GuerraDoce OriginsInebriationArchaeological 2015

The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented
Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia

Author(s): Elisa Guerra-Doce
Source: Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory , September 2015, Vol. 22, No. 3
(September 2015), pp. 751-782
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654200
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J Archaeol Method Theory (2015) 22:751-782
DOI 10.1 007/s 1 08 1 6-0 1 4-9205 -z
The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence

of the Consumption of Fermented Beverages and Drugs
in Prehistoric Eurasia
Elisa Guerra-Doce
Published online: 20 March 2014

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
Abstract The earliest testimonies of the use of alcohol and drugs suggest that inebriation
is a long-established habit, the origins of which can be traced back to prehistory. Traces
highly suggestive of fermented beverages and remains of psychoactive plants have been
recovered from archaeological sites throughout prehistoric Europe. This paper surveys
the history of these substances from a cultural approach based on the contexts of
consumption. A wide range of documents will be examined here (macrofossil remains
of psychoactive plants, residues of fermented beverages, alkaloids in archaeological items
and artistic depictions, among others). Considering that these sensory-altering products
are mainly found in tombs and ceremonial places, they seem to be strongly connected to
ritual usages. Far from being consumed for hedonistic purposes, it can therefore be argued
that drug plants and alcoholic drinks had a sacred role among prehistoric societies.
Keywords Prehistory • Europe • Drugs • Fermented beverages • Ritual
Introduction
Scholarly attention to psychoactive substances {i.e. those which act primarily upon the
central nervous system where they affect brain function, resulting in temporary changes
This paper has emerged from a series of lectures, and it has greatly benefited from the opportunity to receive
comments from different audiences. It was first presented at the conference "Intoxicants and Intoxication in
Historical and Cultural Perspective", organized by Dr Phil Withington and Dr Angela McShane in Cambridge,
July 2010. Despite the title of this conference, I have intentionally avoided the terms "intoxicants" or
"intoxication" because they are associated with "poisoning", and have a pejorative meaning. This is in
marked contrast to the role of mind-altering substances in prehistoric times, when they were consumed in
ritual contexts and were considered to be sacred. I further explored this issue in a paper read at the Laboratoire
Protohistoire Européenne (UMR 7041, CNRS-Universités Paris 1 -Panthéon Sorbonne and Paris Ouest-La
Défense), in Paris, March 2011, on the invitation of Dr Laurence Manolakakis and Dr Olivier Weiler.
To the memory of Professor Andrew Sherratt
E. Guerra-Doce (Ē3)
Departamento de Prehistoria, Universidad de Valladolid, Plaza del Campus s/n, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
e-mail: elisa.guerra@uva.es
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752 Guerra-Doce
in perception,
psychologists,
consumption of
into their histor
a vast amount
preindustrial s
(Dobkin de Rios
1 979, 1 980). Li
approach (De G
1976; Heath 19
For the Old Wo
more specifical
the Sumerians
still a matter o
tested evidence
second millenn
of alcohol in an
through iconog
basedon the de
the ceramic ma
second millenn
Sumerian godde
et al. 1996; Gel
Hartman and O
Maksoud et al.
Köllig 1970; S
Unfortunately
sparse, despite
use of psychoac
that of the Gr
Scythians on th
tion ceremony
"After the bur

wash their head
point and cover
best of their po
throw red-hot s
flax, save that
and also by thei
like linen; nor c
hempen or line
1 These scenes depi

since beer in ancien
constituents (Ellis
practice, when desc
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Origins of Inebriation: Evidence in Prehistoric Eurasia 753
linen. (75) The Scythians then take the seed of this hemp and, creep
mats, they throw it on the red-hot stones; and, being so thrown, it
sends forth so much steam that no Greek vapour-bath could su
Scythians howl in their joy at the vapour-bath. This serves them inst
for they never wash their bodies with water" (Histories, IV, 73-75).
Similar references to the use of other drug plants in the Classical

