292.50 16) 00 , 600 ,1800 ,3000 ,3600
17) 00 ,1200 ,1800 , 2400 ,3600 18) 21.50 ,158.50
0 0 0
19) 0 ,60 ,120 ,180 , 240 ,300 20) 19.5 ,160.5 , 270
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
21) 33.70 ,63.40 , 213.70 , 243.40 22) 33.7 ,153.4 , 213.7 ,333.4
23) 300 ,900 ,1500 , 2700 24) 1200 , 2400
23
25) 150 , 750 ,1950 , 2550

26) 00 ,1800 ,3600 , 600 ,3000 ,1200 , 2400
27) 00 ,1800 ,3600 , 450 ,1350 , 2250 ,3150
28) 00 ,14.50 ,165.50 , ±1800
29) ±1800
30) 00 , ±48.20
31) 19.50 ,160.50
0 0
32) ±45 , ±135
33) −63.40 , 0,116.60 , ±1800
34) 600 ,3000
0 0 0 0
35) 55.9 ,145.9 , 235.9 ,325.9
0 0 0 0
36) 60 ,120 , 240 ,300
0 0
37) 120 , 240
0 0 0 0
38) 26.6 ,135 , 206.6 ,315
39) 68.20 ,1350 , 248.20 ,3150
40) 194.50 ,345.50
0 0 0 0
41) 26.6 , 45 , 206.6 , 255
0 0
42) 70.5 , 289.5
π 2π 3π 4π 6π 7π 8π 7π
43)  ,  ∪  ,  ∪ π ,  ∪  ,  ∪  , 2π 
 5 5   5 5   5   5 5   5 
π 11π  13π 23π   25π 35π 

44)  , ∪ , ∪ ,
18 18   18 18   18 18 
 π 2π   4π 5π 
45)  ,  ∪  , 
3 3   3 3 
46) 10cm, 5cm, − 5 2cm
47) 3m, 4m, − 3m
24
Unit 2 Sequences
Aim
Understand, manipulate and use arithmetic, geometric
sequences.
Objectives
ᇢᇢ Define a sequence
ᇢᇢ Determine whether a sequence converges or diverges
ᇢᇢ Indicate the monotone sequences
ᇢᇢ Determine harmonic sequences
ᇢᇢ Identify arithmetic and geometric progressions and their
properties
ᇢᇢ Use sequences in daily life
Materials
Contents
2.1. Generalities on sequences

This section looks at the definition of a numerical sequence,
convergence and divergence sequences, monotonic sequences.
A sequence is a function whose domain is either  or subset of
the form {1, 2,3, 4, , n} ; depending on the domain of definition,
a sequence is finite or infinite.
A numerical sequence {un } is said to be convergent if it has a
finite limit as n → ∞ otherwise it is said to be divergent.
25
If lim un = L number L is called a limit of a numerical sequence

x →+∞
A sequence {un } is said to be:

ᇢᇢ Increasing or in ascending order if u1 < u2 < u3 < ... < un < ...
ᇢᇢ non-decreasing if u1 ≤ u2 ≤ u3 ≤ ... ≤ un ≤ ...
ᇢᇢ decreasing or in descending order if u1 > u2 > u3 > ... > un > ...
ᇢᇢ non-increasing u1 ≥ u2 ≥ u3 ≥ ... ≥ un ≥ ...
A sequence that is either non-decreasing or non-increasing
is called monotone, and a sequence that is increasing or
decreasing is called strictly monotone.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know sets of numbers. You can request them
to write down set of even numbers and set of odd numbers
(arithmetic sequences).
ᇢᇢ Organise the class into groups. Request each group to
have a group leader who will present their findings to
the class.
the activity. After group discussion, invite some or
all groups for presentation of their work. Let learners
interact through questions and comments.
26
Sequences
Materials
Exercise book, pens, pencil, ruler, calculator
Answers
1. a)
b) There are 15 rows

c) 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1
d) That number is -1
2. Number of insects in
1st generation → 126, 2nd generation → 252,
3rd generation → 504, 4th generation → 1008,
5th generation → 2016, 6th generation → 4032,
7th generation → 8064, 8th generation → 16128,
9th generation → 32256, 10th generation → 64512

8 18
1. 1, , 2. 2, 3 − 2, 2 − 3, 5 − 2, 6 − 5
5 10
{2n − 1}n=1
+∞
3.
27
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. 0 2. 0 3. +∞

1. Converges to 2 2. Converge to -1
3. Converges to -5 4. Diverge
2
5. Converges to 6. Converges to 0
3
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. Ascending 2. Descending
3. Both 4. Neither

1. Increasing 2. Increasing
3. Decreasing 4. Both increasing, decreasing
5. Not monotonic
2.2. Arithmetic sequences and harmonic sequences

This section studies the arithmetic sequences and the harmonic
sequence
28
Sequences
Arithmetic progression
A finite or infinite sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , , an or a1 , a2 , a3 , , an ,
is said to be an Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) or Arithmetic
Sequence if ak − ak −1 = d , where d is a constant independent
of k , for k = 2,3, , n or k = 2,3, , n, as the case may be.
Characteristics
If three consecutive terms, un −1 , un , un +1 are in arithmetic
sequence, then, 2= un un −1 + un +1
ᇢᇢ Common difference
In A.P., the difference between any two consecutive terms
is a constant d , called common difference
ᇢᇢ General term or nth term
The nth term, un , of an arithmetic sequence {un } with
common difference d and initial term u1 is given by
un = u1 + ( n − 1) d
Generally, if u p is any p th term of a sequence, then the
nth term is given by un = u p + ( n − p ) d
ᇢᇢ Arithmetic means
If three or more than three numbers are in arithmetic
sequence, then all terms lying between the first and
the last numbers are called arithmetic means. If B is
A+C
arithmetic mean between A and C , then B = .
2
To insert k arithmetic means between two terms u1 and
un is to form an arithmetic sequence of n= k + 2 terms
whose first term is u1 and the last term is un .
ᇢᇢ Sum of first n terms or arithmetic series
The sum of first n terms of a finite arithmetic sequence
n
with initial term u1 is given by=Sn ( u1 + un ) which is
2
called finite arithmetic series
29
Harmonic sequence
A sequence is said to be in harmonic progression if the
reciprocals of its terms form an arithmetic progression.
Characteristics
If three consecutive terms, hn −1 , hn , hn +1 are in arithmetic
sequence, then, 2 = hn −1 + hn +1 or
hn hn −1 hn +1
hn hn −1hn +1 2hn −1hn +1
= ⇔ hn
=
2 hn −1 + hn +1 hn −1 + hn +1
General term or nth term of H.P.

Take the reciprocals of the terms of the given series; these
reciprocals will be in A.P.
Find nth term of this A.P. using un = u1 + ( n − 1) d or
un = u p + ( n − p ) d
Take the reciprocal of the nth term of A.P., to get the required
nth term of H.P.
1 1
Thus, the nth term of H.P. is or
u1 + ( n − 1) d up + (n − p) d
ᇢᇢ Harmonic means
If three or more than three numbers are in harmonic
sequence, then all terms lying between the first and the
last numbers are called harmonic means. If B is harmonic
A+C
mean between A and C , then B = .
2
To insert k harmonic means between two terms h1 and hn
is to form a harmonic sequence of n= k + 2 terms whose
first term is h1 and the last term is hn .
30
Sequences
Teaching guidelines
class.
ᇢᇢ Ask each group to do activity related to the lesson
Materials
Exercise book, pens, calculator
Answers
1. 3 2. -6

1. x=9
2. No. The number added to the 4th term to obtain the 5th
term is not equal to the one used for previous first terms.
3. Common difference is 2
4. x = 3 or 7 , fourth term: 0 or 60
31
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
u2= u1 + d
u3 = u2 + d = ( u1 + d ) + d = u1 + d
u4 = u3 + d = ( u1 + 2d ) + d = u1 + 3d
u5 = u4 + d = ( u1 + 3d ) + d = u1 + 4d
u6 = u5 + d = ( u1 + 4d ) + d = u1 + 5d
u7 = u6 + d = ( u1 + 5d ) + d = u1 + 6d
u8 = u7 + d = ( u1 + 6d ) + d = u1 + 7 d
u9 = u8 + d = ( u1 + 7 d ) + d = u1 + 8d
u10 = u9 + d = ( u1 + 8d ) + d = u1 + 9d
Generally,
un = un −1 + d = ( u1 + (n − 2)d ) + d = u1 + ( n − 1) d

1. 3 2. 9 4. 1
5. 336metres 6. None of these answers
Materials
Answers
u1 2,=
= u7 20 un = u1 + ( n − 1) d ⇒ u7 = u1 + 6d
⇒ 20 =2 + 6d ⇒d =
3
The sequence is 2,5,8,11,14,17, 20
32
Sequences
1. −3, −1,1,3,5, 7 2. 2,5,8,11,14,17, 20, 23, 26, 29,32

3. 16 4. 14
5. 0
Materials
Exercise book, piece of paper (or manila paper), pens
Answers
u1 = u1
u2= u1 + d

un −1 = u1 + ( n − 2 ) d
un = u1 + ( n − 1) d
Let sn denote the sum of these terms.

We have
[u1 + d ] sn = u1 + [u1 + d ] + ... + u1 + ( n − 2 ) d  + u1 + ( n − 1) d 

Reversing the order of the sum, we obtain
sn = u1 + ( n − 1) d  + u1 + ( n − 2 ) d  + ... + [u1 + d ] + u1
Adding the left sides of these two equations and corresponding

elements of the right sides,
we see that:
2 sn=  2u1 + ( n − 1) d  +  2u1 + ( n − 1) d  + ... +  2u1 + ( n − 1) d 
= n  2u1 + ( n − 1) d 
n n
⇔ sn=  2u1 + ( n − 1) d = u1 + u1 + ( n − 1) d 
2 2
33
By replacing u1 + ( n − 1) d with un , we obtain a useful formula

for the sum:
n
sn
= [u1 + un ]
2
n n
or sn=
2
( u1 + u1 ( n − 1) d ) ⇒ sn=
2
( 2u1 + ( n − 1) d )
1. 2n ( n + 3 ) 2. 860 3. 11
Materials
Exercise book, piece of paper (or manila paper), pens
Answers
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , , , , ,
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
The denominators are in arithmetic progression.

12
1. The sequence is 6, 4,3, 12 , 2, 12 , 3 , 4 . 4th term is ,
5 7 2 3 5
4
8th term is
3
90 90 5 5 1 5
2. 3, , ,10 3. , , , ,
23 16 3 4 5 13
2 8
4. 6 and 2 5. 4 + 4 + 4 + 5 +
7 13
60
6.
16 − n
34
Sequences
2.3. Geometric sequences

This section studies the geometric sequences
ᇢᇢ Definition
A Geometric Progression (G.P.) or Geometric Sequence is
a sequence in which each term is a fixed multiple of the
previous term i.e. ak = r , where r is a constant
ak −1
independent of k , for k = 2,3, , n or k = 2,3, , n, .
ᇢᇢ Characteristics
If three consecutive terms, un −1 , un , un +1 are terms in
geometric progression, then, un2 = un −1 un +1
ᇢᇢ Common ratio
In G.P., the ratio between any two consecutive terms is a
constant r, called common ratio
ᇢᇢ General term or nth term
The nth term, un , of a geometric sequence {un } with
common ratio r and initial term u1 is given by un = u1r n −1
Generally, if u p is any p term of a sequence, then the
th
n− p
nth term is given by un = u p r
Geometric means
If three or more than three numbers are in geometric sequence,
then all terms lying between the first and the last numbers are
called geometric means.
To insert k geometric means between two terms u1 and un is to
form a geometric sequence of n= k + 2 terms whose first term
is u1 and the last term is un .
35
ᇢᇢ Sum of first nth terms or geometric series

The sum of first n terms of a finite geometric sequence
u1 (1 − r n )
=
with initial term u1 is given by S n , r < 1 or
1− r
u1 ( r n − 1)
=Sn , r > 1 which is called finite geometric
r −1
series
u0 (1 − r n +1 )
If the initial term is u0 , then the formula is sn =
1− r
with r ≠ 1
If r = 1 , sn = nu1
Also, the product of first n terms of a geometric sequence
with initial term u1 and common ratio r is given by
n ( n −1)
Pn = ( u1 ) r
n
2
n
( n +1)
If the initial term is u0 then Pn = ( u0 )
n +1
r2
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know what arithmetic sequence is. Recall that
for an arithmetic sequence, we add a constant number to the
term to obtain the next term.
class.
ᇢᇢ Ask each group to do activity related to the lesson they
are going to learn. The learners may need your assistance
to do any activity. Help them to understandthe activity.
After group discussion, invite some or all groups for
presentation of their work.
36
Sequences

Materials
Exercise book, piece of paper (or manila paper), pens,
calculator, scissors or blades
Answers
Learners will take a piece of paper and cut it into two equal
parts. Take one part and cut it again into two equal parts.
When they continue in this manner the fraction corresponding
to the obtained parts according to the original piece of paper
are as follows:
1 1 1 1 1
, , , , ,...
2 4 8 16 32

1. x = −6 or 6
2. No, the number multiplied to the fourth term to obtain
fifth term is not the same as the one used for previous
terms.
3. Common ratio is -2
1
4. k= −
2
37
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
u2 = u1r u3 u=
= 2r rr u1r 2
u1=
2
u4 u=
= 3r u1r= r u1r 3 u5 u=
= 4r
3
u1r= r u1r 4
4
u6 u=
= 5r u1r= r u1r 5 u7 u=
= 6r
5
u1r= r u1r 6
6
u8 u=
= 7r u1r= r u1r 7 u9 u=
= 8r
7
u1r= r u1r 8
8
u=
10 u=
9r u1r= r u1r 9
Generally,
n−2
un u=
= n −1r u1r= r u1r n −1
1. 98304 2.
5
16 3. -21.87 4.
1
4 16
n −1
13 2187
5. ( un ) : un =   , u8 = 6. p = 5
22 256
Materials
Answers
u1 1,=
= u6 243 un =u1 ⋅ r n −1 ⇒ u6 =u1 ⋅ r 5
r5
⇒ 243 = ⇒ 35 =
r5
⇒r=3
The sequence is 1,3,9, 27,81, 243
38
Sequences
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1. , , , , , , or , − , , − , , − ,
4 8 16 32 64 128 256 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2. 2, , , , , , or 2, − , , − , , − ,
3 9 27 81 243 729 3 9 27 81 243 729
9
3. a) 14 b)
2
4. 12 and 108
5. 64 and 4
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. Let sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un
sn = u1 + u1r + u1r 2 + ... + u1r n −1 (1)
Multiply both sides of (1) by r, we obtain
sn r = u1r + u1r 2 + u1r 3 + ... + u1r n (2)
Subtract (2) from (1), we get
sn= u1 + u1r + u1r 2 + ... + u1r n −1
n
− sn r = − u1r − u1r 2 − u1r 3 − ... − u1r
sn − sn r =u1 − u1r n
⇔ sn (1 − r )= u1 (1 − r n ) or
u1 (1 − r n )
sn = with r ≠ 1
1− r
2. P = u1 × u1r × u1r 2 × ... × u1r n −1
⇔
= P ( u1 )
n
(r × r 2
× ... × r n −1 )
( u1 ) r (1+ 2+...+ n−1)

n
⇔P=
39
We need the sum S n −1 =1 + 2 + ... + n − 1

n −1 n ( n − 1)
S=
n −1 (1 + n =
− 1)
2 2
n ( n −1)
Then Pn = ( u1 ) r
n
2

5
1) 21.25 2) 39.1 3) 1, 4) -32
4
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
If −1 < r < 1 , lim rn = 0

n →∞
u1 (1 − r n ) u1
thus lim = .
n →∞ 1− r 1− r

4 190
1. a) 0 < x < b) −
3 39
2. 115 m
2.4. Applications

This section studies the applications of sequences in daily life.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners now solve any problem related to sequences.
Request them to read books and find out how sequences can
be used in real life problems and request them to present
their findings.
40
Sequences
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
discuss on how sequences are used in real life.
For example; the interest portion of monthly payments
made to pay off an automobile or home loan, and the list
of maximum daily temperatures in one area for a month are
sequences. One application in economy is calculation of
kt
 r
interest rate. The compound interest formula:= A P 1 + 
 k
with P = principle, t = time in years, r = annual rate, and k
= number of periods per year. The simple interest formula:
I = P rt with I = total interest, P = principle, r = annual
rate, and t = time in years.

1 2 3 1 1 1
1. a) 0, − , − , − b) 1, − , , − c) 1, 3,1, 3
4 9 16 3 5 7
a) ( −1) , n =
n 2
2. 0,1, 2,.. b) n − 1, n =
1, 2,3,...
c) 4n − 3, n =
1, 2,3,...
3. a) converges to 2 b) converges to 0
c) converges to 1
4. =
a) u20 78,
= S 20 800 b) u20 23.5,
= = S 20 185
5. a) un = 2 ( n + 1) , S n = n ( n + 3)
n
b) un = 20 − 3n, S n = 2 ( 37 − 3n )
1 n +1
c) un = , S n =
n 2
6. a) u8 = 18, S8 = 88 b) u1 =3, S10 =210
c) n = 10, d = 2 d) u1 = 1, d = 2
41
157 79 159 161 81 163 165 83 167

7. , , , 40, , , , 41, , , , 42,...
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4
8. 5, 7,9,11,13,15,17,19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 29,31,...
7 6 5 3 2 1 1
9. −2, − , − , − , − 1, − , − , − , 0,
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
10. 8,9,10 11. 9,11,13 or 13,11,9
6 2 1
12. 13. 1, , 14. 5
n 5 4 37
1 1533
a) u5 768,
15. = = S5 341 =
b) r = , Sn
2 64
16. =2 1 1 1 2b − a − c
+ ⇔ =2
2b b − a b − c b b − bc − ab + ac
⇔ b 2 + ac = 2b 2 ⇒ b 2 = ac . This shows that a, b, c
form a geometric progression.
81 2187
17. u5 = 18. u8 =
2 4
19. 2, 2 2, 4, 4 2,8 or 2, − 2 2, 4, − 4 2,8
20. 3,6,12
21. 128 or -972
22. 6, 6, 6 or 6, -3, -12.
23. 11,17,23 24. 5,8,11,14
25. -4,-1,2,5,8 26. 2,3
27. 6 28. £11 million
29. 30. 4 ,5 31. 2048000

5
32. 99.80 F 33. 1800 34. 6 and 3
2 ( a + b ) ab
35. 36. a= b= c
( )
2
a+ b
42
Unit 3 Logarithmic and
Exponential Equations
Aim
Solve equations involving logarithms or exponentials and
apply them to model and solve related problems
Objectives
ᇢᇢ Solve simple exponential equations.
ᇢᇢ Convert a number from logarithmic form to exponential
form.
ᇢᇢ Change the base of any logarithm.
ᇢᇢ Use the properties of logarithms to solve logarithmic
and exponential equations.
ᇢᇢ Apply logarithms or exponential to solve interest rate
problems, population growth problems, radioactivity
decay problems, earthquake problems,…
Materials
Contents
3.1. Exponential and logarithmic functions

This section looks at how to sketch exponential and logarithmic
function in Cartesian plane.
The graph of a logarithmic function is found by reflecting the
graph of the corresponding exponential function to the first
bisector i.e. the line y = x .
43
x
Then the coordinates of the points for y = a are reversed to
obtain the coordinates of the points for g ( x ) = log a x .
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to draw linear function in 2-dimensions.
Recall that to sketch a function you need a table of points.
class.
ᇢᇢ After activity presentation, capture the main points
from the presentation of the learners and summarise
them. Guide the learners through given examples in the
Learner’s Book or through your own examples.
Materials
Exercise book, pens, instruments of geometry, calculator
44
Logarithmic and Exponential Equations
Answers
Any horizontal line crosses the curve at most once

y = 2 x is one to one function (is invertible function)
45
3.2. Exponential and logarithmic equations

