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Test Bank for Understanding Psychology, 9th Edition : Feldman
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Chapter 08 - Cognition and Language
Chapter 08
Cognition and Language
Multiple Choice Questions
1. (p. 248) _____ psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher
mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing,
reasoning, and judging.
A. Clinical
B. Developmental
C. Cognitive
D. Evolutionary
APA Goal Outcome: 1.4, 10.2

Bloom's Taxonomy: Remember
Difficulty: Easy
Learning Outcome: 23-1
2. (p. 250)Which of the following is true about mental images?

A. They refer only to visual representations.
B. They have only a few of the properties of the actual stimuli they represent.
C. They are representations in the mind of an object or event.
D. They cannot be rotated.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

Difficulty: Easy
8-1
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3. (p. 250)Which of the following statements best expresses the nature of mental images?
A. They are binary in format.
B. They are always auditory in format.
C. They may be produced by any sensory modality.
D. They are linguistic.

Difficulty: Easy
4. (p. 250) Dr. Randazza shows participants a stylized map of a fictitious city. The map
includes landmarks, such as a post office, a library, a shopping mall, a bus depot, and an
airport. Some of the landmarks are close together, such as the library and the post office.
Others are far apart, such as the airport and the shopping mall. Dr. Randazza removes the map.
Participants are asked to imagine walking from one landmark to another, either a nearby one
or a more distant one. Participants press a key when they've reached the destination in their
minds. Based on your text's discussion of mental imagery, what do you think Dr. Randazza
should find? What would such a result say about mental imagery?
A. Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as
between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual
actions we perform with respect to real objects.
B. Participants should take the same amount of time to travel mentally between distant as
between close landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the
actual actions we perform with respect to real objects.
C. Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close
landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery reflects the actual actions we
perform with respect to real objects.
D. Participants should take longer to travel mentally between distant than between close
landmarks. This result would suggest that mental imagery does not reflect the actual actions
we perform with respect to real objects.

Bloom's Taxonomy: Understand
Difficulty: Medium
8-2
5. (p. 251) Clint is mentally rehearsing his golf swing in his mind's eye. Based on the text's
discussion of mental imagery, which of the following statements is MOST accurate?
A. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. Carrying out the task involves the
same network of brain cells as the network used in mentally rehearsing it.
B. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active
during Clint's mental rehearsal should be the same as those active when Clint actually swings
the golf club.
C. Clint's mental rehearsal should improve his golf swing. The brain areas active during
Clint's mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually swings the
golf club.
D. Clint's mental rehearsal should do little to improve his golf swing. The brain areas active
during Clint's mental rehearsal should be different than those active when Clint actually
swings the golf club.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

Difficulty: Medium
6. (p. 250-251) Mental representations of objects are called _____; mental grouping of similar
objects, events, or people are called _____.
A. images; concepts
B. images; images as well
C. concepts; concepts as well
D. concepts; images

Difficulty: Easy
8-3
7. (p. 251) Which of the following is most nearly synonymous with the term concept, as it is
used by cognitive psychologists?
A. Idea
B. Relationship
C. Category
D. Image

Difficulty: Easy
8. (p. 251) Mental groupings of objects, events, or people that share common features are
called:
A. concepts.
B. ideas.
C. heuristics.
D. algorithms.

Difficulty: Easy
9. (p. 251) A prototype is:

A. the most typical or highly representative example of a concept.
B. the first example of a concept that one encounters.
C. the most frequent or common example of a concept.
D. the most unusual or distinctive example of a concept.

Difficulty: Easy
8-4
10. (p. 251) Which of the following is MOST likely the prototype of the concept "fruit"?
A. Carrot
B. Apple
C. Tomato
D. Blueberry

Difficulty: Easy
11. (p. 252) Those raised in the United States are MOST likely to use _____ relationships to
categorize.
A. semantic
B. functional
C. categorical
D. thematic

Difficulty: Easy
12. (p. 253) _____ is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make
decisions.
A. Reasoning
B. Negotiating
C. Predicting
D. Conceptualizing

Difficulty: Easy
8-5
13. (p. 253) Which of the following individuals is NOT engaged in reasoning, as
psychologists define the term?
A. Clay, who is deciding which make and model of used car is least likely to present a
maintenance headache, based on his friends' testimonials
B. Darla, who is concluding that a particular model of used car is a poor investment over the
longer term, based on a report in a consumer magazine
C. Emilio, who is dreaming about a novel way to earn the cash for a new used car
D. Mark, who is deciding which college to go to, based on the reviews each of them has
received.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

Bloom's Taxonomy: Apply
Difficulty: Medium
14. (p. 253) You check the time on your phone. Your friend should be out of class by now.
You call her. She should answer if she's out of class. In this example, your thought processes
are best seen as exemplifying:
A. problem solving.
B. conceptualization.
C. reasoning.
D. creativity.

Difficulty: Medium
8-6
15. (p. 253) Syllogisms are used to study:

A. algorithms.
B. heuristics.
C. mental sets.
D. reasoning.

Difficulty: Easy
8-7
16. (p. 253) Formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions
is known as _____ reasoning.
A. divergent
B. syllogistic
C. analogical
D. inductive

Difficulty: Easy
17. (p. 253) "All cats are remarkable. All remarkable things should be indulged. Therefore all
cats should be indulged." This is an example of _____ reasoning.
A. convergent
B. divergent
C. syllogistic
D. analogical

Difficulty: Easy
18. (p. 254) A major technique for studying syllogistic reasoning involves asking people to
evaluate a series of statements that present two _____ that are used to derive a(n) _____.
A. scenarios; assumption
B. premises; conclusion
C. premises; judgment
D. transformations; conclusion

Difficulty: Easy
8-8
19. (p. 254) Consider the following syllogism:
(1) All Houstonians are Texans.