be found in the works of many Greek and Roman writers (Gu
However, the earliest archaeobotanical finds of mind-altering plant
toric sites were not reported until the end of the nineteenth century
antiquarian Ferdinand Keller pointed out the presence of some seed
the opium poppy ( Papaver somniferum) and a piece of a poppy-s
Neolithic lake-dwelling site of Robenhausen, Switzerland; howeve
interpreted as a food or oil plant, rather than as a source of opiate
long afterwards, the Spanish scholar Manuel de Góngora (18
Antigüedades Prehistóricas de Andalucía , suggested that Neolithic
East Iberia might have been aware of the narcotic properties of the o
to the discovery of a number of P. somniferum capsules in the bur
los Murciélagos (Albuñol, Granada). Although this site had been pr
by a group of local miners, Góngora was able to locate over 70 buria
specific areas.2 Among the grave goods deposited beside the dead,
woven bags were recovered, containing different items, and seeds
opium poppy, which were interpreted as a symbol of both sleep an
As for evidence of fermented beverages, a number of the most i
forms in the archaeological record have been identified either as se
utensils used for the consumption of alcoholic drinks, due to the
characteristics of the vessels and their contexts of deposition, or a
with psychoactive substances (Sherratt 1991). However, the only
consumption of alcoholic beverages is by identifying the original co
Therefore, the hypothesis regarding the consumption of such substan
Europe was purely speculative, since it was based on circumstantia
Despite all these early indications, the use of mind-altering product
overlooked, either consciously or unconsciously, by archaeolo
European prehistory. Opium soon attracted the attention of schola
Mediterranean (Gabra 1956; Krikorian 1975; Kritiķos and Pa
Marinatos 1937; Merrillees 1962), but it is only very recently that
similar substances has begun to be recognized. It was the late Professo
who pioneered this line of research, for which he coined the term
Intoxication" (Sherratt 1987, 1991, 1995). In recent years, the stu
(Guerra-Doce 2006a; Juan-Tresserras 2000; Merlin 1984, 2003;
fermented beverages (Arnold 1999; Dietler 1990; Dugan 2009; Koc
has become the object of painstaking investigation and with promis
2 La Cueva de los Murciélagos de Albuñol has recently been re-studied. Four radiocarb
this site to the fifth millennium cal BC (Cacho et al. 1996).
The opium poppy capsule came to be an important motif among ancient Mediterran
its symbolic and ritual significance (Guerra-Doce 2002; Kritiķos and Papadaki 1967a
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754 Guerra-Doce
Methodology
Four different categories of archaeological documents can potentially be used to trace

the consumption of inebriating substances in prehistoric Europe:
1. Macrofossil remains (desiccated, burned or waterlogged wood, leaves, fruits or

seeds) of psychoactive plants
2. Residues suggestive of alcoholic beverages
3. Psychoactive alkaloids in archaeological artefacts and skeletal remains from pre-
historic times
4. Artistic depictions of mood-altering plant species and drinking scenes
I will briefly discuss these lines of evidence. However, the mere identification of the
use of inebriants in archaeological contexts is not the ultimate goal of my research.
Rather, it is far more relevant to explore the cultural significance of this practice.
Macrofossil Remains of Psychoactive Plants
In prehistoric times, European flora offered a great diversity of plant species and fungi
with psychoactive properties, such as the opium poppy (P. somniferum ), hemp
{Cannabis sp.), ephedra {Ephedra sp.), some members of the Solanaceae family, such
as deadly nightshade {Atropa belladonna ), black henbane {Hyoscyamus niger ), man-
drake {Mandragora officinarum) or jimsonweed {Datura sp.), but also ergot fungus
{Claviceps purpurea) and hallucinogenic mushrooms, such as the liberty cap
{Psylocybe semilanceata) or even the fly agaric mushroom {Amanita muscaria ), among
many others (Merlin 2003; Rudgley 1993).
Whilst evidence for the use of many of these species has been documented
in a number of prehistoric sites throughout Europe (Guerra-Doce 2006a), a full
list of all the archaeobotanical discoveries of psychoactive plants would go
beyond the scope of this paper. These species are generally known for their
mood-altering properties, but many of them have a number of other uses (for
instance, oil or fibre). Likewise, they might have grown as weeds among the
crops and been harvested unintentionally, or again they might have been used
as animal fodder, among other options. Thus, it is important to underline that
their occurrence in archaeological contexts may not necessarily indicate their
use as drugs (Guerra-Doce and López Sáez 2006).
One of the earliest documents of the occurrence of mood-altering plants in
the Old World is that of a Middle Palaeolithic burial cave at Shanidar, northern
Iraq, ca. 60,000 BC. Around the skeleton of an adult male aged between 30
and 45 years, known as Shanidar IV or the "flower burial", palynological
studies revealed the presence of a number of medicinal plant species including
ephedra, a natural stimulant (Leroi-Gourhan 1975). Consequently, this
Neanderthal grave was considered to be that of a shaman (Solecki 1975).
Other scholars, however, dispute the idea that these plants were the result of
a ritual deposition, but rather of a subsequent contamination of the cave by the
activity of the Persian jird {Meriones persicus ), as many bones of this gerbil-
like rodent were found during the excavation of Shanidar (Sommer 1999).
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Archaeobotanical remains for the use of psychoactive plant species in