This section looks at the method used to solve exponential and
logarithmic equations.
In solving exponential or logarithmic equations, remember
basic rules for exponents and/or logarithms.
Basic rules for exponents
For a > 0 and a ≠ 1, m, n ∈ IR
m n m−n
b) a : a = a
m n
a) a × a =a m+n
1
c) (a ) m n
= a mn −n
d) a =
an
1 m
e) a n = n a f) a n = n am
g) a loga b = b
Basic rules for logarithms
∀x, y ∈ ]0, +∞[ , a ∈ ]0, +∞[ \ {1} :
1
a xy
a) log= log a x + log a y b) log a = − log a y
y
46
x
d) log a x = r log a x , ∀r ∈ 
r
c) log
= a log a x − log a y
y
log c b
e) log a b = , ∀c ∈ ]0, +∞[ \ {1} , b > 0
log c a
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to solve linear and quadratic equations.
They should also know basic properties of powers. Help them
to recall basic properties of powers.
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
47
Answers
m
If m log
= = a x, n log a y and z = log a xy then
= x a= , y an
and xy = a z .
m n m+n z
Now, xy = a a = a = a ⇒ z = m + n .
( xy ) log a x + log a y .
Thus, log a=
x m
If m log
= = a x, n
=
log a y and z = log a then x a= , y an
y
x
and = a z .
y
x am
Now, = n = a m − n = a z ⇒ z = m − n .
y a
( xy ) log a x − log a y .
Thus, log a=

1
2. a) log 4 64 = 3 b) log 2 = −3 c) log 1 y = x
8 2
d) log p q = 3 e) log8 0.5 = x f) log 5 q = p

3. a) log 2 8 = x ⇔ 8 = 2 x ⇔ 2 x = 23 ⇒ x = 3
b) log x 125 = 3 ⇔ 125 = x 3 ⇒ x = 3 125 ⇔ x = 5
c) log x 64 = 0.5 ⇔ 64 = x 0.5 ⇒ x = 642 ⇔ x = 4096
d) log 4 64 = x ⇔ 64 = 4 x ⇔ 4 x = 43 ⇒ x = 3
7
1 3
1
 12 
e) log 9 x = 3 ⇔ x = 9 ⇔ x =  9  ⇒ x = 2187
2
2  
1 1 x x
f) log 2 =x ⇔ = 2 ⇔2 = 2−1 ⇒ x = −1
2 2
4. a) 5 b) 1.5 c) -3
1
d) -3 e) f) 1
3
g) 1 h) 0
48
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
If x = log a m and z = log a ( m ) then m = a , m p = a x .

p x
1.
(a ) = a =
p
Now, m p = x px
a z ⇒ z = px .
Thus, log a ( m ) = p log
p
a m , as required.
log c b
2. log a b =
log c a
Let x = log a b , then a x = b .
Take logarithms in base c of both sides log c a x = log c b .
log c b
This gives x log c=
a log c b ⇒=
x .
log c a
log c b
Therefore, log a b = .
log c a
1. a) 4 p b) −2 p c) 1+ p
π
2. ( 2kπ + 1) , k ∈
2
3.
3
a)  
2
b) { 2, 2}  1 
c)  e 2 , 2  
 e  
d) {( e , e ) , ( −e , −e )}
4 3 4 3
e) {2}
3.3. Applications
Materials
49
Answers
P ( t ) = P0 2kt
Here P0 =2, k =2, t in hours ⇒ P ( t ) =22t +1
a) P ( 4=
) 2=9 512
b) P ( t ) =213 ⇔ 22t +1 =213 ⇒ 2t + 1 = 13 ⇒ t = 6
222
c) Number of cells left is or 221
2
Materials
Answers
a) The original amount of material present is
A ( 0 ) 80
= = ( 20 ) 80 gram
b) For the half life, A ( t ) = 40
 −t  1 −
t
−
t
40 = 80  2 100  ⇒ =2 100 ⇒ 2−1 =
2 100
  2
t
1
= t 100
⇒=
100
Therefore the half life is 100 years
c) A (t ) = 1
t
 −t  −
t
1 −
⇒ 80  2 100  = 1 ⇒ 2 100 =⇒ 2 100 = 80−1
  80
−
t t
⇒ log 2 100 = log 80−1 ⇒ − log 2 = − log 80
100
log 80
⇒
= t ×100
= 632
log 2
Therefore, it will take 632 years for material to decay
to 1 gram.
50
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
Suppose P ( t ) has an exponential decay model so that
P ( t ) P0 e − kt
= ( k < 0) .
At any fixed time t1 let P1 = P0 e − kt1
be the value of P ( t ) and let T denote the amount of time
required to reduce in value by half. Thus, at time t1 + T the
value of P ( t ) will be 2P1 so that
− k ( t1 +T )
= 2 P1 P=
0e P0 e − kt1 e − kT .
− kt
Since P1 = P0 e 1 ,
− k ( t1 +T ) P1 = e− kt1
=2 P1 P=
0e P0 e − kt1 e − kT → 2 P0 e − kt1 P0 e − kt1 e − kT
=
Or 2 = e − kT , taking ln on both sides gives
1
ln 2 = −kT or T = − ln 2 which does not depend on P0 or t1 .
k
1. 12.5647h
2. 160.85 years
3. 866 years
4. a) a little over 95.98 b) about 66.36
5. 4,139g
6. Frw 7,557.84
7. About 14.7 years
8. 2.8147498 X 1014
9. a) 10 years b) (i) 8 years (ii) 32.02 years.
51
1. a) {81} b) {−1, 6} c) {( 9, 7 ) , ( 7,9 )}

1 
d)  ,5 e) {2} f) {( ln 2, ln 3)}
5 
2. a) 5 b) 1.5 c) 1.09
d) 1.5 e) -3 f) 1.05
3. a) $2519.42 b) 9 years
4. a) 976 b) 20
5. 12.9 0C
6. a) 49.7million b) 67.1million c) 122.4million
7. a) 16.0 b) 28.7 c) 33.6
8. a) 20.8years b) 138years
9. P = 36.4e0.01t
10. a) 14,400years b) 38years
0
11. a) 69.1 0C b) 60.2 c) 44.4 C
12. a) 5.0 b) 16.2 c) 26.4
13. c) 96min
14. c) After 76 / 77 years
52
Unit 4 Solving Equations by
Numerical Methods
Aim
To be able to use numerical methods (e.g Newton-Raphson
method to approximate solution to equations)
Objectives
ᇢᇢ Finding root by linear interpolation and extrapolation.
ᇢᇢ Locating roots by graphical and analytical methods.
ᇢᇢ Finding real root by Newton-Raphson method and
general iterations.
Materials
Contents
4.1. Linear interpolation and extrapolation

This section looks at how to use linear interpolation and
extrapolation.
Linear interpolation is a process whereby the non tabulated
values of the function are estimated on the assumption that
the function behaves sufficiently smooth between the tabular
point.
Extrapolation involves approximating the value of a function for
a given value outside the given tabulated values.
53
The linear interpolation formula is given as
y= y1 +
( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 )
x2 − x1
For extrapolation formula, we may also use the above formula .
An example of a linear interpolation is given in the graph
shown below. Here, the line segment AB is given. The point C
is interpolated; while the point D is extrapolated by extending
the straight line beyond AB.
y
Extrapolated, D
Measured, B
Interpolated, C
Measured, A
0 x
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find equation of a line passing
through given two points.
class.
54
Solving Equations by Numerical Methods

Materials
Exercise book, pens, geometric instruments
Answers
CD f 2 − f1 BM f − f1
3) = =
AD x2 − x1 AB x − x1
CD BM
4) Since = , thus
AD AB
f 2 − f1 f − f1
=
x 2 − x1 x − x1
f 2 − f1
Or f − f1 = (x − x1 )
x 2 − x1
55
f 2 − f1 x − x1
f = (x − x1 ) + f1 f = ( f 2 − f1 ) + f1
x 2 − x1 x 2 − x1
x − x1
Letting = δ and f 2 − f 1 = ∆f 1 gives
x2 − x1
f = δ∆f1 + f1

1. a) θ = 64.3 when T=18s
b) T=22.5 when 600C
2. a) 0.2324 b) 0.967
Materials
Answers
y ax + b
Let =
10.5 − 10.9 −0.4
a= = = −0.067
1988 − 1982 6
y= −0.067 x + b
10.5 = −0.067 (1988 ) + b
⇒b= 143.7
Then, y = −0.067 x + 143.7
The winning time in year 2010 is estimated to be:
−0.067 ( 2010 ) + 143.7 =
y= 9.03 sec
Unfortunately, this estimate actually is not very accurate. This
example demonstrates the weakness of linear extrapolation;
it uses only a couple of points, instead of using all the points
like the best fit line method, so it doesn’t give as accurate
results when the data points follow a linear pattern.

1) 11.5 2) 3.33
56
4.2. Location of roots

This section looks at the method used to locate root by analytical
method and graphical method.
Analytical method
The root of f ( x ) = 0 lies in interval ]a, b[ if f (a ) f (b ) < 0 ; in
other words, f (a ) and f (b ) are of opposite sign.
Graphical method
To solve the equation f ( x ) = 0 , graphically, we draw the graph
of y = f ( x ) and read from it the value of x for which f ( x ) = 0
i.e. the x-coordinates of the points where the curve y = f ( x )
cuts the x-axis.
Alternatively, we would rearrange f ( x ) = 0 , in the form
h(x ) = g (x ) , and find the x-coordinates of the points where the
curves y = h( x ) and y = g ( x ) intersect.
Teaching guidelines
class.
57
Materials
Answers
ᇢᇢ Table of values for y = x 2 − 5 x + 2

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x 2 − 5x + 2 2 -2 -4 -4 -2 2
ᇢᇢ The ranges of root of equation x 2 − 5 x + 2 =0:
f ( 0 )= 2 > 0 and f (1) =−2 < 0 , so, a root lies
between 0 and 1
f ( 4 ) =−2 < 0 and f ( 5 )= 2 > 0 , so, a root lies
between 4 and 5.
The ranges of root of equation x 2 − 5 x + 2 =0 are
0 < x < 1 and 4 < x < 5
1. f ( x ) = x 3 − 3 x − 12
f ( 2 ) =23 − 6 − 12 =−10 < 0
f ( 3) = 33 − 9 − 12 = 6 > 0
Since f ( 2 ) f ( 3) < 0 , thus, the equation x3 − 3 x − 12 =

0
has a root between 2 and 3
x 2 ? 3
y −10 0 6
Hint:
y = y1 +
( x − x1 )( y2 − y1 ) ⇒ x = x1 +
( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 )
x2 − x1 y2 − y1
x = 2.625
58
2. f ( x )= 3 x 2 + x − 5
f (1) =3 + 1 − 5 =−1 < 0
f ( 2 ) = 12 + 1 − 5 = 8 > 0
As f (1) f ( 2 ) < 0 , then, the equation 3 x 2 + x − 5 =0 has

a root between 1 and 2.
x 1 ? 2
y −1 0 9
x= x1 +
( y − y1 )( x2 − x1 )
y2 − y1
x = 1.1
Materials
Exercise book, pens, calculator, geometrical instruments
Answers
2
1. Graph of y = x − 5 x + 2
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
y = x 2 − 5x + 2 2 -2 -4 -4 -2 2
59
2. Ranges of roots: ]0,1[ and ]4,5[

3. x2 − 5x + 2 = 0 ⇔ x2 = 5x − 2
⇒ x= 5 x − 2 or x =
− 5x − 2
4. Taking the positive root, we get
y = x and=y 5x − 2
x 0.4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
y 0.4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
x 0.4 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
=y 5x − 2 0.0 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8
5. The graphs of y = x and=y 5 x − 2 look like this
60

1.
2.
3.
The root is 2.5
61
4.
The root is 2.1

5.
The root is 1.9
62
4.3. Iteration method

This section looks at the method used to find roots by Newton-
Raphson method and general iterations.
By this method, we get closer approximation of the root of an
equation if we already know its good approximate root.
1. Guess a first approximation to a solution of the equation
f ( x ) = 0 . A graph of y = f ( x ) may help.
2. Use the first approximation to get a second, the second to
get a third, and so on using the formula
f (x )
xn − ' n , if f ' ( xn ) ≠ 0
xn +1 =
f ( xn )
Notice
If f ' ( x1 ) = 0 or nearly zero, this method fails.
Teaching guidelines
class.
63
Materials
Exercise book, pens and geometric instruments
Answers
1.
f ( x1 ) − f ( x2 )
Slope of the tangent
= line: m = f ' ( x)
x1 − x2
Equation of tangent: f ( x ) − f ( x1=
) f ' ( x1 )( x − x1 )
2. At X = x , f ( x ) = 0 . The tangent equation will be
y=m
x2 is a best approximation.
From tangent equation, we get: − f ( x=
1) f ' ( x1 )( x2 − x1 )
f ( x1 )
− x2 − x1
=
f ' ( x1 )
Or
f ( x1 )
x2= x1 −
f ' ( x1 )
64

1. 1.521 2. -2.104 3. 0.79206
4. 1.224 5. 0.581 6. 0.619
Materials
Answers
x3 − 3x − 5 = 0 ⇔ x3 = 3x + 5
⇒ x= 3
3 x + 5 , x1 = 2
x2 = 3
3× 2 + 5 = 3
11 = 2.22398
x3 = 3
3 × 2.22398 + 5 = 2.268372
x4 = 3
3 × 2.268372 + 5 = 2.276967
x5 = 3
3 × 2.276967 + 5 = 2.278624
x6 = 3
3 × 2.278624 + 5 = 2.278943
x7 = 3
3 × 2.278943 + 5 = 2.279004
x8 = 3
3 × 2.279004 + 5 = 2.279016
x = 2.279 to 3dp

2
1. a) x − 3 x + 1 =0
f ( x ) = x 2 − 3x + 1
f ( 0 ) = 02 − 0 + 1 = 1 > 0
f (1) =12 − 3 + 1 =−1 < 0
As f ( 0 ) f (1) < 0 , then, the equation x 2 − 3 x + 1 =0 has

65
f ( 2 ) =22 − 6 + 1 =−1 < 0

f ( 3) = 32 − 9 + 1 = 1 > 0
As f ( 2 ) f ( 3) < 0 , then, the equation x 2 − 3 x + 1 =0 has

b) i) x 2 − 3 x + 1 = 0 ⇔ 3 x = x 2 + 1
x2 + 1
⇔ x= ⇒ p = 1, q = 3
3
ii) x 2 − 3 x + 1 =0 ⇔ x 2 − 3 x =−1
⇔ x ( x − 3) =−1
1
⇒ x − 3 =− , x ≠ 0
x
1
⇔ x =3 − ⇒ r =3, s =−1
x
(=
0.5 ) + 1
2
c) x
= = 0.5 , x2
, x = 0.416667
3
(=
0.416667 ) + 1
2
=x3 0.391204
3
(=
0.391204 ) + 1
2
=x4 0.384347
3
(=
0.384347 ) + 1
2
=x5 0.382574
3
(=
0.382574 ) + 1
2
=x6 0.382121
3
(=
0.382121) + 1
2
=x7 0.382005
3
(=
0.382005 ) + 1
2
=x8 0.381976
3
66
(=
0.381976 ) + 1
2
=x9 0.381969
3
x = 0.382 to 3 dp
1 1
d) x=
3 − , x1 =
0.5 , x2 =−
3 1
=
x 0.5
1
x3 = 3 − = 2
1
1
x4 =3 − =2.5
2
10
x5 =3− =2.615385
26
1
x6 =
3− 2.615385
=
2.615385
1
x7 =
3− 2.617647
=
2.615385
1
x8 =
3− 2.617978
=
2.617647
x = 2.618 to 3 dp
1
2. xn +1 =
2 + 2 , x0 =
2
xn
1
x1 =2 + =2.25
22
1
x2 =
2+ 2.197531
=
( 2.25)
2
1
x3 =
2+ 2.207076
=
( 2.197531)
2
1
x4 =
2+ 2.205289
=
( 2.207076 )
2
67
1
x5 =
2+ 2.205622
=
( 2.205289 )
2
1
x6 =
2+ 2.20556
=
( 2.205622 )
2
1
x7 =
2+ 2.205571
=
( 2.20556 )
2
1
x8 =
2+ 2.205569
=
( 2.205571)
2
1
x9 =
2+ 2.205569
=
( 2.205569 )
2
x = 2.205569 to 6 dp
Equation is x 3 − 2 x 2 − 1 =0
3. f ( x=
) x 2 − sin x
f ( 0.5 ) = ( 0.5 ) − sin 0.5 = −0.22943 < 0
2
f (1) =
12 − sin 1 =0.158529 > 0
As f ( 0.5 ) f (1) < 0 , then, the equation x 2 − sin x =
0
has a root between 0.5 and 1.
sin x
=xn +1 = , x0 0.5
xn
sin 0.5
=x1 = 0.958851
0.5
sin 0.958851
=x2 = 0.853659
0.958851
sin 0.853659
=x3 = 0.882894
0.853659
sin 0.882894
=x4 = 0.875054
0.882894
sin 0.875054
=x5 = 0.877178
0.875054
x = 0.877 to 3 dp
68

1. a)
The root lies between 2 and 3

p x
x
= +
x2 2
2 p + x3
⇔x= 2 ⇔ 2 x3 =2 p + x3
2x
⇔ x3 =
2p
2 p = 14 ⇒ p = 7
b) 2.410
2. 1.8171206
3. a) 1.67 b) 1.16 c) 1.9 d) 0.85
69
4. Graph
From the graph, the root lies between 2.9 and 3.

Answer to three significant figures is 2.93
5. 1.738
6. a) 1.4973 b) 3.332
1
7. 1.83, x = 3 x
8. a) 0.45 b) -4 is undefined c) -4.45
70
Unit 5 Trigonometric Functions
and their Inverses
Aim
Apply theorems of limits and formulas of derivatives to solve
problems including trigonometric functions, optimisation,
and motion.
Objectives
ᇢᇢ Find the domain and range of trigonometric function
and their inverses.
ᇢᇢ Study the parity of trigonometric functions.
ᇢᇢ Study the periodicity of trigonometric functions.
ᇢᇢ Evaluate limits of trigonometric functions.
ᇢᇢ Differentiate trigonometric functions.
Materials
Contents
5.1. Generalities on trigonometric functions and
their inverses

This section looks at the domain and range of trigonometric
functions and their inverses. It also looks at the parity and
periodicity of trigonometric functions.
71
Domain and range of trigonometric functions

Cosine and sine
The domain of sin x and cos x is the set of real numbers.
The range of sin x and cos x is [ −1,1] .
Tangent and cotangent

π 
The domain of tan x is  \  + kπ  , k ∈  . The range of tan
2 
is the set of real numbers.
The domain of cot x is  \ {kπ } , k ∈  . The range of cot x is the
set of real numbers.
72
Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses
Secant and cosecant

π  1
The domain of sec x is  \  + kπ  , k ∈  . Since sec x =
2  cos x
1
and range of cosine is [ −1,1] , will vary from negative
cos x
infinity to -1 or from 1 to plus infinity. Thus, the range of sec x
is ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[
73
1
The domain of csc x is  \ {kπ } , k ∈  . Since csc x = and
sin x
1
range of sine is [ −1,1] , sin x will vary from negative infinity to -1
or from 1 to plus infinity. Thus, the range of csc x is
]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[
74
Inverse trigonometric functions

sin x and cos x have the inverses called inverse sine and
−1
inverse cosine denoted by sin −1 x and cos x respectively.
Note that the symbols sin −1 x and cos −1 x are never used to
1 1 1
denote and 1 respectively. If desired, and
sin x cos x sin x cos x
can be written as ( sin x ) and ( cos x )
−1 −1
(or csc x and sec x )
respectively.
−1
In older literature, sin −1 x and cos x are called arcsine of
x and arccosine of x and they are denoted by arc sin x and
arc cos x respectively.
75
Domain restrictions that make the trigonometric

functions one to one
Function Domain restriction Range
 π π
Sine − ,   2 2
[-1,1]
Cosine ]0,π[ [-1,1]

 π π
Tangent  − 2 , 2  
Cotangent ]0,π[ 
 π  π 
Secant 0, 2  ∪  2 , π  ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[
 π   π
Cosecant  − 2 , 0  ∪  0, 2  ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[
Because sin x (restricted) and sin −1 x ; cos x (restricted) and
cos −1 x are inverses to each other, it follows that:
π π
ᇢᇢ sin ( sin y ) = y if − ≤ y ≤ ; sin ( sin x ) = x
−1 −1
2 2
if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
ᇢᇢ (
cos −1 ( cos y ) = y if 0 ≤ y ≤ π ; cos cos −1 x = x )
if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
From these relations, we obtain the following important result:
76
Theorem 1
π π
If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − 2 ≤ y ≤ 2 , then y = sin x and
−1
ᇢᇢ
sin y = x are equivalent.
If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π , then y = cos x and cos y = x
−1
ᇢᇢ
are equivalent.
Periodic functions
A function f is called periodic if there is a positive number P
such that f ( x + P ) =
f ( x ) whenever x and x + P lie in the
domain of f.
Any function which is not periodic is called aperiodic.