(2) Some Houstonians attend church.
(3) Some Texans attend church.
Which of the following alternatives correctly identifies a statement in this syllogism?

A. Statement 1— conclusion
B. Statement 2— premise
C. Statement 3—conclusion
D. Statement 3—premise

Difficulty: Medium
20. (p. 254) A rule that guarantees the solution to a problem when it is correctly applied is
termed as a(n):
A. heuristic.
B. algorithm.
C. premise.
D. syllogism.

Difficulty: Easy
8-9
21. (p. 254) Which of the following is true of algorithms?

A. In cases where heuristics are not available we may use algorithms.
B. Even if it is applied appropriately, an algorithm cannot guarantee a solution to a problem.
C. Algorithms may sometimes lead to errors.
D. We can use an algorithm even if we cannot understand why it works.

Difficulty: Medium
8-10
22. (p. 254) Which of the following is true of heuristics?

A. In cases where algorithms are not available, we may use heuristics.
B. If applied appropriately, a heuristic guarantees a solution to a problem.
C. Heuristics never lead to errors.
D. Heuristics decrease the likelihood of success in coming to a solution.

Difficulty: Medium
23. (p. 254) Which of the following terms best captures the meaning of the term heuristic, as
cognitive psychologists use it?
A. Principle
B. Formula
C. Strategy
D. Program

Difficulty: Easy
24. (p. 254) When you play tic-tac-toe using certain mental shortcuts, you are using cognitive
strategies psychologists call:
A. algorithms.
B. mental sets.
C. heuristics.
D. syllogistic reasoning.

Difficulty: Easy
8-11
25. (p. 254) Matt picks up a pamphlet at a counseling center titled How to Succeed at College
Course Work. Which type of problem-solving strategies is MOST LIKELY offered in this
pamphlet?
A. Algorithms
B. Insights
C. Heuristics
D. Syllogisms

Difficulty: Medium
26. (p. 254) Which of the following most likely makes use of heuristics?
A. A chemical equation for the synthesis of sulfuric acid
B. A recipe for making cookies on the back of a box of cornflakes
C. An article by a Nobel Prize winner titled "How to Succeed in Science"
D. A computer program for keeping track of inventory at a department store

Difficulty: Medium
27. (p. 254)Which of the following is an advantage of the use of heuristics?

A. A heuristic will present a clearly defined solution to a problem.
B. A heuristic is often efficient.
C. A heuristic is guaranteed to result in a correct response.
D. A heuristic results in only one possible solution to a problem.

Difficulty: Medium
8-12
28. (p. 254) Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

A. Heuristics always lead to correct solutions of a problem.
B. Heuristics are a slower way to solve problems than are other strategies.
C. Heuristics represent commonly used approaches to the solution of a problem.
D. Heuristics are used by computers but not by humans as problem-solving tools.

Difficulty: Medium
29. (p. 254) Lori and Monica are looking at the cans of coffee on display at a local
supermarket. They are trying to decide which of two different-sized cans is the better buy.
Lori attempts to divide the price of each can by the number of ounces of coffee each _____
contains. Monica suggests that "the larger size is usually a better buy." Lori is using a(n);
Monica, a(n) _____.
A. heuristic; algorithm
B. algorithm; heuristic
C. prototype; algorithm
D. heuristic; prototype

Difficulty: Medium
30. (p. 254) The _____ is a rule we apply when we judge people by the degree to which they
depict a certain category or group of people.
A. availability heuristic
B. representativeness heuristic
C. confirmation bias
D. stereotypic bias

Difficulty: Easy
8-13
31. (p. 254)When you use the representativeness heuristic, you are:
A. making frequency estimates based on the ease with which things come to mind.
B. overcoming a mental set.
C. mistaking visual images and other forms of mental representations for reality.
D. assuming that something is typical of its class.

Difficulty: Medium
32. (p. 254) Suppose you meet a woman who opposes the death penalty. You then decide that,
generally, women are more likely to oppose the death penalty than are men. That is, you
assume that the individual case is depictive of its category. Here you have fallen prey to:
A. functional fixedness.
B. the representativeness heuristic.
C. the availability heuristic.
D. the confirmation bias.

Difficulty: Easy
33. (p. 254) Carl is the one person Craig has ever met from New Zealand. Carl strikes Craig
as being quite friendly and funny. When asked what he would expect to find if he went to
New Zealand, Craig says that he would expect the people to be quite friendly and funny. What
might he have used to make this judgment?
A. The representativeness heuristic
B. The confirmation bias
C. Functional fixedness
D. The availability heuristic

Difficulty: Medium
8-14
34. (p. 255) The _____ heuristic involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of
how easily the event can be recalled from memory.
A. availability
B. representativeness
C. confirmation
D. frequency

Difficulty: Easy
35. (p. 255) According to the _____ heuristic we assume that events we remember easily are
likely to have occurred more frequently in the past—and are more likely to occur in the
future—than events that are harder to remember.
A. availability
B. representativeness
C. confirmation
D. frequency

Difficulty: Easy
8-15
36. (p. 255) Following the September 11, 2001, Twin Towers attacks, many Americans
elected to drive rather than fly. The media coverage of the hijackings caused Americans to
overestimate the danger of flying. As it was an event they remember easily they assumed it
could occur more frequently. This example illustrates the:
A. availability heuristic.
B. representativeness heuristic.
C. confirmation bias.
D. stereotypic bias.