The period of sum, difference or product of trigonometric
function is given by the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) of the
periods of each term or factor.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find domain of definition of a
polynomial, rational and irrational functions. Recall that the
domain of definition of a function is the set of elements where
the function is defined.
class.
77

Materials
Answers
1. No real number for x 2. No real number for x
π x kπ , k ∈ 
3. x =+ kπ , k ∈  4.=
2
π = x kπ , k ∈ 
5. x =+ kπ , k ∈  6.
2
1.  2.  \ {0}
3.  \ {0} 4.  \ {0}
π 
5.  \  + kπ  , k ∈  6. ]0, +∞[
2 
Materials
78
Answers
1. ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[ 2. ]−∞, −1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[

3. No real number for x 4. No real number for x
5. ]−1,1[ 6. ]−1,1[
1.  1   1 2. [ −1,1]
 − 2 , 0  ∪  0, 2 
3. ]0,1] 4. [ −1, 0[ ∪ ]0,1]
Materials
Answers
sin x sin x
1. f (−x) = , − f ( x) =− , f ( − x ) ≠ − f ( x ) , f ( − x ) =f ( x )
x x
cos x cos x
2. g (−x) =− , − g ( x) =− , g (−x) =−g ( x), g (−x) ≠ g ( x)
x x
3. h (−x) =− sin x + cos x, − h ( x ) =− sin x − cos x, h ( − x ) ≠ −h ( x ) , h ( − x ) ≠ h ( x )

1. Even 2. Odd 3. Odd
4. Neither even nor odd, 1 is in domain but -1 is not in
domain.
Materials
Answers
1. 2 kπ , k ∈  2. 2 kπ , k ∈  3. kπ , k ∈ 
79
1. π 2. 3π 3. π
3
4. 2π 5. 2π
6.
π
w 2
Materials
Answers
1. 2π 2. π 3. 2π
1. π 2. 2π
3. 2π 4. 2 3π
3
5.2. Limits of trigonometric functions

This section looks at the method used to find the limits of
trigonometric functions
sin x
lim =1
x →0 x
Teaching guidelines
class.
80

Materials
Answers
1. a) lim sin
= x sin
= 0 0 b) lim x=
sin x 0sin
= 0 0
x →0 →
1
c) lim cos
= x cos
= 0 1 d) lim = ∞
x →0 x →0 x
cos x 1
e) lim = lim lim cos x = ∞ × 1 = ∞
x →0 x x → 0 x x →0
2.
sin x sin x
x x
x x
1 0.841470985 -1 0.841470985
0.9 0.870363233 -0.9 0.870363233
0.8 0.896695114 -0.8 0.896695114
0.7 0.920310982 -0.7 0.920310982
0.6 0.941070789 -0.6 0.941070789
0.5 0.958851077 -0.5 0.958851077
0.4 0.973545856 -0.4 0.973545856
0.3 0.985067356 -0.3 0.985067356
0.2 0.993346654 -0.2 0.993346654
81
0.1 0.998334166 -0.1 0.998334166

0.01 0.999983333 -0.01 0.999983333
0.001 0.999999833 -0.001 0.999999833
0.0001 0.999999998 -0.0001 0.999999998
sin x sin x
a) lim+ =1 b) lim− =1
x →0 x x → 0 x
c) Since both limits on each side are equal to 1
sin x
then lim =1
x →0 x
1. π 2. 2 3. 0 4. 3
4
Materials
Answers
1. =
a) Let y sin −1 ( −1) . This equation is equivalent to
π π . The only value of y satisfying
sin y =−1, − ≤ y≤
2 2 π
these conditions is y = − π
. So sin ( −1) =− −1
2 2
−1
b) Let y = tan 1 . This is equivalent to
π π . The only value of
tan y = 1, − < y<
2 2
y satisfying these conditions is y = π . So
4
π
tan −1 (1) =
4
=
c) Let y cot ( −1) . This is equivalent to
−1
cot y =−1, 0 < y ≤ π . The only value of y satisfying

3π
these conditions is y = 3π . So cot ( −1) =
−1
4 4
82
=
d) Let y sec −1 ( −2 ) . This is equivalent to
π . The only value of
sec y =−2, 0 ≤ y ≤ π , y ≠
2
y satisfying these conditions is y = 2π
. So
3
2π
sec −1 ( −2 ) =
3
=
e) Let y csc ( −2 ) . This is equivalent to
−1
π π
csc y = −2, − ≤ y ≤ , y ≠ 0 . The only value
2 2
of y satisfying these conditions is y = − π . So
π 6
csc −1 ( −2 ) = −
6
 2x − 3  −1  2 − 3  3π
a) lim cot −1   cot ( −=1)
−1
2. = cot  =
x →1
 x   1  4
−1  1 + x  −1  1 + 1  π
b) lim sin =  sin =   sin
−1
= (1)
x →1
 2x   2  2
 x +1 −1  −1  0 
c) lim cos −1   = cos   I.C .
x →0
 x  0
Remove this I.C
x +1 −1 1 1 −1 1 π
lim= lim = and cos = .
x →0 x x →0 2 x + 1 2 2 3
 x +1 −1  π
lim cos −1   =
Thus, x →0  x  3
 1 − x2  0
d) lim tan −1   = tan1 I.C . Remove this I.C
x →−1
 2x + 2  0
 1 − x2  −2 x π
lim  =  = 1 and tan −1 (1) = .
lim
x →−1 2 x + 2
  x →−1 2 4
−1  1 − x  π
2
lim
Thus, x →−1 tan  =
 2x + 2  4
π π 1
1) 2) − 3) 1 4) 5) 5 6) 2
4 2 2
83
5.3. Differentiation of trigonometric functions and their

inverses

This section looks the derivative of trigonometric functions and
their inverses.
Derivative of tri atgonometric functions
1. d (sin u )
= cos u
du 2. d (cos u ) = − sin u du
dx dx dx dx
d (tan u ) du d ( cot u ) du
3. = sec 2 u 4. = − csc 2 u
dx dx dx dx
d (sec u ) du d ( csc u ) du
5. = sec u tan u 6. = − csc u cot u
dx dx dx dx
Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions
d ( arcsin u ) 1 du 2. d ( arccos u ) 1 du
1. = = −
dx 1 − u dx
2
dx 1 − u 2 dx
d ( arctan u ) 1 du d ( arccot u ) 1 du
3. = 4. = −
dx 1 + u 2 dx dx 1 + u 2 dx
5.
d ( arcsec u ) 1 du 6. d ( arccsc u ) 1 du
= = −
dx u u 2 − 1 dx dx u u 2 − 1 dx
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know trigonometric identities. The trigonometric
identities will be used in this section
class.
84 book or through your own examples.

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. ∀x0 ∈ 
sin x − sin x0
( sin x0 ) ' = xlim
→x 0 x − x0
x + x0 x − x0
2 cos sin
= lim 2 2
x → x0 x − x0
x − x0
x + x0 2sin
= lim cos lim 2
x → x0 2 x → x0 x − x0
x − x0
x + x0 2sin
= lim cos lim 2
x → x0 2 x → x0 2 x − x0
2
x − x0
sin
x + x0 2
= lim cos lim
x → x0 2 x → x0 x − x0
2
 x +x 
=  cos 0 0  ×1
 2 
= cos x0
Thus, ∀x ∈ , ( sin x ) ' = cos x
85
π 
2. cos x sin  − x 
=
2 
/
 π 
( cos x ) sin  − x  
/
=
 2 
/
π  π 
=  − x  cos  − x 
2  2 
π 
= − cos  − x 
2 
= − sin x
Thus, ∀x ∈ , ( cos x ) ' = − sin x
2 x cos( x 2 + 3) 2. 6 x cos ( x + 4 ) sin ( x + 4 )

2 2 2
1.
3. −6 x sin 3 x 2 4. −6 cos 2 2 x sin 2 x
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
sin x
1. tan x =
cos x
/
sin x 
( tan x )/ =  
 cos x 
( sin x ) / cos x − sin x ( cos x ) /
=
( cos x )
2
cos x cos x + sin x sin x

=
( cos x )
2
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x
1
=
cos 2 x
86
/ 1
( tan x ) =
cos 2 x
= sec 2 x
= 1 + tan 2 x
π 
2. cot x tan  − x 
=
2 
/
 π 
( )  
/
=cot x tan − x 
 2 
/
π 
 − x
2
=   / −1
 π  ( cot x ) =
cos 2  − x  sin 2 x
2 
= − csc 2 x
−1
= =− (1 + cot 2 x )
sin 2 x
1. tan x + x (1 + tan 2 x ) 2. 3 1 + tan 2 ( 3 x + 2 ) 
3. −2 x 1 + cot 2 ( x 2 − 5 )  4. −4sin x (1 + cot 4 x ) + cos x cot 4 x

2
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1
1. sec x =
cos x
1 
( sec x ) ' =  '
 cos x 
sin x
=
cos 2 x
1 sin x
=
cos x cos x
= sec x tan x
87
1
2. csc x =
sin x
1 
( csc x ) ' =  '
 sin x 
− cos x
=
sin 2 x
−1 cos x
=
sin x sin x
= − csc x cot x
1. 3sec ( 3 x + 2 ) tan ( 3 x + 2 ) 2. θ 2 csc 2θ ( 3 − 2θ cot 2θ )

3. 12sec 4 3 x tan 3 x
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. f ( x ) = sin −1 x for x ∈ [ −1,1] and x = sin y for
 π π
y ∈  − ,  where y = f ( x ) .
 2 2
1 1 1
( sin =
−1
x) ' =
( sin y ) '
=
cos y cos ( sin −1 x )
1
= x
since cos = 1 − sin 2 x
1 − sin ( sin −1 x )
2
1
=
1 − x2
2. f ( x ) = cos −1 x for x ∈ [ −1,1] and x = cos y for y ∈ [ 0, π ]

where y = f ( x )
88
1 1 −1
( cos=
x) '
−1
=
( cos y ) '
=
− sin y sin ( cos −1 x )
−1
= x
since sin = 1 − cos 2 x
1 − cos 2 ( cos −1 x )
−1
=
1 − x2
1 −2 x
1. 2.
x x −12
1 − x4
−1 1
3. 4.
2x − x 2 2x 1− 2x
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
π π
1. f ( x ) = tan −1 x for x ∈  and x = tan y for y ∈  − , 
 2 2
where y = f ( x ) .
1 1 1 1
( tan
= x) ' =
−1
( tan y ) '
= =
1 + tan y 1 + tan 2 ( tan −1 x ) 1 + x 2
2
2. f ( x ) = cot −1 x for x ∈  and x = cot y for y ∈ ]0, π [

where y = f ( x )
1 −1 −1 −1
( cot=x) ' =
−1
( cot y ) '
= =
1 + cot y 1 + cot ( cot x ) 1 + x 2
2 2 −1
1. 1 2. 1 1 3. −1
+
2 x (1 + x )
2
x x −12 x +1 2x x −1
89
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. f ( x ) = sec −1 x for x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 and x = sec y for
π
y ∈ [ 0, π ] , y ≠ where y = f ( x )
2
1 1 1
( sec
= x) ' =
−1
( sec y ) '
=
sec y tan y x x 2 − 1
2. f ( x ) = csc −1 x for x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 and x = csc y for
 π π
y ∈  − ,  , y ≠ 0 where y = f ( x )
 2 2
1 −1 −1
(csc
= −1
x ' =) =
( csc y ) ' csc y cot y x x 2 − 1
1. 1
2. 1 1
−
( 2 x + 1) x2 + x x x2 −1 x x2 −1
1 −2 x
3. 4.
x 25 x 2 − 1 (x 2
+ 1) x 4 + 2 x 2
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. −2sin 2x 2. −4 cos 2x 3. 8sin 2x
4. 16 cos 2x 5. −32sin 2x
90

1. a) −13sin 2 x sin 3 x + 12 cos 2 x cos 3 x
3x + 1
b) − c) 2 cos 2x
4 x (1 + x 2 ) x
2
d)
cos 4 x
(1 + 2sin 2 x )
−8 x
2. a) b) −62 cos 2 x cos 3 x + 63sin 2 x sin 3 x
(1 + x ) 2 3
2sin x
c) ( −64 cos 6
x + 16 cos 4 x + 484 cos 2 x + 23)
( 4 cos x − 1)
2 4
16 tan x
d) ( 5 tan 6
x + 19 tan 4 x + 19 tan 2 x + 5 )
( tan x − 1)
2 4
 nπ   nπ  n  nπ 
3. a) sin  x +  + cos  x +  b) 2 cos  2 x + 
 2   2   2 
5.4. Applications
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
discuss on harmonic motion and how differentiation of
trigonometry functions is used to find velocity, acceleration
and jerk of an object if the function representing its position
is known.
If we have the function representing the position, say S ( t ) ,
then
ds
ᇢᇢ The velocity of the object is v =
dt
91
d 2s
ᇢᇢ The acceleration of the object is a =
dt 2
d 3s
ᇢᇢ The jerk of the object is j =
dt 3
1. a) 3m b) −9π m s c) −27π m s 2
 π 3 2
d)  3π t +  e) Hz f)
 3 2 3
2. a) amplitude xm is 4 m
frequency f is 0.5 Hz
period T is 2
angular frequency ω is π
dx  π
b) velocity is −4π sin  π t + 
=
dt  4
2
acceleration d 2x =  π
−4π 2 cos  π t + 
dt  4
c) displacement at t = 1 is −2 2π m
velocity at t = 1 is−2π 2 m
s
acceleration at t = 1 is−2π 2
2 m
s2
d) the maximum speed 4π m s

maximum acceleration 4π m s 2
2
92

1. a) 2π b) π c) 2π
d) not periodic (aperiodic)
e) π f) not period (aperiodic)
2. a) neither even nor odd b) even c) odd
d) odd
3
3. a) 2 b) c) 1 d) 2
2
2 1 −11
e) 7 f) g) h)
3 16 9
15 1
i) j) k) 1 l) cos a
7 2
m) − sin a n) 0 o) 4 p) 0
1 3 1
q) 2 r) s) t)
2 4 2
π2 2
u) v) 0 w)
2 32
4. a) 3sec x tan x + 10 csc 2 x b) −12 x −5 − 2 x tan x − x 2 sec2 x
3cos t − 2
c) 5cos 2 x − 4 csc x cot x d)
( 3 − 2 cos t )
2
e) −48 x sin ( 6 x + 5 )
2
f) 72 x3 sin 2 ( 2 x 4 + 1) cos ( 2 x 4 + 1)
2sin 4 x − 4 ( 2 x + 3) cos 4 x
( ) (1 + sin 2 x )
2 3
g) 4 x − cos x h)
sin 2 4 x
−2 x 2 −1
i) j)
1 − x2 1 − x2
−2 x2 −1
k) l)
x x2 − 4 x x2 −1
m) sin −1 x
93
5. The amount of money in the bank account will

be increasing during the following intervals:
2.1588 < t < 5.3004 , 8.4420 < t < 10
6. − 2m / sec, 2m / sec, 2m / sec 2 , 2m / sec 2
7. 0cm / sec, − 5 3cm / sec, − 5 2cm / sec
8. 4m / sec, − 4m / sec, − 4m / sec
9. It multiplies the velocity, acceleration, and jerk by 2,
4, and 8, respectively
π π π 3π
10. a) b) − c) − d)
3 4 3 4
6
e) f) 1 g) 1 h) 1
7
94
Unit 6 Vector Space of Real
Numbers
Aim
Apply vectors of  3 to solve problems related to angles using

the scalar product in  3 and use the vector product to solve
also problems in  3 .
Objectives
ᇢᇢ define and apply different operations on vectors.
ᇢᇢ show that a vector is a sub-vector space.
ᇢᇢ define linear combination of vectors.
ᇢᇢ find the norm of a vector.
ᇢᇢ calculate the scalar product of two vectors.
ᇢᇢ calculate the angle between two vectors.
ᇢᇢ apply and transfer the skills of vectors to other area of
knowledge.
Materials
Contents
6.1. Vector space  3

This section looks at the operations on vectors in space, sub-
vector spaces and linear combination of vectors
The set of vectors of space with origin 0 is denoted by E0 and

E0
= {
0a : a ∈ E . }
95
6.2. Operations on vectors
Sum of two vectors

Two non-parallel (or opposite) vectors of the same origin (means
that their tails are together) determine one and only one plane
in space.
The addition of vectors of E0 is the application defined by

E0 × E0 → E0
 
c is then the diagonal of the parallelogram built from a and
   
b . Thus, a + b = c
   
=If a (= a1 , a2 , a3 ) , b ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) , a + b = ( a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 )
A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of
objects called vectors, which may be added together and
multiplied (“scaled”) by numbers, called scalars in this context.
Scalars are often taken to be real numbers, but there are also
vector spaces with scalar multiplication by rational numbers, or
generally any field.
If ( , F , + ) is a subspace of ( , E , + ) , then
ᇢᇢ F⊂E
ᇢᇢ 0 − vector ∈ F
   
ᇢᇢ u , v ∈ F , α , β ∈ ; α u + β v ∈ F
96
Matrices and Determinant of Order 3
Sum of two sub-vector spaces

If F and G are two sub-vector spaces of E then the sum of
F and G is also a sub-vector space of E. It is denoted as
F + G = { x + y, x ∈ F , y ∈ G}
Theorems
ᇢᇢ W1 and W2 are subspaces of V, then W1 ∪ W2 is a subspace
⇔ W1 ⊆ W2 or W2 ⊆ W1 .
ᇢᇢ W1 and W2 are subspace of V, then W1 + W2 is the smallest
subspace that contains both W1 and W2.
Property
If ( , F , + ) and ( , G, + ) are two sub-vector spaces of ( , E , + )
we have, dim ( F += G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) − dim ( F ∩ G ) .
Remark
If dim ( F ∩ G ) =
0 , then dim ( F +=G ) dim ( F ) + dim ( G ) . In
this case, F and G are said to be complementary and the sum
F + G is said to be a direct sum; and it is denoted by F ⊕ G .
Otherwise, F and G are said to be supplementary.
6.3. Linear combination

ᇢᇢ The  u is called a linear combination of the vectors
 vector
u1 , u2 , u3 provided
 that there
 exists scalars c1 , c2 , c3 such
that u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3
  
ᇢᇢ { }
Let S = u1 , u2 , u3 be a set of vectors in  the vector
 
 space V.
The set of all linear combinations of u1 , u2 , u3 is called   the

(
span of the set S, denoted by span ( S ) or span u1 , u2 , u3 .
  
)
ᇢᇢ { }
The set of vectors S = u1 , u2 , u3 of a vector space
V is said to be linearly independent provided that the
  
equation c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 = 0 has only the trivial solution
c=
1 c=
2 c=
3 0.
ᇢᇢ A set of vectors is called linearly dependent if it is
not linearly independent. Or if c1u1 + c2u2 + c3u3 =
0 for
c1 , c2 , c3 ≠ 0 .
97
Theorem 1
  
The three vectors u1 , u2 , u3 in  3 are linearly independent if
  
and only if the 3 × 3 matrix = A u1 u2 u3  with the vectors
as columns has non zero determinant otherwise they are
linearly dependent.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to perform operations on vectors in
2-dimension. In three dimensions, there is a third component,
z
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens, instruments of geometry
98
Answers
B − A =( −2,1, 0 )
1. ( −3, −3,3) 2. ( −1, 0,8)

3. ( −14, −17, −11) 4. (17, 21, 23)
Materials
Answers
1. x=0
 
2. + β v α ( 0, a,3a ) + β ( 0, b,3b )
α u=
=( 0, α a + β b,3α a + 3β b )
( 0, α a + β b,3 (α a + β b ) )
=
= ( 0, c,3c ) ∈V , for α a + =
βb c
 
Thus, α u + β v ∈ V
99
1. F ∈ 3
If we take= x 0,= y 0 , we see that ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∈ F
 
Consider k = ( a, b= , 0 ) , t ( c, d , 0 ) ∈ F , α , β ∈ 
 
α k= + β t α ( a, b, 0 ) + β ( c, d , 0 )
= (α a, α b, 0 ) + ( β c, β d , 0 )
= (α a + α c, β b + β d , 0 )
F is a subspace of  3
2. G ∈ 3
If we take= x 0,= y 0 , we see that ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∈ G
 
Consider k = ( a, b=, 0 ) , t ( c, d , 0 ) ∈ G , α , β ∈ 
 
α= k + β t α ( 2a, 2b, 0 ) + β ( 2c, 2d , 0 )
= ( 2α a, 2α b, 0 ) + ( 2β c, 2β d , 0 )
= ( 2 (α a + α c ) , 2 ( β b + β d ) , 0 )
G is a subspace of  3
3. H ∈ 3
If we take= x 0,= y 0 , we see that ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∈ H
 
Consider k = ( a, 0,= b ) , t ( c, 0, d ) ∈ H , α , β ∈ 
 
α k= + β t α ( a, 0, b ) + β ( c, 0, d )
= (α a, 0, α b ) + ( β c, 0, β d )
= (α a + α c, 0, β b + β d )
H is a subspace of  3
4. K ∈ 3
z 0 , we see that ( 0, 0, 0 ) ∉ K
x 0,=
I f we take=
Therefore, K is not a subspace of  3
100
Materials
Answers
=a 3,=b 2

   
1. v=−6e1 + 3e2 + 2e3
  
2. Set ( a, b, c ) = α u + β v + γ w
α = a
   
 β = b − 2a . Thus, u , v and w generate 
3
γ =c − 2b + a

  
3. { }
a) u , v, w is not a basis of  3 b) k = −8
Materials
Answers
 13
a = 8

 9
b =
 4
 11
c = − 8


 
1. u  = ( 3, −2, −5 ) , v  = ( 3, −5,3)
 V  V
2. a) ( 2, −5, 7 ) b) ( c, b − c, a − b )
3. ( 3, −1, 2 )
    
4. Suppose v = re1 + se2 + te3 ; then v  = ( r , s, t )
e
101
  
From the values of e1 , e2 and e3 , we have

v= r ( a1 f1 + a2 f 2 + a3 f3 ) + s ( b1 f1 + b2 f 2 + b3 f3 ) + t ( c1 f1 + c2 f 2 + c3 f3 )

v = ( ra1 f1 + sb1 f1 + tc1 f1 ) + ( ra2 f 2 + sb2 f 2 + tc2 f 2 ) + ( ra3 f3 + sb3 f3 + tc3 f3 )

v f1 ( ra1 + sb1 + tc1 ) + f 2 ( ra2 + sb2 + tc2 ) + f3 ( ra3 + sb3 + tc3 )
=
Hence,

v  = ( ra1 + sb1 + tc1 , ra2 + sb2 + tc2 , ra3 + sb3 + tc3 )
 f
On the other hand
 a1 a2 a3 

v  A = ( r , s, t )  b1 b2 b3 
 e  
c c c 
 1 2 3
= ( ra1 + sb1 + tc1 , ra2 + sb2 + tc2 , ra3 + sb3 + tc3 )


= v  as required
f
6.4. Euclidian vector space  3

This section talks about:
Scalar product of two vectors
The scalar product of two vectors of space is the application
E0 × E0 →  .

Algebraically, the scalar product of vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and
  
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) of space is defined by u ⋅ v= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 .
Magnitude of a vector
 
The magnitude of the vector u denoted by u is defined as
its length.
 
If u = ( a, b, c ) then u = a + b + c .
2 2 2
102
Distance between two points

The distance between two points A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B ( b1 , b2 , b3 )
denoted, d ( A, B ) is

d ( A, B ) = AB = ( b1 − a1 ) + ( b2 − a2 ) + ( b3 − a3 )
2 2 2
The angle between two vectors

 
Angle between two vectors u and v is such that
 
  u ⋅v
( )
cos u , v =  
u ⋅v
Vector product of two vectors and the mixed product of

three vectors.
The vector product (or cross product or Gibbs vector product) of
 
u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) is denoted and defined by
  
i j k
  a2 a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 
u × v a1 a2=
= a3 i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Or
  a a3 a a3 a1 a2 
u×v  2
= ,− 1 , 
 b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 
The mixed product (also called the scalar triple product or

box product or compound product) of three vectors is a scalar
which numerically equals the vector product multiplied by a
vector as the dot product.
103
The vector product of any two vectors is perpendicular to each

of these vectors.

Then the mixed product of the vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,
 
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) is denoted and defined by
   b b b b b b
(
u⋅ = )
v × w a1 2 3 − a2 1 3 + a3 1 2 .
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find scalar product of two vectors,
magnitude of a vector, angle between two vectors. In three
dimensions, there is a third component, z
class.
Materials
Answers
a) 0 b) -3
104

a) 15 b) 18 c) -4 d) 3
Materials
Answers
a) 29 b) 6
a) 461 unit of length b) 3 3 unit of length

c) 22 unit of length d) 201 unit of length
Materials
Answers
   
1. u ⋅ v = 18 2. u v = 18
   
−1  u ⋅ v 
3. cos =  2 kπ , k ∈ 
 u v 
 

1. a) 77.990 b) 85.960 c) 79.260 d) 54.740
2 3 4
a) cos α
2. = = , cos β = , cos γ
29 29 29
4 −1 4
b) cos α
= = , cos β = , cos γ
17 17 3 17
1 −2 −14
c) cos α
= = , cos β = , cos γ
201 201 201
d)=cos α 1,=cos β 0,= cos γ 0
105
Materials
Answers
1. Let ( a, b, c ) be that vector. Using dot product properties
( a, b, c ) ⋅ ( 2, −1,3) = 0 2a − b + 3c =0
 ⇔
( a, b, c ) ⋅ (1, 2, −1) =
0 a + 2b − c =0
2a − b + 3c =0
⇔
−2a − 4b + 2c =0
− 5b + 5c = 0 ⇒ c = b
2a − c + 3c =0
⇔ 2 a + 2c = 0⇒a =−c
Then a =
− c, b =
c

Take c = 1 , we have w = ( −1,1,1)
 −1 3  2 3  2 −1   
2. i −j +k =−5i + 5 j + 5k
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
3. Vector obtained in b is a multiple of vector obtained in
a. Or we can say that the two vectors are parallel.
1. (1, −2,5) 2. ( −2,10, −12 ) 3. ( 3,3, −3)

4. ( −66,18,83) 5. (8, −18, −14 )
Materials
106
Answers
 b2 b3 b b b b 
1.  , − 1 3 , 1 2  or
 c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2 
( b2c3 − c2b3 , −b1c3 + c1b3 , b1c2 − c1b2 )
 b2 b3 b b b b 
2.  a1 , −a2 1 3 , a3 1 2  or
 c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2 
( a1b2c3 − a1c2b3 , −a2b1c3 + a2c1b3 , a3b1c2 − a3c1b2 )

1) -4 2) 42 3) 24 4) 320 5) 40
6.5. Applications
Area of a parallelogram
 
Area of a parallelogram with vectors u and v as two adjacent
 
sides is S= u × v
Area of a triangle
 
Thus, the area of triangle with vectors u and v as two sides
1  
S
is = u×v
2
107
Volume of a parallelepiped
  
The volume of a parallelepiped which has vectors u , v and w
 
as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its base, is
given by
  
(
V = u ⋅ v× w )
 
Remember that if u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and
a1 a2 a3
   
(
w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) , then u ⋅ v × w =)
b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
If the parallelepiped is defined by four points A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,
B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) , C ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) and D ( d1 , d 2 , d3 ) , its volume is
  
(
V = AD ⋅ AB × AC )
108
Volume of a triangular prism

The parallelepiped can be split into 2 triangular prism of equal
volume. Since the volume of a parallelepiped is the magnitude
of the mixed product, then the volume of a triangular prism is
1
equal to 2 of the magnitude of the mixed product.
a1 a2 a3
1
V = b1 b2 b3
2
c1 c2 c3
Volume of a tetrahedron
The parallelepiped can be split into 6 tetrahedra of equal
volume.
Since the volume of a parallelepiped is the magnitude of the
1
mixed product, then the volume of a tetrahedron is equal to 6
of the magnitude of the mixed product.
a1 a2 a3
1
V = b1 b2 b3
6
c1 c2 c3
Remark
A tetrahedron is also called triangular pyramid.
109
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find scalar product, vector product,
mixed product and magnitude of a vector.
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
If a constant force F acting on a particle displaces it from A
to B, then,
work done
= ( component of F ) ⋅ Displacement
= ( F cos θ ) ⋅ AB
 
= F ⋅ AB
110

141
1) 16 2) 55 3)
2
4) 20 5) 32 6) 40
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers

Since the base and the height of this parallelogram are u
  
and v sin θ respectively, the area is S = u v sin θ . But
     
u v sin θ= u × v . Then area is S= u × v .

Thus, the magnitude of the vector product of two vectors u
 
and v represents the area of a parallelogram with vectors u

and v as two adjacent sides.
1. a) 220 2 sq. units b) 445 sq. units
2. 3 2 sq. units 3. 563 sq. units 4. 6 5 sq. units

2
6
5. 29 sq. units 6. sq. units
2
111
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
The base of this parallelepiped is defined by the
 
vectors v and w . Then, the area of the base is
   
S = v × w = v w sin α . The height of this parallelepiped is

a .

Since the vector a is not known we can find the height in

 a  
terms of u . We see that cos θ =  ⇔ a = u cos θ .
u
 
The angle θ is the angle between the vector and vector
a u

but it is also the angle between the vector u and the vector
 
given by the vector product v × w since this cross product is
 
perpendicular to both v and w .
Now, the volume of the parallelepiped is product of the area
of the base and the height.
Then,
     
V = v w sin α u cos θ ⇔V = v w u sin α cos θ
  
⇔V = (
u v w sin α cos θ ) 
⇔ V= u
 
v × w cos θ
  
(
⇔ V = u ⋅ v× w ) 
Thus, the volume of a parallelepiped which has vectors u ,
   
v and w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define
its base, is given by
  
(
V = u ⋅ v× w )
112
3 35
1. a) cubic units b) cubic units
2 2
10
2. a) 2 cubic units b) cubic units
3
3. 20 cubic units
1
4. 7 cubic units
3

     
1. ( a + b ) + c= AC + CD= AD
     
a + (b + c ) = AB + BD = AD
   
a+b =b+a
    
AC = AB + BC = AD + DC
         
2. ( )
b − a, b − 2a, 2 b − a , 2b − 3a, b − 2a
3. a) Linearly independent. b) Linearly dependent.
c) Linearly independent.
4. Linearly independent
5. There are 2n elements.

6.  v  = ( c, b − c, a − b )
 S
113
   
u − v = u + −v ( ) k u − v = k u + −v = ku + k −v = ku − kv
7.    ( ) ( ( )) ( )
( )
k −v = −kv

8. s=
−3 p + 2q + 4r
9. Set
t 3 x (1 − t ) + y (1 − t ) + z (1 − t ) + w.1, a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ IR
3 2
a0 + a1t + a2t 2 + a3=
 x = −a3

= y a2 + 3a3

z = −a1 − 2a2 − 3a3
 w = a0 + a1 + a2 + a3
Hence the four polynomials generate the space of

polynomials of degree ≤ 3.
10. The condition is 2a − 4b − 3c =
0 . Note, in particular,
that u, v and w do not generate the whole space  3 .
x = a
11. Set ( a, b, 0=
) xu + yv  . Hence u and v
 y= b − 2a
generate W.
12. a) Set ( 0, b, c ) = x ( 0,1,1) + y ( 0, 2, −1)
 b + 2c
 x = 3
 . Hence ( 0,1,1) and ( 0, 2, −1) generate W.
y = b −c
 3
b) ( 0, b, c ) = x ( 0,1, 2 ) + y ( 0, 2,3) + z ( 0,3,1)
x = −3b + 2c + 7 z
 . Hence the three vectors generate W.
 y = 2b − c − 5 z
13. Any finite set S of polynomials contains one of
maximum degree, say n. Then span of S cannot contain
polynomials of degree greater than n. Accordingly,
V ≠ Span ( S ) , for any finite set S.
14. a) dimension is 1 b) dimension is 2
c) dimension is 2 d) dimension is 1
114
15. a) 213 unit of length b) 130 unit of length

c) 26 unit of length
 1 2 2
16. e =  , , 
3 3 3
17. k = 7
  
18. a) 0 b) k c) − j d) i e) 0 f) 0
19. a) 7 b) 30 c) 15 d) 7 3
20. a) ( −20, −67, −9 ) b) ( −78,52, −26 )
c) ( 24, 0, −16 ) d) ( −12, −22, −8)
e) ( 0, −56, −392 ) d) ( 0,56,392 )
21. a) 374 sq. unit b) 9 13 sq. unit
2
22. ambiguous, needs parentheses
23. a) 16 cubic unit b) 45 cubic unit
24. a) 9 cubic unit b) 122 sq. unit
1 2 2
25. a) 9 2 sq. unit b) b c + c 2 a 2 + a 2b 2 sq. unit
2 2
1
( y1 z2 − y2 z1 ) + ( z1 x2 − z2 x1 ) + ( x1 y2 − x2 y1 )
2 2 2
26.
2
27. 6 cubic unit
0
28. 77.88
29. 92
30. 41
7
115
Unit 7 Matrices and
Determinant of Order 3
Aim
Apply matrix and determinant of order 3 to solve related
problems.
Objectives
ᇢᇢ Define and give example of matrix of order three.
ᇢᇢ Perform different operations on matrices of order three.
ᇢᇢ Find the determinant of order three.
ᇢᇢ Find the inverse of matrix of order three.
ᇢᇢ Solve system of three linear equations by matrix inverse
method.
Materials
Exercise books, pens, calculator
Contents
7.1. Square matrices of order 3

This section looks at the definition of square matrices of order
three and their operations:
ᇢᇢ Addition and subtraction (only matrices of the same type
can be subtracted)
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
If A =  a21 a22 a23  and B =  b21 b22 b23  , then
a a33  b b b33 
 31 a32  31 32
117
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13 
     
A + B=  a21 a22 a23  +  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23 
a a33   b31 b32 b33  a +b a33 + b33 
 31 a32  31 31 a32 + b32
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13 
     
A − B=  a21 a22 a23  −  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23 
a a33   b31 b32 b33  a −b a33 − b33 
 31 a32  31 31 a32 − b32
ᇢᇢ Transpose
 a11 a12 a13   a11 a21 a31 
  t  
If A =  a21 a22 a23  , then A =  a12 a22 a32 
a a33  a a23 a33 
 31 a32  13
Properties of transpose of matrices
Let A, B be matrices of order three
1. (A )
t t
= A
( A + B ) = At +
t
2. Bt
(α × A) =α × At
t
3.
ᇢᇢ Multiplication
Two matrices A and B can be multiplied together if and
only if the number of columns of A is equal to the number
of rows of B.
Mm × n × Mn × p =
Mm × p
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
=A × B  a21 a22 a23  ×  b21 b22 b23 
a   b32 b33 
 31 a32 a33   b31
 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 
 
=  a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
a b +a b +a b a31b12 + a32b22 + a33b32 a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 
 31 11 32 21 33 31
Properties of multiplication of matrices
Let A, B, C be matrices of order three
1. Associative
A× ( B × C ) = ( A× B)× C
118
Vector Space of Real Numbers
2. Multiplicative Identity
A× I =A , where I is the identity matrix with the same
order as matrix A.
3. Not Commutative
A× B = B × A
4. Distributive
A× ( B × C ) = A× B + A× C
( A× B)
t
5. =B t × At
Notice
ᇢᇢ If AB = 0 , it does not necessarily follow that A = 0 or
B=0.
ᇢᇢ Commuting matrices in multiplication
In general, the multiplication of matrices is not
commutative, i.e, AB ≠ BA , but we can have the case
where two matrices A and B satisfy AB = BA . In this
case, A and B are said to be commuting.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know what square matrix of order two is. Square
matrix of order three will have three rows and three columns.
class.
119

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
 2 3 0  x 
  
 1 −1 2   y 
 4 1 −1  z 
  
2 −3 11 1 23 24   0 1 12   −4 2 1 
       
2 13 1  , 1 43 44  ,  1 −20 4  ,  −9 1 0  ,
 
0
 11 1  1 1 2   0 18 6   7 0 1 
3 9 2
 
5 6 4
7 3 −8 

There are many possible answers
Materials
120
Answers
5 14 24   3 −14 20 
   
1. 4 21 20  2.  1 −7 −16 
14 65 12   7 −17 3 
  
0 0 0
 
3. 0 0 0  Comment: − A is additive inverse of A
0 0 0 

3 2 16   3 2 16 
   
4. 2 7 4  and  2 7 4 
8 23 6   8 23 6 
  
The two results are equal. This implies that the addition
of matrices is commutative
 2 −4 12   2 9 3   4 5 15 
     
5.  1 0 −4  +  1 9 12  =
 2 9 8  and
 5 2 3   6 19 3  11 21 6 
     
 3 2 16   1 3 −1  4 5 15 
     
2 7 4  +0 2 4  = 2 9 8
 8 23 6   3 −2 0  11 21 6 
     
The two results are equal. This implies that the addition
of matrices is associative
 2 1 5 1 1 3  1 0 3
6.      
 −4 0 2  ,  6 7 21 ,  3 2 −2 
 12 −4 3   4 8 3   −1 4 0 
     
 1 −10 −3   −25 10 15  15 −14 3 

     
1.  −12 −2 −11 2.  −4 6 −5  3.  0 0 −13 
 0  −18 8 25  9 4 
 −2 1     3
121
Materials
Answers
1 1 3   12 3 −4 
   
1. 3 −2 −2 and  3 −2 −1 
 
1 2 0   −1 0 0 
   
13 4 −1   13 6 0 
 
2.  6 −4 −3  3.  4 −4 2 
 
0 2 0   −1 −3 0 
  
13 4 −1 
 
4.  6 −4 −3 
0 2 0 

5. Matrix obtained in 2 is equal to the matrix obtained in
4
1 3 1
 
A  1 −2 2 
6. =
 3 −2 0 
 
Interchanging the rows and columns of matrix A once
1 1 3 
 
we get the new matrix  3 −2 −2 
1 2 0 
 
Interchanging the rows and columns of matrix A twice
1 3 1
 
we get the new matrix  1 −2 2 
3 −2 0 

The last matrix is equal to matrix A
122
 1 −3 9 
 
( A + B) =
t
1. 6 3 0 
 3 9 13 
 
1 5 10 
2. t  
3=A +B  8 9 −3 
12 20 29 

 4 −19 15 
( −3B + 4 A) = −4 
t
3. −9 14 
 −2 −6 −4 

1 2 4 1 x  2
2 1 2 4
t      
=4. M = 4 1 0,  4 1 0 4 1 0
1 1 8 1 x + 3 8  1 1 8
     
 x2 = 4
 ⇒x=−2
x + 3 = 1
Materials
Answers
 −2 + 3 − 1 −1 + 2 + 6 1 + 3 + 4  0 7 8 
   