Difficulty: Medium
8-16
37. (p. 255) When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by
stroke, they often choose homicide because they simply hear more about murders than they do
about strokes. In this instance, people are led astray in their judgments by:
A. the representativeness heuristic.
B. the stereotypic bias.
C. the confirmation bias.
D. the availability heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
38. (p. 255) Last week, Mike heard about five separate airplane crashes on the news. Even
though, overall, motorcycle accidents account for more accidents than plane crashes do, Mike
decides to ride his motorcycle from Washington to Atlanta instead of flying. Which bias is
reflected in Mike's decision?
A. The availability heuristic
B. The confirmation bias
C. The syllogistic error
D. The representativeness heuristic

Difficulty: Medium
8-17
39. (p. 255) Joanne will not go out at night because she hears from her local news station
about the large number of muggings and robberies that occur in her city. However, crime in
Joanne's city has actually gone down in the past few years. To which bias is Joanne falling
victim?
A. The representativeness heuristic
B. Functional fixedness
C. The availability heuristic
D. The confirmation bias

Difficulty: Medium
8-18
40. (p. 255) "You always clam up when I ask you what's wrong," Iris tells her boyfriend. Iris
is probably making this frequency judgment because she can remember a few times that her
boyfriend wouldn't tell her what was bothering him. Iris is using the _____ heuristic.
A. representativeness
B. availability
C. functional
D. frequency

Difficulty: Medium
41. (p. 255) In a _____ heuristic, known items are seen as superior to those that are
unknown.
A. representativeness
B. availability
C. functional
D. familiarity

Difficulty: Easy
42. (p. 255) When you go to the supermarket, you see the brand of cookies you usually buy,
and settle for it. Usually it's a good rule of thumb, because it saves a lot of time. You do not
ponder over every type of cookie available in the store. This is an example of a(n) _____.
A. representativeness heuristic
B. syllogistic reasoning
C. algorithm
D. familiarity heuristic

Difficulty: Easy
8-19
43. (p. 255) _____ intelligence is the field that examines how to use technology to imitate the
outcome of human thinking, problem solving, and creative activities.
A. Artificial
B. Bodily-kinesthetic
C. Spatial
D. Existential

Difficulty: Easy
44. (p. 259) Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of the three broad
phases of the problem-solving process, from first to last?
A. Preparation ｮ judgment ｮ production
B. Judgment ｮ production ｮ preparation
C. Preparation ｮ production ｮ judgment
D. Judgment ｮ preparation ｮ production

Difficulty: Easy
45. (p. 259) In _____ problems, the nature of the problem and the information needed to
solve it are clear; in _____ problems, either or both the nature of the problem and the
information required to solve it are unclear.
A. well-defined; ill-defined
B. algorithmic; heuristic
C. arrangement; inducing structure
D. transformation; arrangement

Difficulty: Easy
8-20
46. (p. 259)Which of the following is an ill-defined problem?

A. Navigating to a museum in a nearby city
B. Composing a good concerto
C. Finding out where several well-known authors were born
D. Playing Scrabble

Difficulty: Medium
47. (p. 259, 254) "Convert to a mixed numeral: 18/5," states one problem in a fifth-grader's
arithmetic text. This is a(n) _____ problem. It is best solved through the application of
_____.
A. well-defined; algorithms
B. well-defined; heuristics
C. ill-defined; algorithms
D. ill-defined; heuristics

Difficulty: Medium
48. (p. 259) Dr. Ireland's class is attempting to find derivatives; Dr. Jamison's class is
developing campaign strategies for a local politician. Which of the following statements is
MOST likely TRUE?
A. Dr. Ireland's class is solving a well-defined problem.
B. Dr. Jamison's class is solving a well-defined problem.
C. Dr. Ireland's class is using syllogistic reasoning.
D. Dr. Jamison's class is using familiarity heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
8-21
49. (p. 259) _____ problems require the problem solver to rearrange or recombine elements
in a way that will satisfy a certain criterion.
A. Arrangement
B. Inducing structure
C. Transformation
D. Prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
50. (p. 259) In problems of _____, a person must identify the existing relationships among
the elements presented and then construct a new relationship among them.
A. arrangement
B. inducing structure
C. transformation
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
51. (p. 259) _____ problems consist of an initial state, a goal state, and a method for
changing the initial state into the goal state.
A. Arrangement
B. Inducing structure
C. Transformation
D. Prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
8-22
52. (p. 259) Which of the following problem types is CORRECTLY matched with a
description?
A. Arrangement—moving from an initial to a goal state according to a specific method
B. Inducing structure—identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing
new relationships
C. Transformation—rearranging or recombining elements to satisfy a particular criterion
D. Transformation— identifying relationships among problem elements and constructing new
relationships

Difficulty: Medium
53. (p. 259) Janelle is solving anagrams; Kamika is puzzling over verbal analogies; Lamar is
playing chess with a friend. Which alternative below CORRRECTLY matches each individual
with the type of problem he or she is solving?
A. Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—transformation; Lamar—inducing structure
B. Janelle—transformation; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—arrangement
C. Janelle—arrangement; Kamika—inducing structure; Lamar—transformation
D. Janelle—transformation; Kamika—arrangement; Lamar—inducing structure

Difficulty: Medium
8-23
54. (p. 262) Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb only because he experimented with
thousands of different kinds of materials for a filament before he found one that worked
(carbon). This shows that at the most basic level, we can solve problems through _____.
A. the availability heuristic
B. means-ends analysis
C. insight
D. trial and error

Difficulty: Easy
8-24
55. (p. 262) _____ involves repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and
what currently exists.
A. Forming subgoals
B. Means-ends analysis
C. Insight
D. Trial and error

Difficulty: Easy
56. (p. 262) According to the text, the most frequently used problem-solving heuristic is:
A. forming subgoals.
B. means-ends analysis.
C. insight.
D. trial and error.

Difficulty: Easy
57. (p. 262-263) Millie is stumped by a problem in her pre-calculus text. She furtively glances
at the answer provided in the back of the text to get an idea of how the solution should look
before she returns to the problem. Millie's strategy most closely resembles the
problem-solving heuristic of:
B. trial and error.
C. working backward.
D. insight.