A × B =  4 + 6 − 5 2 + 4 + 30 −2 + 6 + 20  =  5 36 24 
 0 + 9 − 4 0 + 6 + 24 0 + 9 + 15   5 30 25 
   
 −28 36 39   47 4 −36 
   
1. A=
× B  28 −6 −5  2. A ×=
C  1 −9 31 
 56 64 80  112 8 −28 
   
 161 9 −21 
 
3. B ×=
C  276 −22 −18 
 123 7 −17 
 
123
Materials
Answers
 −1 3 −2   2 −4 −1 
   
1. A × B = −2 −1 3  , B × A = 7 −7 −2 
 1 1 −2   −5 3 1 
   
A × B ≠ B × A . Multiplication of matrices is not
commutative
 −1 −2 1   −1 −2 1 
( A × B )=  3 −1 1  , Bt × A=t  
t
2.  3 −1 1 
 −2 3 −2   −2 3 −2 
   
( A× B)
t
=B t × At
 3 0 1   2 −3 1   4 −9 4 
    
3. A × ( B × C )  0 −1 1   4 −3 0  = −6 3 1  ,
 −2 3 2   −2 0 1   4 −3 0 
    
 −1 3 −2  1 1 −1  4 −9 4 
( A × B ) × C = −2 −1 3   
 1 −2 1  = −6 3 1 

 1 1 −2  −1 1 0   4 −3 0 
    
A × ( B × C ) = ( A × B ) × C . Multiplication of matrices is
associative
3 0 1  1 2 −2   1 7 −5 
    
4. A × ( B + C ) = 0 −1 1  2 −1 −1  = −4 2 2
 −2 3 2    −5 3 
  −2 1 1   0
 −1 3 −2   2 4 −3   1 7 −5 
     
A × B + A × C =  −2 −1 3  +  −2 3 −1  =  −4 2 2
1 1 −2   −1 −6 5   0 −5 3 

A × ( B + C ) = A × B + A × C . Multiplication of matrices
is distributive over addition
124
 −3 0 2   −2 0 −2 
   
1. a) A × B = −4 0 0  , B × A = 1 0 1 
 0 0 0  −1 0 −1 
   
 −3 0 2   1 0 −1  −5 2 3 
b) ( A × B ) × C = −4 0 0   −2 2 0  = −4 0 4 
 0 0 0   −1 1 0   0 0 0 
    
 1 0 1   −3 1 2   −5 2 3 
    
A × ( B × C ) = 1 −1 1   −1 2 −1 = −4 0 4 
 0 0 0   −2 1 1   0 0 0 
    
 1 0 1  −1 0 0   −3 1 1 
    
c) A × ( B + C ) = 1 −1 1  −1 2 2  =−
 2 −1 −1 ,
 0 0 0  −2 1 1   0 0 0 
    
 −3 0 2   0 1 −1  −3 1 1 
     
A × B + A × C =−
 4 0 0  +  2 −1 −1 =−
 2 −1 −1
 0 0 0 0 0 0   0 0 0 
     
 −3 0 2 
 
d) tr ( A × B ) =
tr  −4 0 0  =
−3
 0 0 0
 
1 0 0
2.  
0 1 0
0 0 1
 
Materials
Answers
1. (1, 0, 2 ) 2. ( 0,1, 0 )
1 0 1 
3. (1, −1, 0 ) 4.  0 1 −1
2 0 0 
 
125
 3 2 0  4 −3 2 
   
1. a)  0 −1 2  b)  −1 0 0 
 −1 0 1   −3 5 −1
   
2 1 −6   3 9 20 
   
2. a)  1 8 −15  b)  −4 −3 4 
11 −20 −22   10 12 −13 
   
11 4 −4 
 
c)  9 −19 −10 
11 −6 −5 
 
7.2. Determinant of order three

This section looks at the method used to find the determinant
of order three: Rule of SARRUS. It looks at the general method
used to find determinant of order n ≥ 2 (cofactor method). It
also looks at how to find the inverse of a square matrix of order
three .
Every linear transformation f :  3 →  3 can be identified with

a matrix of order three, [ f ]e j = ( aij ) , whose jth column is f e j

( )
{ }
where e j , j = 1, 2,3 is the standard basis of  3 . The matrix
[ f ]e
is called matrix representation of f relative to the standard

j
basis e j . { }
To calculate the 3x3 determinant, we rewrite the first two rows
below the determinant (or first two columns to the right of the
determinant).
det = a11a22 a33 + a21a32 a13 + a31a12 a23 − a31a22 a13 − a11a32 a23 − a21a12 a33
126
Or
det = a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 − a31a22 a13 − a32 a23 a11 − a33 a21a12
General rule for n × n matrices (minor and cofactor)

General method of finding the determinant of matrix with n × n
dimension ( 2 × 2, 3 × 3, 4 × 4, 5 × 5, …) is the use of cofactors.
Minor
An element, aij , to the value of the determinant of order n − 1 ,

obtained by deleting the row i and the column j in the matrix
is called a minor.
Cofactor
The cofactor of the element aij is its minor prefixing:

The + sign if i+j is even.
The − sign if i+j is odd.
The value of a determinant is equal to the sum of the products

of the elements of a line (row or column) by its corresponding
cofactors:
a11 a12 a13
a a23 a a a a
A = a21 a22 a23 = a11 22 − a12 21 23 + a13 21 22
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
127
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find determinant of order two. For
determinant of order three, we have three rows and three
columns.
class.
Materials
Answers
1. (1× 6 ×1) + ( 3 × 0 × 2 ) + ( 5 ×1× ( −4 ) ) − ( 2 × 6 × 5) − (1× 0 ×1) − (1× 3 × ( −4 ) ) =−62
2. (10 × 2 × 4 ) + ( ( −6 ) × 5 × 2 ) + ( 0 × 3 ×1) − ( 4 × 5 × 0 ) − ( 2 × 3 ×10 ) − (1× ( −6 ) × 2 ) =−70
1) 82 2) 10 3) -19
128
Materials
Answers
A 0,=
1. = B 0
2. C ⋅ D =−36, C ⋅ D =6 × ( −6 ) =−36
C⋅D = C ⋅ D
Determinant of product is equal to the product of
determinants.
3. Product of leading diagonal elements 1× 2 × 3 =6,
C =6
Determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to the
product of leading diagonal elements
1. A = 0 , B = 0 , C = 14 , D = −5
2. BC = B × C = 0
3. CD =C×D =
−70
Materials
Answers
1. A = −1
2. Cofactor of each element:
cofactor (1) =
3, cofactor (1) =
−5, cofactor (1) =
1
cofactor ( 2 ) =1, cofactor (1) =−2, cofactor ( −1) =1
cofactor ( 3) =
−2, cofactor ( 2 ) =
3, cofactor (1) =
−1
129
Cofactor matrix
 3 −5 1 
 
 1 −2 1 
 −2 3 −1
   3 1 −2 
3. Transpose of cofactor matrix is  −5 −2 3 
 1 1 −1 
 
 3 1 −2   −3 −1 2 
4. 1    
 −5 −2 = 3   5 2 −3 
−1    
 1 1 −1   −1 −1 1 
 1 1 1   −3 −1 2   −3 + 5 − 1` −1 + 2 − 1 2 − 3 + 1 
     
5.  2 1 −1 ×  5 2 −3  =  −6 + 5 + 1 −2 + 2 − 1 4 − 3 − 1 
 3 2 1   −1 −1 1   −9 + 10 + 1 −3 + 4 − 1 6 − 6 + 1
     
1 0 0
 
= =0 1 0 I
0 0 1
 
The product of these two matrices is a unity (identity)
matrix I.
 23 29 5 
 268 −
268 268 
 
1. No inverse 2.  − 3 −
37 11 
 268 268 268 
 
 − 9 23 33 

 268 268 268 
 6 45 16   2 3 
− − 5 − 1
 7 14 7  5
   
− 5 24 18   1 4
−1
3. − 4.  
 7 7 7 5 5
   
 1 11 5   − 6 −
29
8 
− 
 7 14 7   5 5 
130
Materials
Answers
 0 1 −1  1 −1 0  1 0 −1  0 1 −1

  , B −1 A−1 = 1 −1 1  1 −1 0  = 0 1 0 
( AB )
−1
1. = 0 1 0      
 1 −3 1   −2 3 −1 0 0 1   1 −3 1 
      
( AB )
−1
= B −1 A−1
 1 0 1
2. )  1 −1 1
(A =
−1 −1
(A )
−1 −1
=A
 0 0 1
 
1 0 −1  1 0 −1
1  1 −1 1  
3. ( 4=
A)
−1
1 −1 0  , = A 1 −1 0 
4  4 
4
0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 −1
( kA)
−1
= A , k ≠0
k
t
 1 1 0  1 0 −1  1 1 0 
  , −1 t 
4. ( A=)  0 −1 0  ( A ) =
t −1  
 1 −1 0  =

 0 −1 0 
 −1 0 1   0 0 1   −1 0 1 
     
(A ) = ( A−1 )
t −1 t
 5 1 13 
 − 12 4
−
12 
 2 5 −14   
1.=A
1
−1 
1 −3 4  , −1
B =  −3 1
−
3

11   4 4 4
 −1 3 7   
 1 0
2 

 3 7 2  3 3 
2. ( A ) =  1 0 2 
−1 −1
0 1 1
 
131
 2 5 −14 
1  
(10 A)
−1
3. =  1 −3 4 
110 
 −1 3 7 
 2 1 −1
1
( A ) 11  5 −3 3 
4. =
t −1
 −14 4 7 
 
7.3. Applications

This section looks at how to solve a system of three linear
equations by matrix inverse and by Cramer’s rule method.
Consider the following simultaneous linear equations:
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =
c1

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =c2
a x + a y + a z = c3
 31 32 33
One of the methods of solving this, is the use Cramer’s rule.

a11 a12 a13 c1 a12 a13
=∆ a21 a22 a23 ≠ 0 ∆ x =c2 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 c3 a32 a33
a11 c1 a13 a11 a12 c1

∆ y =a21 c2 a23 ∆ z =a21 a22 c2
a31 c3 a33 a31 a32 c3

∆x ∆y ∆
=x = , y and z = z
∆ ∆ ∆
Remember that if ∆ =0 , there is no solution or infinity number
of solution
132
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to rewrite a system of linear equation
in matrix form, how to find inverse of matrix and how to
multiply to matrices.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
 a11 a12 a13   x   c1 
    
1.  a21 a22 a23   y  =  c2 
a a32 a33   x   c3 
 31
−1 −1
 a11 a12 a13   a11 a12 a13  x   a11 a12 a13   c1 
        
2.  a21 a22 a23   a21 a22 a23  y  =  a21 a22 a23   c2 
a a        
 31 32 a33   a31 a32 a33  x   a31 a32 a33   c3 
−1
 x   a11 a12 a13   c1 
     
 y  =  a21 a22 a23   c2 
x a a32 a33  c 
   31  3
133
1. S = {( 0, 0, 0 )} 2. S ={ } 3. S = {(1, 2, 0 )}
 −7 −3 0   −9 −23 6 
1. a)  0  
b)  0 −4 −16 

 4 −12 
 0 −10 −2   −4 2 −8 
 
7 8 3   29 28 15 
   
c)  2 4 −10  d)  10 −34 −21 
2 −14 7   −4 28 −16 
  
 38 36 13  118 120 37 
   
e)  −1 12 −42  f)  19 12 10 
0 0 −18   14 0 76 
 
2 1 0
 
2. 0 1 −1
2 4 0 

 3 3 3
 
3. a) [ f ]e =−
 6 −6 −2 
 6 5 −1 
   c 
 
b)=Let v ( a, b, c ) ∈  3 v =  b − c 
 e  
a −b
 
 3 3 3  c   3a 
      
[ f ]e v  e =−
 6 −6 −2   b − c  =− 2a − 4b 
    
 6 5 −1   a − b   −a + 6b + c 

()
But, f v = f ( a, b, c ) = ( 2b + c, a − 4b,3a ) ,
 3a 

 ()
 f v  = −2a − 4b  , verified.

e  
 −a + 6b + c 
 
134
 44 8 1 
 207 − 207 69 
 1 0 0  
   1 19 11 
4. a)  −1 1 0  b) no inverse c) −
 0 −1 1   207 207 69 
   
 − 13 40
− 
5
 3 −2 −2   207 207 69 
 
5. X =  −5 5 2 
 5 −3 1 
 
6. a) S = {( 0, 0, 0 )} b) S = {(1,1,1)}
c) S = {( 3, 0,1)}
7. 0
 −29 17 14 
3 −11  
8. k ≠ − , A=  −9 5 6 
5 8 
 16 −8 −8 
5
1  
9. a) = A−1
7
( 4 I − A2 ) b)  −1
1
6 0 0  
3  
10. A =
= 0 6 0  6I
0 0 6
 
a) x =
−3, y =
5, z =
2 x 2,=
b) = y 1,=
z 0
11. −t 3 + t 2 + t − 1
n
b) x d) mx
2
12. a) x c) 2x
1
13. k =
4
14. a)=λ 5, µ ≠ 9 b) λ ≠ 5 λ 5,=
c)= µ 9
135
Unit 8 Points, Straight Lines,
Planes and Sphere
in 3D
Aim
Use algebraic representations of points, lines, spheres and
planes in 3D space and solve related problems
Objectives
ᇢᇢ plot points in three dimensions.
ᇢᇢ find equations of straight lines in three dimensions.
ᇢᇢ find equations of planes in three dimensions.
ᇢᇢ find equations of sphere in three dimensions.
Materials
Contents
8.1. Points in three dimensions

This section looks at the method used to locate a point in space.
It also looks at;
ᇢᇢ Midpoint of a segment,
Let the points ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) be the endpoints
of a line segment, then the midpoint of that segment is
given by the formula:
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2 
 , , 
 2 2 2 
137
ᇢᇢ Centroid of a geometric figure

The centroid of geometric figure (barycentre or geometric
centre) is the arithmetic mean (average) position of all
points in the shape. In physics, barycentre means the
physical centre of mass or the centre of gravity.
Let ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ,…., ( xn , yn , zn ) be n points of
space, their centroid is given by the formula:
 x1 + x2 + ... + xn y1 + y2 + ... + yn z1 + z2 + ... + zn 
 , , 
 n n n 
Ratio formula:
If P is a point on the line AB such that P divides AB
mB + nA
internally in the ratio m : n , then P = and
m+n
if P divides AB externally in the ratio m : n , then
mB − nA
P= .
m−n
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to plot points in 2-dimensions and
how to find a midpoint of two points in 2-dimension.
class.
138
Points, Straight lines, Planes and Sphere in 3D

Materials
Exercise book, pens, instruments of geometry
Answers
Suppose that we need to represent the point A ( 2,3,5 ) in
space
ᇢᇢ From x-coordinate 2, draw a line parallel to y-axis
See following figure.
139
ᇢᇢ From y-coordinate 3, draw another line parallel to x-axis

ᇢᇢ Now you have a point of intersection of two lines, let

call it P. From this point, draw another line parallel
to z-axis and another joining this point and origin of
coordinates which is line 0P
ᇢᇢ From z-coordinate, 5, draw another line parallel to the

line 0P
140
ᇢᇢ Draw another line parallel to z-axis and passing through

point P
ᇢᇢ Now, you have the intersection of the line from

z-coordinate and the line parallel to z-axis. this
intersection is the needed point A ( 2,3,5 )
141
ᇢᇢ Clean unwanted points and lines to remain with the

needed point.
Finally, we have
142
Materials
Answers
3 5   5 1
1.  , ,3  2.  −2, , 
2 2   3 3
 7 11   5 1
1. a)  0, ,  b)  6, , − 
 2 2  2 2
 7 11   9
c)  − , ,5  d) 1, 0, 
 2 2   4
8 7  1 
2. a)  , 2,  b)  2, − , 6 
3 3  3 
 1 15   1
c)  − , , 7  d)  3,1, 
 2 4   2
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1.
 m 
AP = PB
n
m m m
⇔ P−= A ( B − P) ⇔ P − A= B− P
n n n
m m
⇔ P+ P= B + A ⇔ nP + mP = mB + nA
n n
mB + nA
⇔ P ( n + m ) = mB + nA ⇒ P =
n+m
143
2.
 m 
PA = PB
n
m m m
⇔ A− P
= ( B − P) ⇔ A − P= B− P
n n n
m m
⇔ P − P= B − A ⇔ mP − nP = mB − nA
n n
mB − nA
⇔ P ( m − n ) = mB − nA ⇒ P =
m−n
Or
 m 
AP = BP
n
m m m
⇔ P−= A ( P − B) ⇔ P − A=
n
P− B
n
n
m m
⇔ P− P = A − B ⇔ nP − mP = nA − mB
n n
⇔ P ( n − m ) = nA − mB
nA − mB
P=
n−m
− ( mB − nA )
=
− (m − n)
mB − nA
=
m−n

2B + 3 A 1 1
1. Internally: P= = ( 2 B + 3 A )= (14,9, 29 )
5 5 5
2B − 3 A
Externally, P = =3 A − 2 B =( −2, −3,1)
−1
 13 8 14 
2.  , , 
5 5 5
144
3. i) 2:3 ii) -2:3 4. i) 2:3 ii) 2:3

1
5. :1 or 1:2 6. =x 9,=z 5
2
8.2. Straight lines in three dimensions

This section looks
a) Equations of line in space.

A line parallel to the vector v = ( a, b, c ) and passing

through the point P with position vector 0 P = ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
has:
Vector equation
  
= OP + rv or=
OQ ( x, y, z ) ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + r ( a, b, c )
        
( )
or xi + y j + zk = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k + r ai + b j + ck , r is a
parameter.
Parametric equations
=x x0 + ra

=y y0 + rb
=
 z z0 + rc
Cartesian equations (or symmetric equations)
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
Remember this:
 
If a given line is parallel to the vector r = ( a, b, c ) , r is
called its direction vector.
For the line passing through points P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and
Q ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , with V ( x, y, z ) any point on the line , has
145
Vector equation
 
PV = r PQ , where r is a parameter.
Parametric equations:
x = x0 + r ( x1 − x0 )

 y =y0 + r ( y1 − y0 )

z = z0 + r ( z1 − z0 )
Symmetric equations:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
x1 − x0 y1 − y0 z1 − z0

Here, the direction vector is PQ .
b) Condition of co-linearity of three points
The three points ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ; ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and ( c1 , c2 , c3 )
are collinear (means that they lie on the same line) if the
following conditions are satisfied
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2= a3 b3 c3= 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
c) Relation between two lines
Two lines which are not parallel and do not intersect, are
called skew lines.
Two lines are parallel when their direction vectors are
proportional.
d) Angle between two lines
The angle between two lines is equal to the angle between
their direction vectors.
 
Let u and v be direction vectors of two lines l1 and l2
respectively,
  
u ⋅ v 
θ angle between l1 and l2 , thus, θ = arccos   
 u ⋅ v 
 
146
e) Distance from a point to a line

The distance from point B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) to the line passing
through point A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) with direction vector
 
 AB × u
u = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) is  .
u
Distance between two skew lines
  
Consider two skew lines L1 : r= a + λ u and
  
L 2 : r= b + λ v .
The shortest distance between these lines is
     
ab ⋅ u × v  ab u v 
   
d=   or d =
u×v u×v
Teaching guidelines
class.
147
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
( x, y, z ) ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) + r ( a, b, c )
1. =
        
(
xi + y j + zk = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k + r ai + b j + ck )
Equate the respective components, there are three
equations
=x x0 + ra

=y y0 + rb
=
 z z0 + rc
2. Eliminating parameter r, we have

 x − x0
r = a

 y − y0 x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
r = Or = =
b a b c

 z − z0
r = c


        
1. (
x i + y j + z k =i + j + k + λ 2i + j + 3k )
 x = 1 + 2λ
 x −1 y −1 z −1
 y = 1+ λ = =
 z = 1 + 3λ 2 1 3

        
2. (
x i + y j + z k =−2i + 3 j + k + λ 2i + j + 3k )
148
 x =−2 + 2λ
 x + 2 y − 3 z −1
 y= 3 + λ = =
2 1 3
 z = 1 + 3λ

       
3. (
x i + y j + z k = 9i + 3 j + λ i + j + 6k )
 x= 9 + λ
 x −9 y −3 z
 y= 3 + λ = =
 z = 6λ 1 1 6

        
4.
(
x i + y j + z k = 4i + 5 j + 2k + λ −3i + 2 j + k )
 x= 4 − 3λ
 x −4 y −5 z −2
 y= 5 + 2λ = =
 z= 2 + λ −3 2 1

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. The direction vector is

PQ = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) − ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) =( x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 )
Now the vector equation is given by
    
PV = r PQ or OV = OP + r PQ ,
With V ( x, y, z ) , 0 ( 0, 0, 0 ) and r is a parameter.
2. Parametric equations:
x = x0 + r ( x1 − x0 )

 y =y0 + r ( y1 − y0 )

z = z0 + r ( z1 − z0 )
3. Eliminating the parameter, we have the symmetric
equations:
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
x1 − x0 y1 − y0 z1 − z0
149

       
1. x i + y j + z k = 2i + j + 4k + λ i − 3k( )
 x= 2 + λ

y =1
 z= 4 − 3λ

x − 2 y −1 z − 4 x−2 z−4
= = or= = , y 1
1 0 −3 1 −3
        
2. (
x i + y j + z k =i + j + 3 k + λ i + 4 j + k )
x= 1+ λ
 x −1 y −1 z − 3
 y = 1 + 4λ = =
 z= 3 + λ 1 4 1

        
3. (
x i + y j + z k = 2i + j + 4k + λ 4i + 2 j − 2k )
 x= 2 + 4λ
 x − 2 y −1 z − 4
 y = 1 + 2λ = =
 z= 4 − 2λ 4 2 −2

        
4. xi + y j + zk =i + j + k + λ ( 3i + 4 j + 5k )
 x = 1 + 3λ
 x −1 y −1 z −1
 y = 1 + 4λ = =
3 4 5
 z = 1 + 5λ

Materials
Answers
A) Equation of line passing through points (1, 2,3) and
(1, −4,3) is
x 1 1 x 1 1
y 2=
−4 z =
3 3 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
150
If point ( −1, 0,5 ) lies on this line, then

−1 1 1 −1 1 1
0 =2 −4 5= 3 3 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
−1 1 1
0 2 −4 =−2 + 0 − 4 − 2 − 4 − 0 =−12
1 1 1
−1 1 1
5 3 3 =−3 + 5 + 3 + 3 − 3 − 5 =0
1 1 1
−1 1 1
Since 0 2 −4 =−12 ≠ 0 , the given three points do
1 1 1
not lie on the same line.
B) Equation of line passing through points ( 3, 4, 7 ) and
( 5, −2,1) is
x 3 5 x 3 5
y 4=
−2 z =
7 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
If point ( 4,1, 4 ) lies on this line, then

4 3 5 4 3 5
1 4=
−2 4 =
7 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 3 5
1 4 −2 = 16 + 5 − 6 − 20 + 8 − 3 = 0
1 1 1
4 3 5
4 7 1 = 28 + 20 + 3 − 35 − 4 − 12 = 0
1 1 1
151
4 3 5 4 3 5
Since 1 4= −2 4 = 7 1 0 , the given three points
1 1 1 1 1 1
lie on the same line.
C) Equation of line passing through points (1,9,3) and
(1,8,5) is
x 1 1 x 1 1
y=9 8 z=3 5 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
If point (1,10,1) lies on this line, then
1 1 1 1 1 1
10=9 8 1=3 5 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 3 5 = 3 + 5 +1− 3 − 5 −1 = 0
1 1 1
−1 1 1
5 3 3 =−3 + 5 + 3 + 3 − 3 − 5 =0
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Since 10=9 8 1=3 5 0 , the given three points
1 1 1 1 1 1
lie on the same line.
The three points
( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ; ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) are lie on the
same line if the following conditions are satisfied
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2= a3 b3 c3= 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
152

1. Not collinear 2. x=
1 + 2t , y =
1 + t, z =
1 + 3t
3. a=7
Materials
Answers
1. 2 − λ, y =
L1 : x = 2 + 2λ , z =
1 + 3λ ,
1− µ, y =
L2 : x = 1 + 2µ , z =
1 + 3µ
L1 and L2 have the same direction vectors, thus L1

and L2 are parallel.
Let us check if they are coincident:
2 − λ =1 − µ

2 + 2λ =+1 2µ
1 + 3λ =+
1 3µ

λ = 1 + µ (1)

⇒ 2 + 2λ =+ 1 2µ (2)
1 + 3λ =1 + 3µ ⇒ λ =µ (3)

From (1) and (3), we find that there is no solution.
Therefore, L1 and L2 are different.
2. L1 : x =λ , y =−2 + 2λ , z =5 − λ ,
L2 : x =1 − µ , y =−3 − 3µ , z =4 + µ
Direction vectors of L1 and L2 are not proportional,

thus L1 and L2 are not parallel.
Let us find their intersection:
λ = 1 − µ

−2 + 2λ =−3 − 3µ
5 − λ = 4 + µ

153
λ = 1 − µ
 λ = 1 − µ
⇒ −2 + 2 (1 − µ ) =−3 − 3µ ⇔ −2 + 2 − 2 µ =−3 − 3µ
 5 − 1 + µ = 4 + µ
5 − (1 − µ ) = 4 + µ 
λ = 1 − µ

⇔ −2 + 2 − 2 µ =−3 − 3µ ⇒ µ =−3
5 − 1 + µ = 4 + µ ⇒ 0 µ = 0

 µ = −3

λ = 4
For λ = 4 ,=x 4,=y 6,=z 1
Intersection point is ( 4, 6,1)
3. 5 + 2λ , y =
L1 : x = 4 + λ, z =
5+λ ,
1 + 2µ , y =
L2 : x = 2 + µ, z =
3+ µ
Direction vectors of L1 and L2 are proportional, thus

L1 and L2 are parallel.
Let us check if they are coincident:
5 + 2λ =+1 2µ λ =−2 + µ
 
4 + λ = 2 + µ ⇒ 4 + 2 ( −2 + µ ) = 2 + µ
5 + λ =3 + µ 
 5 + ( −2 + µ ) = 3 + µ
λ= 2 + µ λ= 2 + µ
 
⇔ 4 − 4 + 2µ = 2 + µ ⇔ 4 − 4 + 2µ = 2 + µ ⇒ µ = 2
5 − 2 + µ = 3 + µ 5 − 2 + µ = 3 + µ ⇒ 0 µ = 0
 
From the values of there are many solutions. The two
lines coincide.
x= 2 + 8s x = 1 + 4t
4. L1 : y= 4 − 3s L 2 : y= 5 − 4t
z= 5 + s z =−1 + 5t
Direction vectors of L1 and L2 are not proportional,
thus L1 and L2 are not parallel.
154
Let us find their intersection:

 −1 + 4t
s = 8
2 + 8s =1 + 4t 
  −1 + 4t
 4 − 3 s =5 − 4t ⇒ 4 − 3 =5 − 4t
5 + s =−1 + 5t  8

 −1 + 4t
5 + 8 =−1 + 5t

 −1 + 4t
s = 8

⇔ 32 + 3 − 12t = 40 − 32t ⇒ 20t = 5
40 − 1 + 4t =−8 + 40t ⇒ 36t =47


There is no solution for these simultaneous equations.
Therefore L1 and L2 do not intersect.

1. Skew 2. Intersect at (2,1,-7)
3. Skew 4. Skew
5. Skew 6. Intersect at (1,1,1)
Materials
Answers
1) 390 2) 390 , 1410
1)
π 2) 1.76 radians 3) 0.82 radians 4) 79
0
4
5) 80.410 6) 48.700 7) 68.480
155
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
d 
1. θ
sin = d AB sin θ
 ⇒ =
AB
   
AB u sin θ AB × u
2. d=  and d = 
u u
1) 2 30 unit of length 2) 0 unit of length
3) 9 42 unit of length 4) 3 10 unit of length

7 2
5) 2 unit of length
3
Materials
Answers
1. Direction vectors of the lines are ( 3, 4, −2 ) and ( 6, −4, −1)

Since the two direction vectors are not proportional,
the lines are not parallel.
Check if there is a common point:
 28 + 6 s
t =
−7 + 3t = 21 + 6 s  3
   28 + 6 s 
−4 + 4t =−5 + 4 s −4 + 4   =−5 + 4 s
−3 − 2t = 2 + s   3 

  28 + 6 s 
−3 − 2   = 2+s
  3 
156
 28 + 6 s
t = 3
 12 s = −115
−12 + 112 + 24 s = −15 + 12 s −15s = 71
impossible.
−9 − 56 − 12 s = 6 + 3s 


The lines are skew.
2. Let ( a, b, c ) be the perpendicular vector to both lines
3a + 4b − 2c = 0

6a − 4b − c = 0 ⇒ c = 6a − 4b
3a + 4b − 12a + 8b =0
3a
⇔ 12b = 9a ⇒ b =
4
3
Let a = 1 , b = and c = 6 − 3 = 3 .
4
 3 
The perpendicular vector is 1, ,3  or ( 4,3,12 )
 4 
The normalized vector of this vector is
1 4 3 12
( 4,3,12 ) =  , , 
169  13 13 13 
3. Point on first line is ( −7, −4, −3) , point on second line is

( 21, −5, 2 ) . Vector joining these points ( 28, 1,5 )
4. The needed scalar product is
 4 3 12 
 , ,  ⋅ ( 28, −1,5 ) =
13
 13 13 13 
95 1817
1. unit of length 2. 0 unit of length
1817
3. 68 230 unit of length

115
157
8.3. Planes in three dimensions

This section looks at:
a) Equations of plane in space.
Equations of plane containing point P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ,
 
with direction vector u = ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , v = ( x2 , y2 , z3 ) and
X ( x, y, z ) any point on this plane are the following:
Vector equation
  
PX= ru + sv where r, s are parameters.
 x = x0 + rx1 + sx2

 y = y0 + ry1 + sy2
 z = z + rz + sz
 0 1 2
Cartesian equation
x − x0 x1 x2
y − y0 y1 y2 =
0
z − z0 z1 z2
We can also find the Cartesian equation by the following

determinant:
x x0 x1 x2
y y0 y1 y2
=0
z z0 z1 z2
1 1 0 0
The Cartesian equation of plane can be written in the
form a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y0 ) + c ( z − z0 ) =
0.
If P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and Q ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) are two points of a plane


whose direction vector are v = ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and X ( x, y, z )
any point on this plane , its equations are given as follows:
158
Vector equation
  
PX r PQ + sv where r and s are parameters
=
 x =x0 + r ( x1 − x0 ) + sx2

 y =y0 + r ( y1 − y0 ) + sy2

 z =z0 + r ( z1 − z0 ) + sz2
Cartesian equation
x − x0 x1 − x0 x2
y − y0 y1 − y0 y2 =
0
z − z0 z1 − z0 z2
Or we can use the determinant

x x0 x1 x2
y y0 y1 y2
=0
z z0 z1 z2
1 1 1 0
b) Condition of co-planarity of four points

Four points
( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ; ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) ; ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) and ( d1 , d 2 , d3 )
are coplanar (means that they lie on the same plane) if
the following condition is satisfied.
a1 b1 c1 d1
a1 − d1 b1 − d1 c1 − d1
a 2 b2 c2 d2
= 0 or a 2 − d2 b2 − d 2 c2 − d 2 =
0
a 3 b3 c3 d3
a 3 − d3 b3 − d 3 c3 − d 3
1 1 1 1
c) Position of a line and a plane
A line L is perpendicular to plane α if and only if each
direction vector of L is perpendicular to each direction
vector of α .
159
A line and plane are parallel if the direction vector of the

line is perpendicular to the normal vector of the plane:
two possibilities occur:
a line and plane are strictly parallel or a line lies in the
plane
d) Angle between lines and planes
Angle between a line and plane
The angle which line L makes with plane α is defined to
be the angle θ which is complement of angle between
the direction vector of L and normal to the plane α.
 n ⋅ u   n ⋅ u 
Thus,= θ 90 − arccos     or θ = arcsin    
0
 n⋅u   n ⋅u 
   
Angle between two planes
The angle θ between planes α and β is defined to
 
be an angle between their normal vectors n1 and n2
respectively.
 n ⋅ n 
Thus, θ = arccos  1 2 
 n1 ⋅ n2 
 
e) Distance between lines and planes
Distance from a point to the plane
The distance from point B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) to the plane
α ≡ ax + by + cz =
d is
ab1 + bb2 + cb3 − d
d ( B, α ) =
a 2 + b2 + c2
Distance between two planes
When calculating the distance between two planes, first
check if the planes are parallel. If they are not, they
intersect and the distance is zero. If they are parallel, find
160
an arbitrary point in one of the planes and calculate its

distance to the other plane.
Note that if two planes coincide (identical), the shortest
distance is zero.
Shortest distance between a line and a plane
When calculating the distance between a line and a
plane, first check if the line is parallel to the plane. If not,
they intersect and the distance is zero. If they are parallel,
find arbitrary point on the line and calculate its distance
to the plane.
f) Projection of a line on the plane
To find the projection of the line AB on the plane α,
we need a plane β containing the given line AB and
perpendicular to the given plane α. The equation of
the plane β and the plane α taken together are the
equations of the projection.
g) Position of planes
Position of two planes
Consider two planes
α ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
d1
β ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =d2
α || β if their normal vectors are proportional i.e.

( a1 , b1 , c1 ) k ( a2 , b2 , c2 ) , k ∈  0 ⇒
=
The two planes coincide if
( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) k ( a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) , k ∈  0
=
=
That is, α k β , k ∈  0 . So S = α or S = β
The two planes are parallel and distinct if
( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) ≠ k ( a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) , k ∈ 0
and hence no intersection.
161
The two planes intersect , if their normal vectors are not

proportional,
i.e. ( a1 , b1 , c1 ) ≠ k ( a2 , b2 , c2 ) , k ∈  0 ⇒ α || β
The planes intersection is a line defined by the equations
of the two planes taking together.
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
d1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =d2
General equation of a line

The general equation of a straight line in space is
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
d1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =d2
The direction vector of this line is
 b1 c1 a c a b 
 ,− 1 1 , 1 1 
 b2 c2 a2 c2 a2 b2 
Or to find the direction vector of the line, we can equate
the right hand sides of the general equations to zero.
i.e,
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
0

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =0
Position of three planes

Consider three planes
α ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
d1
β ≡ a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =d2
γ ≡ a3 x + b3 y + c3 z =
d3
There are three possible cases:

1. These planes are parallel if and only if the left hand sides
of three equations are proportional.
That is ( a1 , b1 , c1 ) = k ( a2 , b2 , c2 ) and ( a1 , b1 , c1 ) = m ( a3 , b3 , c3 )
162
In this case, the plane may be identical or distinct. We

have two cases:
If ( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) = k ( a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) , ( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) = m ( a3 , b3 , c3 , d3 )
and (a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) = n(a3 , b3 , c3 , d3 )
The three equations are proportional and hence the
three planes are coincident (identical), meaning that
α ≡ β ≡γ
.
If ( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) ≠ k ( a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) or
( a1 , b1 , c1 , d1 ) ≠ m ( a3 , b3 , c3 , d3 ) or
(a2 , b2 , c2 , d 2 ) ≠ n(a3 , b3 , c3 , d3 )
There are two equations that are not proportional but
with proportional left hand sides and hence two planes
are parallel and distinct and the third may be coincident
to one of the other two or distinct to another. Then there
is no intersection.
2. Two of them are parallel and the third is secant if and

only if only two equations have the left hand sides that
are proportional.
In this case, there are two planes that are parallel and the
third is secant.
163
If only two equations are proportional, two planes are

coincident and the third is secant to them. Hence, the
intersection is a straight line.
If the left hand sides of
only two equations are
proportional, two planes
are parallel and distinct.
Hence, no intersection.
3. No plane is parallel to another if and only if no left hand

side of any equation is proportional to another.
a) There is one left hand side which is a linear
combination of two others; in this case, there is a
line of intersection of two planes which is parallel
to the third.
(i) If the corresponding equation is not a linear
combination of two others, the line of
intersection of two planes is strictly parallel
to the third plane and hence there is no
intersection between three planes.
164
(ii) If the corresponding equation is a linear

combination of two others, the line is included
in the third plane and hence this line is the
intersection for three planes.
To find equation of the line of intersection, we

proceed in the same way as for the case of two
planes by taking any two equations from the three
given equations of planes.
b) No left hand side is a linear combination of others,
meaning that the three equations are linearly
independent; in this case, the line of intersection of
two planes pierces the third plane and hence there
is a point of intersection between three planes.
To find this point, we solve simultaneously the

system
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z =
d1

a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =d2
a x + b y + c z = d3
 3 3 3
165
Teaching guidelines
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. Vector equation is
      
PV= ru + sv or OV = OP + ru + sv . With 0 ( 0, 0, 0 ) and
r, s are parameters.
2. Parametric equations:
From vector equation we have,
( x − x0 , y − y0 , z=
− z0 ) r ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) + s ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
166
Or
( x, y, z ) = ( x0 , y0 , y0 ) + r ( x1 , x1 , x1 ) + s ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) .
Thus the parametric equations are
 x = x0 + rx1 + sx2

 y = y0 + ry1 + sy2
 z = z + rz + sz
 0 1 2
3. Cartesian equation
y1 y2 x1 x2 x1 x2
( x − x0 ) − ( y − y0 ) + ( z − z0 ) 0
=
z1 z2 z1 z2 y1 y2
y1 y2 x x2 x1 x2
Let =a, − 1 b and
= =c
z1 z2 z1 z2 y1 y2
We have:
a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y0 ) + c ( z − z0 ) =
0
 x   2  1   2 
1. Vector equation:  y  =
     
 4  + r  3  + s 1 
 z  1   −1  3 
       
 x = 2 + r + 2s
Parametric equations:  y =4 + 3r + s
 z = 1 − r + 3s

Cartesian equation 10 x − 5 y − 5 z =
−5
x 1  4   −2 
       
2. Vector equation:  y  = 1 + r  −2  + s  4 
z   1  1   3 
       
 x =+
1 4r − 2 s

Parametric equations:  y =1 − 2r + 4 s
 z =1 + r + 3s

Cartesian equation −10 x − 14 y + 12 z =
−12
167
 x   3  1   5 
3. Vector equation:  y  = 6  + r  0  + s 1 
 z   0  1   7 
       
 x = 3 + r + 5s

Parametric equations:  y= 6 + s
 z= r + 7 s

Cartesian equation − x − 7 y + z =−45
 x   4   −4   −2 
     
 3  + r 1  + s  8 
 z   8  1   6 
       
 x =4 − 4r − 2 s

Parametric equations:  y = 3 + r + 8s
 z = 8 + r + 6s

Cartesian equation −2 x + 22 y − 30 z =−182
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
      
=PX r PQ + sv or OX =OP + r PQ + sv , with
0 ( 0, 0, 0 ) , r and s are parameters
2. Parametric equations
 x =x0 + r ( x1 − x0 ) + sx2

 y =y0 + r ( y1 − y0 ) + sy2

 z =z0 + r ( z1 − z0 ) + sz2
168
3. Cartesian equation:
Eliminate the parameters in parametric equations or
find the following determinant
x − x0 x1 − x0 x2
y − y0 y1 − y0 y2 =
0
z − z0 z1 − z0 z2
y1 − y0 y2 x −x x x −x x2
( x − x0 ) − ( y − y0 ) 1 0 2 + ( z − z0 ) 1 0
z1 − z0 z2 z1 − z0 z2 y1 − y0 y2
x  2   0  1 
       
1. Vector equation:  y =  4  + r  −3  + s  3 
z  1   2   −1
       
 x= 2 + s

Parametric equations:  y =4 − 3r + 3s
 z =+
 1 2r − s
Cartesian equation −3 x + 2 y + 3 z =
5
 x   2   0   −1
       
2. Vector equation:  y  = 1  + r  0  + s  2 
 z   −1  4  1 
       
 x= 2 − s

Parametric equations:  y = 1 + 2 s
 z =−1 + 4r + s

Cartesian equation −8 x − 4 y =−20
x 1  −3   4 
       
3. Vector equation:  y  =
1 + r  3  + s  −2 
z   1  2   1 
       
 x =1 − 3r + 4 s

Parametric equations:  y =1 + 3r − 2 s
 z =+
 1 2r + s
Cartesian equation 7 x + 11 y − 6 z =
12
169
x  3   2  1 
       