Difficulty: Medium
8-25
58. (p. 263) A political science professor attempts to facilitate her students' completion of a
term paper assignment by requiring to first submit a topic statement, then a list of references,
then a draft of the introduction, then, finally, the completed paper. The professor is
encouraging her students to use the problem-solving strategy of:
B. working backward.
C. means-ends analysis.
D. trial and error.

Difficulty: Medium
59. (p. 263) Which problem-solving strategy or method is CORRECTLY matched with its
definition?
A. Means-ends analysis - dividing a problem into intermediate steps
B. Forming subgoals - focusing on a problem's goal rather than its starting point
C. Working backward - reducing the apparent difference between the current state of the
problem and the goal
D. Insight - experiencing a sudden awareness of the relationships among a problem's
components

Difficulty: Medium
8-26
60. (p. 262-263) Kent and Kirsten are both trying to reduce their consumer debt. Kent isolates
several more concrete problems he can solve to achieve his goal, such as paying the
highest-interest debts first and freezing credit card spending. Kirsten simply pays her largest
debt first, because this would seem to be the fastest way to move her debt as close to zero as
possible. Kent's plan reflects the problem-solving strategy of _____. Kirsten's method
illustrates the strategy of _____.
A. forming subgoals; trial and error
B. means-end analysis; trial and error
C. working backward; means-end analysis
D. forming subgoals; means-end analysis

Difficulty: Difficult
61. (p. 263) The study of insight is associated with the German psychologist _____; he
studied problem solving among _____.
A. Kohler; chimpanzees
B. Kohler; humans
C. Wundt; cats
D. Wundt; humans

Difficulty: Easy
8-27
62. (p. 263) _____ is defined as a sudden awareness of the relationship among problem
elements; it is thought to lead rapidly to the problem's solution.
A. Convergent thinking
B. Divergent thinking
C. Insight
D. Creativity

Difficulty: Easy
8-28
63. (p. 263) The text's discussion of insight suggests that its key characteristic is its:
A. brevity.
B. complexity.
C. uniqueness.
D. suddenness.

Difficulty: Easy
64. (p. 263) According to the text, the apparent suddenness of insightful problem solutions:
A. may rest in part on the foundation of trial and error.
B. may be based on the availability heuristic.
C. has been affirmed by empirical research.
D. requires the application of confirmation bias.

Difficulty: Medium
65. (p. 264) For which of the following types of problems is the evaluation of solutions
LEAST likely to prove difficult?
A. Well-defined problems
B. Ill-defined problems
C. Divergent thinking problems
D. Associative thinking problems

Difficulty: Medium
8-29
66. (p. 265) Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is
INCORRECTLY matched with an illustrative problem?
A. Confirmation bias—problem of security in the Middle East
B. Functional fixedness—water jar problem
C. Mental set—water jar problem
D. Functional fixedness—candle problem

Difficulty: Medium
67. (p. 265) _____ refers to the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist.
A. Mental set
B. Representativeness heuristic
C. Availability heuristic
D. Syllogistic frame

Difficulty: Easy
68. (p. 265) Zelma is asked to think of all the words she can, beginning with the letters "squ,"
such as squeak. She is then given a fill-in-the-blank task on which one of the items is "s _ _ o
n g." Zelma keeps trying to make "squong" a word, and has trouble thinking of the common
word strong. Zelma's ability to solve this problem has been hampered by:
A. syllogistic reasoning.
B. a mental set.
D. the representativeness heuristic.

Difficulty: Medium
8-30
69. (p. 265) Which of the following statements best expresses the relationship between
mental and functional fixedness?
A. Functional fixedness is an example of a broader phenomenon known as mental set.
B. Mental set is actually a specific instance of functional fixedness.
C. Functional fixedness and mental set are the same thing.
D. Functional fixedness and mental set are distinct problem-solving impediments.

Difficulty: Medium
70. (p. 265) Making several minor household repairs, Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a
butter knife as a screwdriver. Which of the following statements best characterizes Alyssa's
problem solving?
A. She is constrained by a powerful mental set.
B. She has been released from functional fixedness.
C. She is taking advantage of the representative heuristic.
D. She is forming subgoals.

Difficulty: Medium
71. (p. 265) A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can
imagine only the conventional uses for her tools. This best demonstrates which of the
following?
A. Syllogistic reasoning
B. Functional fixedness
C. Algorithmic thinking
D. Means-end analysis

Difficulty: Medium
8-31
72. (p. 265) Henry's dog, Sparky, has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky
before the dog gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the
tub. Sitting on the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry
fails to see that the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to
Henry?
A. He took a heuristic approach.
B. He fell prey to the confirmation bias.
C. He suffered from mental set.
D. He employed representational thought.

Difficulty: Medium
73. (p. 266) _____ is the tendency to seek out and weight more heavily information that
supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports
alternative hypotheses or solutions.
A. Functional fixedness
B. A mental set
C. Confirmation bias
D. Representativeness heuristic
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Easy
8-32
74. (p. 266) Which of the following impediments to effective problem solving is
CORRECTLY matched with its definition?
A. Functional fixedness—the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist
B. Mental set—the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its customary use
C. Confirmation bias—the tendency to favor existing hypotheses and to ignore evidence
favoring alternatives
D. Representative heuristic—involves judging the probability of an event on the basis of how
easily the event can be recalled from memory.

Difficulty: Medium
8-33
75. (p. 266) Nigel often cites newspaper editorials favoring the presidential candidate he
supports; he appears to ignore editorials critical of the candidate. Nigel appears prone to:
A. functional fixedness.
B. mental set.
D. the representativeness heuristic.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
76. (p. 266) Sandy, a true believer in astrology, reads in her horoscope that today is her lucky
day. She gets so excited that she spills coffee all over herself, necessitating a change of clothes.
As a result, she is late for work and for a very important meeting, which in turn gets her into
serious trouble with her boss. That evening, her brother is taken to the emergency room. On
her way to visit him, Sandy finds a dime in the hospital parking lot. What does research on the
confirmation bias suggest that Sandy will do?
A. Sandy will renounce astrology as completely wrong because of all the horrible things that
happened on her "lucky day."
B. Sandy will begin to question her belief in astrology because of all the horrible things that
happened on her "lucky day."
C. Sandy will seize on the dime she found as evidence of astrology's accuracy.
D. Confirmation bias has little or no relevance to how Sandy will think about astrology in
the future.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4

Difficulty: Medium
8-34
77. (p. 267) The ability to generate original ideas or develop novel solutions to problems is
known as:
A. convergent thinking.
B. insight.
C. creativity.
D. syllogistic reasoning.

Difficulty: Easy
78. (p. 267) Which of the following statements accurately expresses one failing of cognitive
psychologists' study of problem solving?
A. Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the strategies people use in solving
problems.
B. Cognitive psychologists have failed to explain why some people generate better solutions
than others do.
C. Cognitive psychologists have failed to specify how people represent problems in their
minds.
D. Cognitive psychologists have failed to identify the barriers to effective problem solving
that people face.

Difficulty: Medium
8-35
79. (p. 267) Someone relying on convergent thinking would answer _____ to the query
"What can you do with a toothbrush?"
A. "You brush your teeth with it"
B. "You use it for painting"
C. "You use it for cleaning tools"
D. "You use it to make toys"

Difficulty: Medium
8-36
80. (p. 267) Someone relying on divergent thinking would answer _____ to the query "What
can you do with a pencil?"
A. "You write with it"
B. "You use it for sketching"
C. "You use it when you can't find a pen"
D. "You use it to make toys"

Difficulty: Medium
81. (p. 267)As compared to less creative individuals, creative persons:

A. prefer more complex stimuli.
B. are more dependent.
C. are more interested in concrete problems.
D. have a narrower range of interests.

Difficulty: Easy
82. (p. 267) Which of the following is true of creativity?

A. One factor that is closely related to creativity is intelligence.
B. Traditional tests are a good way to gauge an individual's creativity.
C. Highly creative individuals show signs of convergent thinking.
D. Cognitive complexity is an important aspect of creativity.

Difficulty: Medium
8-37
83. (p. 268) Which of the following factors is NOT closely related to creativity?
A. Cognitive complexity
B. Abstract problems
C. Range of interests
D. Intelligence
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 3.2, 4.1

Difficulty: Easy
84. (p. 268) Traditional intelligence tests tend to assess _____ thinking; tests of creativity tap
into _____.
A. divergent; convergent thinking
B. divergent; divergent thinking as well
C. convergent; divergent thinking
D. convergent; convergent thinking as well
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 2.3, 3.2, 4.1

Difficulty: Easy
85. (p. 269) According to the text, critical or creative thinking may be enhanced by each of
the following strategies EXCEPT:
A. using analogies.
B. considering opposites.
C. avoiding heuristics.
D. experimenting with solutions.

Difficulty: Medium
8-38
86. (p. 271)Phonology is the study of:

A. combination of words.
B. speech sounds.
C. word order.
D. meaning.

Difficulty: Easy
87. (p. 271) Linguists have identified more than _____ different phonemes among all the
world's languages.
A. 26
B. more than 800
C. 52
D. an infinite number

Difficulty: Easy
88. (p. 271) Approximately how many phonemes are found in English?
A. 26
B. more than 800
C. 52
D. an infinite number

Difficulty: Easy
8-39
89. (p. 271) Dr. Salim is a linguist, studying the rules guiding the order of words and phrases
in several of the world's languages. Dr. Salim is a(n):
A. syntactician.
B. semanticist.
C. phonologist.
D. translator.

Difficulty: Easy
90. (p. 271) In written language, letters most closely represent _____, whereas sentences may
be said to reflect _____.
A. syntax; semantics
B. syntax; phonemes
C. phonemes; syntax
D. phonemes; semantics

Difficulty: Medium
91. (p. 271-272) Which of the following sequences correctly orders the components of
language, from the smallest or most specific to the broadest?
A. Phoneme ｮ syntax ｮ semantics
B. Syntax ｮ semantics ｮ phoneme
C. Phoneme ｮ semantics ｮ syntax
D. Syntax ｮ phoneme ｮ semantics

Difficulty: Medium
8-40
92. (p. 272) Which of the following language acquisition stages or phenomena is
CORRECTLY matched with an illustrative example?
A. Babbling—"Goo goo, ga ga."
B. Telegraphic speech—"I ran from the library to the bus stop."
C. Overgeneralization—"Daddy has come home."
D. Overgeneralization—"Drawing house"

Difficulty: Medium
93. (p. 272) What is meant by the notion of a critical period for language acquisition?
A. It is the period of transition between one-word and two-word utterances.
B. It is the time in one's childhood in which a child is particularly sensitive to language cues
and most easily acquires language.
C. It is the period isolated children spend by themselves before someone teaches them
language.
D. It is the period between six and ten years of age in which certain complex aspects of
syntax are learned.

Difficulty: Easy
8-41
94. (p. 272) The text reports the case of a girl named Genie, who was exposed to virtually no
language from the age of 20 months until the age of 13. In what way does Genie's case offer
support for the notion of a critical period in language acquisition?
A. With intensive instruction, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary after the age of 13;
moreover, she eventually mastered the rules of syntax.
B. Even with intensive instruction, Genie acquired only a very small vocabulary after the
age of 13; furthermore, she never mastered the complexities of language.
C. Once she was no longer isolated, Genie acquired a sizeable vocabulary and eventually
mastered the rules of syntax, even without intensive formal instruction.
D. Genie's case is irrelevant to the notion of a critical period.