4. Vector equation:  y  =  6  + r  −5  + s  0 
z   0   7  1 
       
 x =3 + 2r + s
Parametric equations:  y= 6 − 5r
=
 z 7r + s
Cartesian equation −5 x + 5 y + 5 z =
15
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
      
=PX r PQ + sPN or 0 X =0 P + r PQ + sPN
2. Parametric equations
 x =x0 + r ( x1 − x0 ) + s ( x2 − x0 )

 y =y0 + r ( y1 − y0 ) + s ( y2 − y0 )

 z =z0 + r ( z1 − z0 ) + s ( z2 − z0 )
3. Cartesian equation:
y1 − y0 y2 − y0 x −x x2 − x0 x −x x2 −
( x − x0 ) − ( y − y0 ) 1 0 + ( z − z0 ) 1 0
z1 − z0 z 2 − z0 z1 − z0 z 2 − z0 y1 − y0 y2 −
y2 − y0 x1 − x0 x2 − x0 x1 − x0 x2 − x0
− ( y − y0 ) + ( z − z0 )
z 2 − z0 z1 − z0 z 2 − z0 y1 − y0 y 2 − y0
x  2   −1   0 
1. Vector equation:  y  =      
 4  + r  −1  + s  −3 
z  1   −2   2 
       
170
 x= 2 − r

Parametric equations:  y = 4 − r − 3s
 z = r − r + 2s

Cartesian equation: −8 x + 2 y + 3 z =−5
x 1  3   −3 
       
2. Vector equation:  y  = 1 + r  −3  + s  3 
z   1  0   2 
       
 x =1 + 3r − 3s
Parametric equations:  y =1 − 3r + 3s
 z = 1 + 2s

Cartesian equation: − x − y =−2
x  3   −2   2 
     
 6  + r  −6  + s  −5 
z 0  1   7 
       
 x =3 − 2r + 2 s

Parametric equations:  y =6 − 6r − 5s
 z= r + 7 s

Cartesian equation: −37 x + 16 y + 22 z =
−15
x  4   − 8   −6 
       
4. Vector equation:  y  =
 3  + r  −2  + s  5 
z   8   −7   −2 
       
 x =4 − 8r − 6 s

Parametric equations:  y =3 − 2r + 5s
 z =8 − 7 r − 2 s

Cartesian equation: 3 x + 2 y − 4 z =
−14
171
Materials
Answers
1. Equation of plane passing through points
(1, 2, −1) , ( 2,3,1) , ( 3, −1, 0 )
x 1 2 3
y 2 3 −1
=0
z −1 1 0
1 1 1 1
The fourth point (1, 2,1) lies on this plane if
1 1 2 3
2 2 3 −1
=0
1 −1 1 0
1 1 1 1
2 3 −1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
⇔ −1 1 0 − 2 −1 1 0 + 2 3 −1 − 2 3 −1 =0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 1 0
⇔ 7 + 6 − 5 − 18 =−10
Thus, the four points do not lie on the same plane.
( −2,1,1) , ( 0, 2,3) , (1, 0, −1)
x −2 0 1
y 1 2 0
=0
z 1 3 −1
1 1 1 1
172
The fourth point ( 2,1, −1) lies on this plane if

2 −2 0 1
1 1 2 0
=0
−1 1 3 −1
1 1 1 1
1 2 0 −2 0 1 −2 0 1 −2 0 1
⇔ 2 1 3 −1 − 1 3 −1 − 1 2 0 − 1 2 0 =0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 −1
⇔ 0 + 10 + 5 − 5 =
10
Thus, the four points do not lie on the same plane.
(1, 0, −1) , ( 0, 2,3) , ( −2,1,1)
x 1 0 −2
y 0 2 1
=0
z −1 3 1
1 1 1 1
The fourth point ( 4, 2,3) lies on this plane if
4 1 0 −2
2 0 2 1
=0
3 −1 3 1
1 1 1 1
0 2 1 1 0 −2 1 0 −2 1 0 −2
⇔ 4 −1 3 1 − 2 −1 3 1 +3 0 2 1 − 0 2 1 = 0 − 20 + 15 + 5 = 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 3 1
1 1 0 −2 1 0 −2 1 0 −2
1 − 2 −1 3 1 +3 0 2 1 − 0 2 1 = 0 − 20 + 15 + 5 = 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −1 3 1
173
Thus, the four points do lie on the same plane.

The four points
( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ; ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) ; ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) and ( d1 , d 2 , d3 )
lie on the same plane if the following condition is

satisfied.
a1 b1 c1 d1
a2 b2 c2 d2
=0
a3 b3 c3 d3
1 1 1 1

1. Not coplanar 2. x = 4
3. a+b+c =2 4. a =−1, x − 4 y + 3 z − 2 =0

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers

1. a) AX = ( x − a1 , y − a2 , z − a3 )
b) a ( x − a1 ) + b ( y − a2 ) + c ( z − a3 ) =
0
Expanding: ax − aa1 + by − ba2 + cz − ca3 = 0 or
ax + by + cz = aa1 + ba2 + ca3 .
This is the equation of plane.
2. a) The line pierces the plane
b) The line is parallel to the plane and lies in the plane

1. 3 x − 2 y − z =−3 2. x + 3 y + 4 z =
34
 x= 5 − 2t
3. Not parallel 4.  y = 5t
 z =−2 + 11t

174
5. ( −1, 0, 0 )
6. The given line lies in the given plane
7. 3 3 1 8. (1,1, 0 )
 ,− , 
2 2 2
9. The given line lies in the given plane
Materials
Answers
1) 77.30 2) 35.60

π
1) 2) 1.76 radians 3) 0.82 radians
4
4) 350 5) 790 6) 450
7) 67.090 8) 300
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers

Then the normalized normal vector e is
  a b c 
e= , , 
2 2 2
 a +b +c a 2 + b2 + c2 a 2 + b2 + c2 

AB = ( b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 , b3 − a3 )
  a ( b1 − a1 ) b ( b2 − a2 ) c ( b3 − a3 )
e ⋅ AB
= + +
2 2 2 2 2 2
a +b +c a +b +c a 2 + b2 + c2
  a ( b1 − a1 ) + b ( b2 − a2 ) + c ( b3 − a3 )
⇔ e ⋅ AB =
a 2 + b2 + c2
175
  ab − aa1 + bb2 − ba2 + cb3 − ca3

⇔ e ⋅ AB = 1
a 2 + b2 + c2
  ab1 + bb2 + cb3 − ( aa1 + ba2 + ca3 )
⇔ e ⋅ AB =
a 2 + b2 + c2
Since A ∈ α , aa1 + ba2 + ca3 =
d , we have
  ab + bb2 + cb3 − d
e ⋅ AB =1
a 2 + b2 + c2

19
1. 3 unit of length 2. unit of length
5
3. 5 unit of length 4.
9 41 unit of length
3 41
5. 5 6 unit of length
18
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
Point on the line: ( 2,3,1)

Direction vector of the line: (1, −2,1)
Normal vector of the given plane ( 2,3, −2 )
Normal vector of the needed plane, say ( a, b, c ) , is
perpendicular to the direction vector of the line and also
perpendicular to the normal vector of the given plane.
The needed plane has the form:
a ( x − 2 ) + b ( y − 3) + c ( z − 1) =
0
176
Where
a − 2b + c =0

2a + 3b − 2c =0
Solving, we get
 1
a = 7

 4
b =
 7
c = 1


And the needed plane is x + 4 y + 7 z − 21 =
0
x y −3 z −6 2 x − 3 y + z − 30 = 0
1. = = 2. 
2 −6 −5 5 x + 4 y + 2 z − 15 =0
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
x −1 y − 2 z −1
= =
1 −4 −2
Intersection: ( 2, −2,1)
1. ( −1, −2,1) 2. ( 2, −2, −1)
Materials
Exercise book, pens
177
Answers
  x =−3 + 3t
1. u
= ( 3, −2,1) 2. Point: ( −3, 4,1) 3.  y= 4 − 2t
z = 1+ t

x −1 y − 2 z 3x + 1 3 y + 2 z
1. a) = = b) = =
2 3 4 9 −6 1
x+2 y+3 z
c) = =
1 2 1
2. a) ( 2, −5,3) b) ( a,1, c )
      
3. n1 = i − j , n2 =i + j + k
The planes intersect in a line
   
u =−i − j + 2k
4. 3x − 3 y + 4 z + 2 =0 5. x − 5 y − 3 z =
−7
6. x + 6 y − 5z =
17 7. 4 x − 2 y + 7 z =
0
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
The equation of plane α and plane γ are proportional.
Then plane α and plane γ coincide.
The equation of plane β is not proportional to any other
equation. Also the left hand side of the equation of plane
β is not proportional to any other left hand sides of other
equations, then plane β is secant to other planes.

1. The given planes coincide 2. No intersection
3. Point: (1, 2,3) 4. Point: ( −4, −3, 0 )
178 5. No intersection
8.4. Sphere in three dimensions

This section looks at:
a) Equations of sphere in space
The equation of a sphere of centre ( k , l , m ) and radius r
is given by
S ≡ ( x − k ) + ( y − l ) + ( z − m) =
2 2 2
r2
The general equation of a sphere is:
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + ax + by + cz + d =
0
In this equation:
 a b c
The centre is Ω =  − , − , −  and the radius is given
 2 2 2
by
1 2 2 2 2
r
= a + b 2 + c 2 − 4d , provided that a + b + c − 4d > 0
2
b) Position of a point and sphere
Consider a sphere S with radius r and centre Ω ( a, b, c )
and any point P ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) .
ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, P ) < r , the point lies inside the sphere S.

ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, P ) =
r , the point lies on the sphere S.
ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, P ) > r , the point lies outside the sphere S.
In all cases, d ( Ω, P ) is the distance between point P

and centre Ω of sphere S.
c) Position of a sphere and a line
Consider a sphere S with radius r and centre Ω ( a, b, c )
and line L .
ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, L ) < r , there are two points of intersection.
ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, L ) =
r , there is a single point of intersection.
ᇢᇢ If d ( Ω, L ) > r , there is no intersection.
179
In all cases, d ( Ω, L ) is the shortest distance between

line L and centre Ω of sphere S .
d) Position of sphere and a plane
Consider a sphere S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + ax + by + cz + d =
0
with centre Ω =( k , l , m ) and radius r and plane
α ≡ hx + ny + pz =
q , their position appears in three
cases.
1. If d ( Ω, α ) < r , the plane cuts the sphere and the

intersection is a circle whose centre is on the plane
(on the perpendicular line of the plane passing
through the centre of the sphere). When the plane
cuts the sphere, we call it plane section of a sphere.
2 2
Then, d ( P, Q )=  d ( Ω, Q )  −  d ( Ω, P )  .
2. If d ( Ω, α ) > r , there is no intersection.
3. If d ( Ω ) =r , the plane is tangent to the sphere
and the intersection is the point which lies on the
perpendicular line of the plane passing through
the centre of the sphere and it is the intersection
between this perpendicular line and the plane.
In all cases, d ( Ω, α ) is the distance between
the centre Ω =( k , l , m ) of the sphere
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + ax + by + cz + d =
0 with radius
180
r and plane α ≡ hx + ny + pz =
q . It is given by
hk + nl + pm − q
d ( Ω, α ) = .
h2 + n2 + p 2
The tangent plane at T ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the sphere
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + ax + by + cz + d =
0 is
xx1 + yy1 + zz1 + a ( x + x1 ) + ( y + y1 ) + c ( z + z1 ) + d =
0.
Hint. In writing equation of tangent plane to a
sphere at a given point T ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) , in the sphere
2
equation, change x to xx1 , y 2 to yy1 , z to zz1 , x to
2
1 1 1
( x + x1 ) , y to 2 ( y + y1 ) , and z to ( z + z1 )
2 2
and then expand.
e) Position of two spheres
Consider two spheres with centers Ω1 and Ω 2 ; radii r1
and r2 . The position of these two spheres depends on
the distance between theirs centers, d ( Ω1 , Ω 2 )
ᇢᇢ If d > r1 + r2 . Two spheres are exterior and hence no
intersection.
ᇢᇢ If d < r1 + r2 . Two spheres are interior and hence no
intersection.
ᇢᇢ If d= r1 + r2 . Two spheres are tangent exterior and
hence there is a point of intersection.
ᇢᇢ If d= r1 − r2 . Two spheres are tangent interior and
hence there is a point of intersection.
ᇢᇢ If r1 − r2 < d < r1 + r2 . One sphere cuts another. The
intersection is a circle.
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know what is a circle in 2-dimensions. When we
rotate a half circle about x − axis we obtain a sphere.
class.
181

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
( x − k ) + ( y − l ) + ( z − m)
2 2 2
1. r2
=
⇔ x 2 − 2kx + k 2 + y 2 − 2ly + l 2 + z 2 − 2mz + m 2 =
r2
⇔ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2kx − 2ly − 2mz + k 2 + l 2 + m 2 − r 2 =
0
2. Letting −2k = a, − 2l = b, − 2m = c, k 2 + l 2 + m 2 − r 2 = d
a b c
Gives k =
− ,l= − and −r 2 =−k 2 − l 2 − m2 + d
− , m=
2 2 2
Or
2 2 2
 a  b  c
2 2
r = k +l +m −d2 2
r2 =  −  +  −  +  −  − d
 2  2  2
2 2 2
a b c a 2 + b 2 + c 2 − 4d
r2 = + + −d r2 =
4 4 4 4
1 2
r
= a + b 2 + c 2 − 4d
2
182
1. a) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 4 y − 6 z − 2 =0
2 2 2
b) x + y + z − 6 x + 2 y − 2 z + 8 =0
2 2 2
c) x + y + z − 8 x + 2 z − 32 =
0
2. a) (11,3, 0 ) ; 8 b) ( −4,8, 7 ) ; 6 c) ( 0,9,3) ; 14
3. a) The interior of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 =
4.
b) The solid ball bounded by the sphere
( x + 2 ) + ( y − 3) + ( z + 4 ) =
2 2 2
4 . Alternatively, the
sphere ( x + 2 ) + ( y − 3) + ( z + 4 ) =
2 2 2
4 together with
its interior.
c) The exterior of the sphere ( x − 1) + ( y + 3) + z =
2 2 2
8.
Materials
Answers
1. 38 , outside the sphere 2. 6 , on the sphere

3. 5 , inside the sphere

1. Outside the sphere 2. Inside the sphere
3. On the sphere 4. Outside the sphere
Materials
183
Answers
1. 3 2 , the line pierces the sphere

2
2. 2 42 , the line does not touch the sphere
3. 3 , the line is tangent to the sphere

2
1. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 2 ( x + y + z ) − 3 2 =0
2. (1, −1,3) , ( 5, 2, −2 )
Materials
Answers
1. 14 , the plane cuts the sphere

2
2. 8 14 , the plane does not touch the sphere

7
3. 14 , the plane is tangent to the sphere

1. 2 x + 2 y − z + 10
= 0, 2 x + 2 y − z −=
8 0
2. 2 x + y − 2 z= 9, x + 2 y + 2 z= 9
3. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6x − 4 y − 2z + 5 =0,
11
x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x − y − 2 z + 5 = 0
4
4. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2x + 2 y − 4z + 2 =0,
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 6 x − 4 y + 10 z + 22 =
0
184
Materials
Answers
Let centers of two spheres be Ω1 and Ω 2 respectively and
their radii be r1 and r2 respectively
1. d ( Ω1 , Ω 2 ) = 11 and r1 + r2 =
5 . One sphere is inside of
another
2. d ( Ω1 , Ω 2 ) =9 and r1 + r2 =
9 . One sphere touches
another
3. d ( Ω1 , Ω 2 ) = 46 and r1 + r2 = 3 + 4 . One sphere is
outside of another
1. x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3 y + 5z − 7 =0
2. x2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2z − 8 =0
3. 13 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) − 35 x − 21 y + 43 z + 176 =
0

  3  4   
1. a) 1 A + 2 B b) A + B c) 3 A + 2 B
3 3 7 7 5 5

 
    
d) 3 A − 1 B e) − 2 A + 5 B f) 4 A − 3B
2 2 3 3
 1    1   
2. OM
= (
2
)
b + c ON=
3
(
a+b+c )
        
3. (
xi + y j + zk =i + j + k + λ 2i + 3 j − k )
x  −1 1 
4.      
y
=  2  + λ  2
z  1  3
     
185
        
5. (
4i − j + 12k = 2i + 3 j + 4k + r i − 2 j + 4k )
     
(
2i − 4 j + 8k = r i − 2 j + 4k )
2 = r ⇒r= 2

−4 = −2r ⇒r= 2
8= 4r ⇒ r= 2

Thus the given point lie on the given line.
a 6,=
6. = b 8
7. a) ( 3,3, −3) b) ( x, y, z ) = ( 2, −1,1) + λ ( 3,3, −3)
8. a) x= − 2 y − 3 z + 1 b) x= − 3 y +1 z − 2
=
=
2 3 1 3 2 −4
c) x= − 2 y −1 z −1
=
2 −1 −1
9. ( x, y=
, z ) ( 2,5, 4 ) + λ ( 3, −2, −1)
10. a) ( x, y, z=
) ( 2, 2, −1) + λ ( 3, 2, 4 )
b) ( x, y, z ) =( 3, −2,3) + λ (1, 4, −1)
11. ( 2,5,3) or its multiples

12. Vector equation: ( x, y, z =
) (1, 0, −3) + λ ( 2, −1,3)
 x = 1 + 2λ

Parametric equations:  y = −λ
 z =−3 + 2λ

Symmetric equations: x − 1 =− y =z + 3
2 3
13. a) ( x, y, z=
) ( 2,3, 4 ) + λ ( 2, −3, 2 ) + µ ( 0,1, 2 )
b) ( x, y, z=
) ( 0, 0, −2 ) + λ ( 3,3, −1) + µ (1, −1,1)
c) ( x, y, z ) = ( −2, −1, −3) + λ (1, 0,1) + µ ( 2,1,1)
d) ( x, y, z=) ( 5,1, −4 ) + λ (1, −1,1) + µ ( 3, −1, −1)
14. a) 2 x + 3 y − 4 z =
29 b) 2 x + y − 4 z =
12
c) x + y + z =0 d) 3 x + 4 y − 5 z =
12
e) 2 x − y =4 f) 5 y + 2 z =
−11 g) x = 3
186
15. x + 5 y − 4z =
20
16. x − 3y − 6z + 8 =0
17. 5x − 6 y + 7 z =20
18. x + 2 y − 3z = 0
 7   4  1   2 
r = 5
19.  −5 =  3  + r  −1 + s  3  ⇒  . Thus, the given
         s = −1
 −4   2   −1 1 
       
point lie on the given plane.
6 , 6x + 3y − 2z =
20. 2 x − 3 y − 6 z = 18
21. ( x, y, z )= (1, 0, −2 ) + λ (1,1, 0 ) + µ ( 0, 0,1)
22. a) 2 units of length b) 3 units of length
1
c) 10 units of length d) 138 units of length
2
23. a) 7 units of length; (1, 2,3)
b) 2 6 units of length; ( 2, −1, −1)
c) 6 units of length; ( 4, 0, 0 )
1  5 4 11 
d) 42 units of length;  , , 
3 3 3 3 
24. 14 units of length
25. 38.31 degrees
26. 25.7 degrees
27. 80 degrees
28. 45.6 degrees
29. 40.2 degrees
30. 90 degrees
31. a) ( 3, −4,5 ) ; 7 b) (1, 2,3) ; 3
1 1
c)  , −1, −  , 1
2 2
32. a) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 2 x − 4 y − 6 z + 10 =
0
b) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x − 4 z + 4 =0
c) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x − 6 y − 23 =
0
187
33. d = −3
34. 7 ( x + y + z ) − 15 x − 25 y − 11z =
2 2 2
0
35. x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − 4 x + 6 y − 2 z + 5 =0
36. 3 ( x + y + z ) − 2 x − 2 y − 2 z − 1 =0
2 2 2
2 2 2
37. x + y + z − 6 x − 4 y + 10 z + 12 =
0
2 2 2
38. x + y + z − x − 6 y − 2 z + 5 =0
1 1 1
39. 5 ( x + y + z ) − 2 x − 2 y − 2 z − 9 =
2 2 2
0,  , ,  , 4 3
2 2 2
5 5 5 2
40. x + y + z + 7 y − 8 z + 24 0
=
2 2 2
41. x + y + z − 4 x + 6 y − 8 z + 4 =0
42. x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2 x + 2 y + 2 z + 2 =0
2 2 2
43. x + y + z ± 6 z − 4 = 0
44. 4 x + 15 y + 26 z − 75 =
0
45. -4, 14
46. ( 4, −2, 2 ) , ( 0, 0, −2 )
47. 9 ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) = 5
48. 61
Sketch
1 2 2
49. b c + c 2 a 2 + a 2b 2
2
188
Unit 9 Bivariate Statistics
Aim
Extend understanding, analysis and interpretation of bivariate
data to correlation coefficients and regression lines
Objectives
ᇢᇢ find the covariance of two quantitative variables.
ᇢᇢ determine the linear regression line of a given series.
ᇢᇢ calculate a linear correlation coefficient of a given
double series and interpret it.
Materials
Exercise books, pens, calculator
Contents
9.1. Covariance