Difficulty: Medium
8-42
95. (p. 272-273) Tina is 6 months old, Vincenzo is 2 years and 7 months old, and Wayne is 3.5
years old. Which alternative below CORRECTLY pairs each child with the appropriate
language acquisition stage or phenomenon?
A. Tina—overgeneralization; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—telegraphic speech
B. Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—telegraphic speech; Wayne—overgeneralization
C. Tina—telegraphic speech; Vincenzo—babbling; Wayne—overgeneralization
D. Tina—babbling; Vincenzo—overgeneralization; Wayne—telegraphic speech

Difficulty: Medium
96. (p. 272-273) You are creating a language development timeline for a class presentation.
Along the top of a display board, you write the following ages in sequence: 6 months ｮ 1 year
ｮ 2 years ｮ3 years
How should you label these ages, from youngest to oldest?
A. Babbling ｮ first words ｮ telegraphic speech ｮ overgeneralization
B. Babbling ｮ overgeneralization ｮ first words ｮ telegraphic speech
C. Babbling ｮ first words ｮ overgeneralization ｮ telegraphic speech
D. Overgeneralization ｮ babbling ｮ first words ｮ telegraphic speech

Difficulty: Medium
8-43
97. (p. 273) Dorian is 2 years old; Constance is 2.5. Dorian's vocabulary probably contains
around _____ words; Constance's, _____ words.
A. about 100; several hundred
B. about 50; about 100
C. about 50; several hundred
D. several hundred; about 1000

Difficulty: Medium
8-44
98. (p. 273) "All gone milk," says two-year-old Wesley, placing the empty glass on the table.
Wesley's remark exemplifies the language acquisition phenomenon termed:
A. babbling.
B. telegraphic speech.
C. holographic speech.
D. agrammatism.

Difficulty: Medium
99. (p. 273) Ricky tells his grandmother, "Momma holded the rabbit." According to your text,
Ricky's statement exemplifies:
A. idiomatic speech.
B. telegraphic speech.
C. babbling.
D. overgeneralization.

Difficulty: Medium
100. (p. 273) Connie is telling her mother a story about a scary dog she encountered in a
neighbors yard. "Then I runned away," Connie concludes. Which language acquisition
phenomenon is Connie demonstrating? About how old is Connie?
A. Connie is babbling. She is probably about 2 years old.
B. Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 3-4 years old.
C. Connie is babbling. She is probably about 4 years old.
D. Connie is overgeneralizing. She is probably 5-6 years old.

Difficulty: Medium
8-45
101. (p. 273) The theory that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement
and conditioning is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
102. (p. 274) The theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language
development is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
103. (p. 274) The nativist approach to language acquisition is associated with:
A. B. F. Skinner.
B. Benjamin Whorf.
C. Noam Chomsky.
D. Wolfgang Kohler.

Difficulty: Easy
8-46
104. (p. 274) The view that language development is produced through a combination of
genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach
language is known as the _____ approach.
A. learning-theory
B. nativist
C. interactionist
D. prescriptive

Difficulty: Easy
105. (p. 274) Theorists taking an interactionist approach to language acquisition:

A. reject both the learning theory and nativist approaches.
B. agree that the brain is hardwired to acquire language.
C. downplay the role of the environment in language acquisition.
D. remain unconvinced by the idea of a language-acquisition device.

Difficulty: Medium
106. (p. 275) The notion that language shapes and may determine the way people in a
particular culture perceive and understand the world is known as the _____ hypothesis.
A. output
B. interaction
C. linguistic-relativity
D. monitor

Difficulty: Easy
8-47
107. (p. 276) The _____ hypothesis suggests language leads to thought.
A. output
B. interaction
C. linguistic-relativity
D. monitor

Difficulty: Easy
108. (p. 277) Which figure best approximates the number of Americans for whom English is
a second language?
A. 13 million
B. 25 million
C. 47 million
D. 100 million

Difficulty: Medium
109. (p. 277) In seven states, including Texas and Colorado, more than ____ of the students
are not native English speakers.
A. 5%
B. 10%
C. 15%
D. 25%

Difficulty: Medium
8-48
110. (p. 277) In _____, students are educated in their native language and in English
simultaneously; in _____, they are educated only in English.
A. immersion programs; bilingual education
B. bilingual education; immersion programs
C. an alternation approach; immersion programs
D. immersion programs; alternation programs
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
8-49
Fill in the Blank Questions
111. (p. 249) Estelle is playing with images and concepts in her mind. Her cognitive
psychology professor would say that she is _____.
thinking

Difficulty: Easy
112. (p. 250) _____ are representations in the mind of an object or event.
Mental images

Difficulty: Easy
113. (p. 251) A researcher finds that her participants think most readily of a carrot when
prompted with the category "vegetable." On this basis, the researcher might argue that a carrot
is the _____ vegetable.
prototypical

Difficulty: Medium
8-50
114. (p. 254) A high school physics teacher reassures his class that no matter how confusing
this week's word problems appear, they all may be solved quite handily through the use of the
formula F = MA. The teacher has offered his students a(n) _____.
algorithm

Difficulty: Medium
8-51
115. (p. 254) Sometimes we are prone to judge an individual based on our notion of the
category of people he or she most closely resembles; that is, we fall prey to the _____
heuristic.
representativeness

Difficulty: Medium
116. (p. 259) A calculus problem has one correct answer and contains all the information
necessary for its solution; thus, it is a(n) _____ problem.
well-defined

Difficulty: Medium
117. (p. 259) Because they involve rules for moving from an initial to a goal state, many
board games may be seen as examples of _____ problems.
transformation

Difficulty: Medium
118. (p. 262) Renee has an idea of how her living room ought to look. She's moving furniture,
paintings, and accessories to get closer and closer to that picture in her head. Renee is using
the problem-solving technique of _____.
means-ends analysis

Difficulty: Medium
8-52
119. (p. 263) "Eureka! I've got it!" That sudden awareness of the path toward a problem's
solution is termed _____.
insight

Difficulty: Easy
120. (p. 265) Functional fixedness may be seen as a particular example of _____.
mental set

Difficulty: Medium
121. (p. 266-267) People seek and remember evidence in support of their existing hypotheses;
they ignore or discount contradictory evidence. In other words, people are prone to the
_____.
confirmation bias

Difficulty: Easy
122. (p. 267) "How many uses can you think of for a brick?" asks the examiner. You are
taking a test of _____ thinking.
divergent

Difficulty: Easy
8-53
123. (p. 269) One synonym for forming subgoals is _____.

fractionation

Difficulty: Medium
124. (p. 271) The rules indicating how words and phrases may be combined to form
legitimate sentences are referred to as _____.
syntax

Difficulty: Easy
125. (p. 272) If children are not exposed to language during a(n) _____ period early in life,
they may never acquire it.
critical

Difficulty: Medium
126. (p. 273) "Sophie kitty," Tara says, when her aunt asks her whether the stuffed animal
belongs to her or to her sister. Tara's reply exemplifies _____ speech.
telegraphic

Difficulty: Medium
8-54
127. (p. 273-274) With respect to language acquisition, Skinner is to learning theory what
_____ is to nativism.
Chomsky

Difficulty: Easy
128. (p. 274) Chomsky suggested that the human brain has an inherited neural system that
lets us understand the structure language provides. This is known as _____.
universal grammar

Difficulty: Easy
129. (p. 275) According to the _____, language provides us with categories that we use to
construct our view of people and events in the world around us.
linguistic-relativity hypothesis

Difficulty: Medium
130. (p. 277) In _____, students are immediately plunged into English instruction in all
subjects.
immersion programs
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.2, 5.5, 8.2

Difficulty: Easy
8-55
Essay Questions
131. (p. 250-251) Describe in as much detail as you can the mental representation of objects
and categories. Provide illustrative examples where appropriate.
Students' examples may vary.
The answer should contain the following points:
Objects. Objects are represented by mental images. Mental images are not only visual; they
can be produced by any of our sensory systems. A familiar example might be the experience
of "hearing" a song in one's head. Images retain many of the properties of the objects they
represent; in addition, we can often perform the same operations on images that we can on the
real objects they represent. For example, it takes longer to scan an image of a large object than
it does to scan an image of a small object, just as it takes longer to scan an actual large object
than a small one. We can also rotate an object's image in our mind, just as we can rotate
objects in the physical world. Mental images have been used to enhance the practice and
performance of athletes and musicians.
Categories. Categories of objects, events, and people that are similar in some way are
represented by concepts. Concepts enable us to respond appropriately to stimuli in the
environment and to identify novel objects. Some concepts, such as geometrical shapes and
kinship terms, may be represented by a unique set of properties or features (e.g.,
triangle—three sides, interior angles sum to 180 degrees). Most concepts are represented by a
best or most typical example, or prototype. An apple, for example, may be the prototypical
fruit. Other objects are categorized as fruits to the extent that they resemble an apple.

Difficulty: Medium
8-56
132. (p. 254-255) Distinguish between an algorithm and a heuristic. Provide an example of
each.
Algorithm vs. heuristic. An algorithm is a rule that is guaranteed to produce a solution to a

problem if it is applied correctly. An example might be a formula in physics: If F = MA is
appropriately applied to a particular word problem, the solution will result. A heuristic is a
cognitive strategy that may result in the solution to a problem, but it is not guaranteed to do so.
Heuristics require less time, expertise, and cognitive effort to apply than do algorithms. In
addition, for certain problems, no algorithm may exist. An example of a heuristic is to assume
that one can afford the mortgage to a house if the house costs 2.5 times one's salary or less;
applying this rule is easier than calculating and projecting mortgages for houses of different
prices.

Difficulty: Easy
133. (p. 255) Can computers think? Provide as thoughtful an answer as you can, considering
the ability of current computers to solve complex problems and to demonstrate creativity.
Students' answers may vary.
The following text information is relevant to the answer:
Computers can solve complex problems. For example, computer programs can evaluate
potential chess moves and ignore unimportant possibilities. Computers can also create new
compositions in the style of such masters as Bach, complete with the full scope and emotional
appeal of actual Bach works.
It is a matter of opinion, though, as to whether mimicking someone else's creativity is the
same as being completely original on one's own.

Difficulty: Medium
8-57
134. (p. 259) Distinguish between well-defined and ill-defined problems. Provide an
example of each.
The answer should contain the following elements:
Well-defined vs. ill-defined problems. In well-defined problems, the nature of the problem is
clear, as is the information needed to solve it. An example might be an algebra word problem.
In ill-defined problems, either or both the nature of the problem or the information needed to
solve it is unclear. Determining how to get along with a prickly supervisor may be one
example.