This section looks at formula used to find the covariance of two
variable x and y.
1 k
cov ( x, y )
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find variance and standard deviation
of a series. In bivariate statistics, we use two series.
class.
189

Materials
Answers
x y x−x y− y ( x − x )( y − y )
3 6 -1.3 -2.6 -3.9
5 9 0.7 0.4 1.1
7 12 2.7 3.4 6.1
3 10 -1.3 1.4 0.1
2 7 -2.3 -1.6 -3.9
6 8 1.7 -0.6 1.1
6 6 6
∑ xi = 26
i =1
∑ yi = 52
i =1
∑ ( x − x )( y − y ) =
i =1
i i 0.6
x = 4.3 y = 8.6
1. If you divide by total frequency you get variance

2. If you divide by total frequency you get covariance
190
Bivariate Statistics

71
1. cov ( x, y ) = 2. cov ( x, y ) = 98.75
12
9.2. Regression lines

This section looks at the adjustment of algebraic expression of
two regression lines.
The regression line y on x is written as
cov ( x, y )
Ly / x ≡=
y− y
σ x2
( x − x)
The regression line x on y is written as
cov ( x, y )
Lx / y ≡=
x−x
σ y2
( y − y)
Teaching guidelines
Let learners know how to find mean, standard deviation and
covariance.
class.
191
Materials
Answers
k k
1. D
=b
/
2∑ ( yi − axi − b )( −1) or Db/ =
−2∑ ( yi − axi − b )
i =1 i =1
k k k k
2. 0 or ∑ yi − ∑ axi − ∑ b =
∑ ( yi − axi − b ) = 0
i =1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1
k k k
or ∑
= b i ∑ y − ∑ ax i
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1
Dividing both sides by n gives

1 k 1 k 1 k b k 1 k a k
=
= ∑ n∑
b
n i 1=
y
i 1 =
i − ∑ i=
ni1
ax or = ∑ n∑
1
n i 1=
y
i 1 =
i − ∑ xi
ni1
or b= y − ax
k k
∑ ( y − ax − b )= ∑ ( y − ax − y + ax )
2 2
i i 3. i i
=i 1 =i 1
Or
k k
) ∑ ( y − y ) − a ( x − x )
2
∑ ( y − ax − b=
2
i i i i
=i 1 =i 1
Differentiation with respect to a and equating to zero:

k
∑ 2 ( y − y ) − a ( x − x ) − ( x − x ) =

i =1
i i 0 i
( ) (
−2∑  yi − y − a xi − x  xi − x =
i =1
 
0 )( )
k
( ) (
⇔ ∑  yi − y − a xi − x  xi − x =
i =1
 
0 )( )
k
⇔ ∑  xi − x ( )( y − y ) − a ( x − x )  =
2
0

i =1 
i i
192
k k
( )( ) ( )
2
⇔ ∑ xi − x yi − y − ∑ a xi − x 0
=
=i 1 =i 1
k k
( ) ∑ ( x − x )( y − y )
2
⇔ ∑ a xi − x = i i
=i 1 =i 1
k k
( ) ∑ ( x − x )( y − y )
2
⇔ a ∑ xi − x = i i
=i 1 =i 1
Dividing both sides by n gives

a k 1 k
( ) ( )( )
2
=
∑ ix
⇔
n i 1=
− x= ∑ xi − x yi − y
ni1
1 k
∑ xi − x yi − y
n i =1
( )( )
⇒a=
1 k
( )
2
∑
n i =1
xi − x
1 k
( )
2
4. is σ x2
The variance for variable x= ∑
n i =1
xi − x
1 k
( )
2
is σ y2
and the variance for variable y= ∑ yi − y
n i =1
and the covariance of these two variables is
1 k
cov ( x, y )= (
∑ xi − x yi − y
n i =1
)( )
cov ( x, y )
Then a =
σ x2
5. Now, we have that the regression line y on x is
y ax + b , where
=
 cov ( x, y )
=a
 σ x2

b= y − ax
Or
cov ( x, y )  cov ( x, y ) 
=y x+ y− x
σ 2
x  σ x2 
193
1. a) y 0.19 x − 8.098
= b) y = 4.06
2. x=
−5.6 y + 163.3, y =
−0.06 x + 21.8
9.3. Coefficient of correlation

This section looks at the correlation coefficient and its properties.
It also looks at the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation.
ᇢᇢ The Pearson’s correlation coefficient,
Pearson’s correlation coefficient denoted by r, is a
measure of the strength of linear relationship between
two variables.
The correlation coefficient between two variables x and y
cov ( x, y )
is given by r = .
σ xσ y
ᇢᇢ The Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation
The Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation is given by
k
6∑ di2
ρ = 1− i =1
n ( n 2 − 1)
Where, d refers to the difference of ranks between paired

items in two series.
Teaching guidelines
class.
194

Materials
Answers
41
σ x 1.8,
1. = = σ y 1.97 2. cov ( x, y ) =
18
cov ( x, y )
3. = 0.64
σ xσ y

1. r = 0.94 . As the correlation coefficient is very close to
1, the correlation is very strong.
2. r = −0.26 . As the correlation coefficient is very close to
zero, the correlation is very weak.
3. σ = 0.14 . There is a weak positive correlation between
the English and Mathematics rankings.
4. σ = 1 . There is a perfect agreement between the
rankings.
195
9.4. Applications
Materials
Answers
By reading textbooks or accessing internet, learners will
discuss how bivariate statistics is used in daily life. Bivariate
statistics can help in prediction of a value for one variable
if we know the value of the other by using regression lines.
1. Data set 1
a)=y 4.50 + 0.64 x b)=x 4.42 + 0.75 y
Data set 2
=
a) y 90.31 − 1.78 x b) x 37.80 − 0.39 y
=
2. y=
−2.59 + 0.65 x;36.5
3. r= 0.918, y − 65.45= 0.981( x − 65.18), x − 65.18= 0.859( y − 65.45)
4. y = 0.611x + 10.5, x = 1.478 y − 1.143, y = 28.83
5. y=
0.94 x + 92.26, Blood pressure =
134.56
6. y =+
3.8 1.6 x, x =
−2.06 + 0.59 y
7. y =−8 + 1.2 x
8. c = 15, d = −5
9. =
0.60, w 0.89h − 76
3 15 3
10. x =
− ,y= ,r =
29 29 4
11. r = 0.4
12. 0.82
13. 0.77
196
14. -0.415
15. a) 0.954 b) x = 2 , y = 3
16. x =13, y =17, y =0.8 x + 6.6, x =0.45 y − 5.35, r =0.6, σ y =4
17.=x 13,
= σy 4
y 17,=
18. 0.26
19. a) 0.43
b) Some agreement between average attendances
ranking a position in league, high position in league
correlating with high attendance.
20. a) (i) -0.976 (ii) -0.292 (or 0.292)
b) The transport manager’s order is more profitable for
the seller, saleswomen is unlikely to try to dissuade.
c) (i) No, maximum value is 1
(ii) Yes, higher performing cars generally do less
mileage to the gallon.
(iii) No, the higher the engine capacity, the dearer
the car.
d) When only two rankings are known; when
relationship is non-linear.
21. a) There is a strong positive correlation
b) 54.5
197
Unit 10 Conditional Probability
and Bayes Theorem
Aim
Solve problems using Bayes theorem and use data to make
decisions about likelihood and risk.
Objectives
ᇢᇢ use tree diagram to find probability of events.
ᇢᇢ find probability of independent events.
ᇢᇢ find probability of one event given that the other event
has occurred.
ᇢᇢ use and apply Bayes theorem.
Materials
Exercise books, pens, ruler, calculator
Contents
10.1. Tree diagram

This section shows the method used to find probability of events
by constructing tree diagram.
A tree diagram is a means which can be used to show the
probabilities of certain outcomes occurring when two or more
trials take place in succession.
The outcome is written at the end of the branch and the fraction
on the branch gives the probability of the outcome occurring.
199
For each trial, the number of branches is equal to the number

of possible outcomes of that trial. In the diagram, there are two
possible outcomes, A and B, of each trial.
Teaching guidelines
class.
Materials
Methodology
Facilitate learners in Group work, then questioning.
200
Conditional Probability and Bayes theorem
Answers
4 2
1. Probability of choosing a blue pen is = and
10 5
6 3
probability of choosing a black pen is = .
10 5
2. Probabilities on the second trial are equal to the
probabilities on the first trial since after the 1st trial the
pen is replaced in the box.
3. Complete figure

1 1 1 1
1. × × =
2 2 2 8
10 9 8
2. a) P ( 3boys ) = × × = 0.214
16 15 14
10 9 6 10 6 9 6 10 9
b) P ( 2 boys and 1 girl ) = × × + × × + × × = 0.482
16 15 14 16 15 14 16 15 14
10 6 5 6 10 5 6 5 10
c) P ( 2 girls and 1 boy ) = × × + × × + × × = 0.268
16 15 14 16 15 14 16 15 14
6 5 4
d) P ( 3girls ) = × × = 0.0357
16 15 14
1 10 11
3. a) b) c)
21 21 21
1 7 7
4. a) b) c)
816 102 34
201
10.2. Independent events

This section shows the formula used to find probability of
independent events.
If probability of event B is not affected by the occurrence
of event A, events A and B are said to be independent and
P ( A ∩ B=
) P ( A) × P ( B )
This rule is the simplest form of the multiplication law of
probability.
Teaching guidelines
class.
Remember to give them homework
202
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
The occurrence of event B does not affected by occurrence
of event A because after the first trial, the pen is replaced in
the box. It means that the sample space does not change.

1 1 1
1. P ( red and red ) = × =
5 5 25
1 1 1
2. P ( head and 3) = × =
2 6 12
1 2
3. a) b)
35 7
10.3. Conditional probability

This section shows the formula used to find conditional
probability.
The probability of an event B given that event A has occurred
is called the conditional probability of B given A and is written
P ( B | A) .
In this case, P ( B | A ) is the probability that B occurs considering
A as the sample space, and since the subset of A in which B
occurs is A ∩ B , then
P ( B ∩ A)
P ( B | A) = .
P ( A)
From this result, we have a general statement of the
multiplication law:
P ( A ∩ B=
) P ( A) × P ( B | A)
203
Teaching guidelines
class.
Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
The occurrence of event B is affected by occurrence of event
A because after the first trial, the pen is not replaced in the
box. It means that the sample space will be changed for the
second trial.
204
1
1
1. P(6 | even=) 6=
3 3
6
P ( Black and White ) 0.34
2. P (White | Black
= ) = = 0.72
P ( Black ) 0.47
3.
13
10.4. Bayes theorem and applications

This section shows how to find probability of events using
Bayes theorem and its applications.
Let B1 , B2 , B3 ,..., Bn be incompatible and exhaustive events and
let A be an arbitrary event.
We have:
P ( Bi ∩ A ) P ( A | Bi ) P ( Bi )
P ( Bi | A )
= =
P ( A) n
∑ P( A| B ) P(B )
i =1
i i
This formula is called Bayes’ formula.

Remark
We also have (Bayes’ rule)
P ( A | B) P ( B)
P ( B | A) =
P ( A)
Teaching guidelines
class.
205

Materials
Exercise book, pens
Answers
1. P ( A ) = P ( A | B1 ) P ( B1 ) + P ( A | B2 ) P ( B2 ) + P ( A | B3 ) P ( B3 )
P ( B1 ∩ A) P ( A | B1 ) P ( B1 )
2. P ( B1 | A) =
=
P ( A) P ( A | B1 ) P ( B1 ) + P ( A | B2 ) P ( B2 ) + P ( A | B3 ) P ( B3 )
P ( B2 ∩ A) P ( A | B2 ) P ( B2 )
P ( B2 | A) =
=
P ( B3 ∩ A) P ( A | B3 ) P ( B3 )
P ( B3 | A) =
=
Generally,
P ( Bi ∩ A ) P ( A | Bi ) P ( Bi )
P ( Bi | A )
= =
P ( A) 3
∑ P( A| B ) P(B )
i =1
i i
206

0.2 × 0.75
P ( engineer | managerial )
1. = = 0.405
0.2 × 0.75 + 0.2 × 0.5 + 0.6 × 0.2
0.9 × 0.02
2. P ( No accident=
| Triggered alarm ) = 0.157
0.1× 0.97 + 0.9 × 0.02

1. 0.15 2. 0.13
3. 0.56 4. 1
169
15 729
5. 6.
128 1000
10
7. 0.37 8.
21
9. a) 0.34 b) 0.714 c) 0.0833
10. a) 0.43 b) 0.1166 c) 0.8966
11. a) 0.0001 b) 0.0081
12. a) 0.384 b) 0.512
13. 0.1083
14. a) 0.5514 b) 0.2941
3
15.
13
207
References
[1] A. J. Sadler, D. W. S. Thorning: Understanding Pure Mathematics, Oxford
University Press 1987.
[2] Arthur Adam Freddy Goossens: Francis Lousberg. Mathématisons 65.
DeBoeck,3e edition 1991.
[3] David Rayner, Higher GCSE Mathematics, Oxford University Press 2000
[4] Direction des Progammes de l’Enseignement Secondaire. Géometrie de l’Espace
1er Fascule. Kigali, October 1988
[5] Direction des Progammes de l’Enseignement Secondaire. Géometrie de l’Espace
2ème Fascule. Kigali, October 1988
[6] Frank Ebos, Dennis Hamaguchi, Barbana Morrison & John Klassen,
Mathematics Principles & Process, Nelson Canada A Division of International
Thomson Limited 1990
[7] George B. Thomas, Maurice D. Weir & Joel R. Hass, Thomas’ Calculus Twelfth
Edition, Pearson Education, Inc. 2010
[8] Geoff Mannall & Michael Kenwood, Pure Mathematics 2, Heinemann
Educational Publishers 1995
[9] H.K. DASS... Engineering Mathematics. New Delhi, S. CHAND&COMPANY LTD,
thirteenth revised edition 2007.
[10] Hubert Carnec, Genevieve Haye, Monique Nouet, ReneSeroux, Jacqueline
Venard. Mathématiques TS Enseignement obligatoire. Bordas Paris 1994.
[11] James T. McClave, P.George Benson. Statistics for Business and Economics.
USA, Dellen Publishing Company, a division of Macmillan, Inc 1988.
[12] J CRAWSHAW, J CHAMBERS: A concise course in A-Level statistics with
worked examples, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) LTD, 1984.
[13] Jean Paul Beltramonde, VincentBrun, ClaudeFelloneau, LydiaMisset, Claude
Talamoni. Declic 1re S Mathématiques. Hachette-education, Paris 2005.
[14] JF Talber & HH Heing, Additional Mathematics 6th Edition Pure & Applied,
Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd 1995
[15] J.K. Backhouse, SPTHouldsworth B.E.D. Copper and P.J.F. Horril. Pure
Mathematics 2. Longman, third edition 1985, fifteenth impression 1998.
[16] M.Nelkon, P. Parker. Advanced Level Pysics, Seventh Edition. Heinemann 1995
[17] Mukasonga Solange. Mathématiques 12, Analyse Numérique. KIE, Kigali2006.
[18] N. PISKOUNOV, Calcul Différential et Integral tom II 9ème édition. Editions
MIR. Moscou, 1980.
[19] Paule Faure- Benjamin Bouchon, Mathématiques Terminales F. Editions Nathan,
Paris 1992.
[20] Peter Smythe: Mathematics HL & SL with HL options, Revised Edition,
Mathematics Publishing Pty. Limited, 2005.
[21] Rwanda Education Board (2015), Subsidiary Mathematics Syllabus S4-S6,
Ministry of Education: Rwanda.
[22] Robert A. Adms & Christopher Essex, Calculus A complete course Seventh
Edition, Pearson Canada Inc., Toronto, Ontario 2010
[23] Seymour Lipschutz. Schaum’s outline of Theory and Problems of linear algebra.
McGraw-Hill 1968.
[24] Shampiyona Aimable : Mathématiques 6. Kigali, Juin 2005.
[25] Tom Duncan, Advanced Physics, Fourth edition. John Murray (Publishers) Ltd,
London 1998
[26] Yves Noirot, Jean–Paul Parisot, Nathalie Brouillet. Cours de Physique
Mathématiques pour la Physique. Paris, DUNOD, 1997.
208

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Advanced Mathematics

for Rwanda Secondary Schools

© Ngezahayo Emmanuel, Icyingeneye Pacifique 2017

Section 1: General introduction.......................................... v

Unit 3 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations............... 43

Unit 4 Solving Equations by Numerical Methods............ 53

Unit 6 Vector Space of Real Numbers............................. 95

Unit 7 Matrices and Determinant of Order 3................. 117

Unit 8 Points, Straight Lines, Planes and Sphere

Unit 9 Bivariate Statistics............................................. 189

Unit 10 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem....... 199

1.1. General introduction to the new curriculum

with instruction. Formative assessment provides immediate

marks should not conflict with the grades on the progress

Teacher must encourage learners to;

Section 3: Effective tips for slow learners

Mathematics may be challenging for a slow learner, but not

4. Build a helpful environment for learners. Encourage

The following are the most important principles in mathematics

1.1. Principle 1: Let It Make Sense

1.2. Principle 2: Remember the Goals

1.3. Principle 3: Know Tools

If computer lab is available at the school, teacher can show the

1.4. Principle 4: Living and Loving Mathematics

The following table summarises every unit in Learners’ Book.

Language Presenting result obtained in Presenting result obtained in

Revision Revision of provided exercises Revision of provided

Vocabulary • Upper and lower triangular Line and plane in space

Classroom Homework, Whole class Homework, Whole class

School: ……………………… Academic year: ………..

Term Date Subject Class Unit No Lesson Duration Class

Key Unit Solve trigonometric equations, inequalities and related problems

Title of the Trigonometric inequalities

Learning Exercise book, pen, calculator, ruler

Description of teaching and learning activity

Timing for each step Teacher’s activities

Introduction Ask questions on previous lesson.

Body of the lesson Step 1:

Learners’ activities Competences and cross cutting

• Reporter represents the work.

• Self confidence: learners will gain

1 • In group activities, the fact of

sine is greater than

15 minutes Request learners to do exercise 1.9 in their

15 minutes Request some learners to answer to questions 1

10 minutes Give to the learners an individual evaluation (quiz)

Summarize the learned lesson Learners develop critical thinking

Do questions 1 and 2 of exercise 1.9, from Through group activities, cooperation

Do questions 1 and 2 of exercise 1.9, from Through presentation on chalkboard,

Do question 3 of exercise 1.9, from learner’s book

Do the given quiz individually

Section 7: General Methodology

Follow the following three steps when teaching any lesson.

Section 8: Description of Units

Unit 1. Trigonometric formulae, Equations and Inequalities

Learner’s Book page 1 – 38

Recommended teaching periods: 14 periods