Difficulty: Easy
8-58
135. (p. 262-263) Identify and describe three different problem-solving strategies described in
your text. Suggest how each strategy might be fruitfully applied in one or more college
courses.
The answer should mention the strategies described below. Examples may vary.
Means-ends analysis. Means-ends analysis involves repeatedly comparing the current state of
the problem to the goal state and attempting to reduce the difference between the two. In an
art course, for example, one might have an idea of the piece one would like to create; one
might try to reduce the difference between the current piece and the desired one by shading
here, adding a brush stroke there, smoothing this portion of the clay a little, and so on.
Forming subgoals. This strategy involves dividing a problem into a series of intermediate
steps, then solving those. A computer program assignment might offer an example: one might
code one section of the program, then another, and so on. A term paper might be divided into
separate introduction, body, conclusion, and reference assignments.
Working backward. The strategy involves focusing on the goal rather than the current state of
the problem, then determining the action that would most immediately produce the goal. A
common example is looking up the answer to a mathematics problem, then figuring out the
preceding steps.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

Difficulty: Easy
8-59
136. (p. 267-268) How do psychologists define creativity? Identify some of the cognitive
processes and personality characteristics that appear to be associated with creativity. How
might you describe the relationship between creativity and intelligence? To what extent does
this relationship reflect the traditional assessment of intelligence?
The answer should mention the following points:
Creativity—the ability to generate novel, yet appropriate solutions to problems. Creativity is

associated with divergent thinking—considering multiple, original answers to questions or
solutions to problems. It is associated with a preference for cognitive complexity—a preference
for elaborate or intricate stimuli or thought patterns. Creative individuals often have
wide-ranging interests and an interest in abstract or philosophical problems. They tend to be
independent and autonomous.
Creativity is only weakly associated with intelligence, probably because traditional
intelligence tests are strongly centered on convergent, rather than divergent, thinking
problems.

Difficulty: Medium
8-60
137. (p. 269) Describe several techniques that may improve critical or creative thinking.
How might these techniques help problem solvers overcome some of the impediments to
effective problem solving described in the text?
The answer should identify three of the following techniques. Definitions should be provided
where necessary.
Redefine problems—represent problems at more concrete or more abstract levels.
Use subgoals—divide a problem into smaller steps.
Adopt a critical perspective—evaluate assumptions and arguments carefully, rather than
passively accepting them.
Consider the opposites of concepts.
Use analogies—look for parallel examples outside the problem, such as in the animal world.
Think divergently—consider usual uses of objects.
Use heuristics—use cognitive shortcuts to aid problem solving.
Experiment with solutions—consider multiple solutions, even wacky ones.
These strategies may help one break out of the confines of mental set and functional fixedness,
that is, persisting in old patterns of problem solving and considering only the most
conventional uses of objects.
APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 3.4, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

Difficulty: Medium
8-61
138. (p. 271-272) Your friend asks you, "So, what did you get up to last night?" Write two or
three sentences in response to your friend; use your sentences to illustrate the three
components of language described in your text.
Students' answers may vary.
The answer should be similar to the following:
"I met two friends for pizza. We then went to the library for two hours to work on a homework
assignment. After that, I watched TV for a while."
Phonemes: speech sounds. The vowel sound in "I" and the beginning consonant in "met" are
examples.
Syntax: rules to order words so that the appropriate meaning is communicated. For example,
in the last sentence, "TV watched I" would not convey the idea that it was I who watched the
television set. Similarly, "Met pizza friends I two" would barely get across the idea of what
happened, if at all.
Semantics: the external meaning of language. Taken together, the three sentences in the
example allow the listener to construct a mental picture or model of how the evening went;
they take the listener into a meaningful world.

Difficulty: Medium
8-62
139. (p. 272-723) Describe babbling, telegraphic speech, and overgeneralization. Provide an
example of each. At which ages might you expect children to demonstrate each of these
language development phenomena?
The answer should include definitions and examples similar to the following:
Babbling: Speech-like but meaningless sounds, such as "goo goo, ga, ga." Children babble
from about 3 months to approximately 1 year of age.
Telegraphic speech: Brief sentence-like constructions which omit noncritical words. Example:
"Mommy home." Telegraphic speech is common around age 2.
Overgeneralization: Applying grammatical rules even when doing so results in an error.
Example: "It costed one dollar." Overgeneralization is common among children 3-4 years of
age.

Difficulty: Easy
8-63
Test Bank for Understanding Psychology, 9th Edition : Feldman
140. (p. 273-274) Contrast learning-theory and nativist theory of language development. Point
out the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.
The answer should include the following points:
Learning-theory. By this account, language is acquired through reinforcement—parents shape

their children's successive approximations to adult language. The more that parents speak to
their children, the more proficient the children become in their native language. However, in
reality, adults reinforce incorrect language use by their children just as often as they reinforce
correct use, calling into question the central role of shaping in the theory.
Nativist theory. Associated with Noam Chomsky, the nativist approach to language
development suggests that humans have an innate capacity to acquire language that unfolds as
a result of biological maturation. All the world's languages share a common underlying
structure called a universal grammar. The brain has a neural system called the
language-acquisition device that allows us to acquire this universal grammar, as well as
develop strategies for learning our particular language. Neuroscientists have identified brain
areas closely involved in language; in addition, genes have been identified that contribute to
language acquisition. Critics of the nativist approach suggest that the ability of nonhuman
animals—e.g., chimpanzees—to acquire language argues against such uniquely human
constructs as a universal grammar and a language-acquisition device.

Difficulty: Medium
8-64
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Multiple Choice Questions

APA Goal Outcome: 1.4, 10.2

2. (p. 250)Which of the following is true about mental images?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 4.4, 9.2, 9.3

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

9. (p. 251) A prototype is:

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

15. (p. 253) Syllogisms are used to study:

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3

19. (p. 254) Consider the following syllogism:

(1) All Houstonians are Texans.

Which of the following alternatives correctly identifies a statement in this syllogism?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.3

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

21. (p. 254) Which of the following is true of algorithms?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

22. (p. 254) Which of the following is true of heuristics?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

27. (p. 254)Which of the following is an advantage of the use of heuristics?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

28. (p. 254) Which of the following is TRUE of heuristics?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.1, 4.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4

46. (p. 259)Which of the following is an ill-defined problem?

APA Goal Outcome: 1.2, 3.4, 4.4