icantly from the Neolithic period onwards. Since the Early Neolithic, c
nium BC, many Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements in north-weste
provided opium poppy remains, but direct evidence of the exploitation
properties of this species is quite scarce (Merlin 1984). Indeed, at the N
Vaux-et-Borset, Belgium, opium poppy seeds were added as temper to t
produce one of the pots found there (Bakels et al. 1992).
In the Neolithic ceremonial centre at Balfarg/Balbirnie, near Glen
Scotland, cereal-based residues, pollen and seeds of black henbane ( H
reported on Late Neolithic pottery. Some Grooved ware sherds that h
tionally buried in pits excavated at one of the Balfarg Riding School tim
in the first half of the third millennium BC were examined for organic r
and Russell- White 1993). These structures have been interpreted as fen
protecting a mortuary platform where, supposedly, the dead would be la
fleshed before burial. Thus, henbane would have transferred hallucino
to the porridge-like substance found in that pot, and this substance w
ingested as part of the burial rites. A re-examination of the potsherds
however, failed to find any traces of henbane or any other poisonous pla
1999, 2000).
Another example is the Grauballe Man, an Iron Age peat-bog b
Denmark, ca. 400-200 BC. The analysis of his intestines revealed t
numerous scleroties of ergot (C. purpurea ). This fungus with hallucin
nents should be better understood as a contamination of rye, which w
ingredients of this man's last meal (Stodkilde- Jorgensen et al. 2008).
Yet many archaeobotanical finds provide uncontested evidence for the
the mood-altering properties of these plants. The domestication of the
thought to have started during the sixth millennium BC in the Western
(Bakels 1982), from where it spread to the rest of the continent (for
Guerra-Doce 2006a) to reach north-west Europe by the end of the sixth
(Salavert 2010). Apart from its oily seeds, it seems that the exploitation
properties cannot be ruled out. The discovery of the remains of a capsu
poppy in the dental calculus of a male burial at the mining complex of G
Spain, led to the search for opiates in other burials at this Middle/Late N
fourth millennium BC. Four individuals were selected for analysis: a f
elderly woman and two young males (one of them the individual with th
stuck between his teeth). Traces of opiates were found only in the m
although it was not possible to determine whether the consumption
associated with medicinal uses (as the male with the opium poppy caps
had survived a double trepanation), or if it was a way to indulge mine
extraction of variscite (Juan-Tresserras and Villalba 1999). Many centu
the Elder, in his Natural History ; refers to the consumption of opium in
clearly illustrates that this practice had a long-established tradition:
"This juice is possessed not only of certain soporific qualities, but, if ta

large quantities, is productive of sleep unto death even: the name g
"opium". It was in this way, we leam, that the father of R Licinius Cae
of Praetorian rank, put an end to his life at Bavilum in Spain, an incur
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756 Guerra-Doce
having rendere
ended their liv
In Eastern Eur
burial practices,
Grave Culture
burial chambe
deposited there
braziers. The
Gurbaneçti, ne
the North Cauc
these groups is
ing to Sherratt
this drug. This
also found in c
illustrating the
of central Eura
Likewise, mar
Age ceremonial
to the Bactria
excavated in th
containing poll
that psychoact
vessels found
contained ephe
inside an engr
excavator of th
Zoroastrian doc
would have be
however, has f
Residues sugge
burial mounds
Culture (ca. 25
phytoliths of
(Artemisia lerc
kurgan 14 at M
taining hemp i
(Shishlina et al
The inhalation
BC, when buri
dated. Located a
awoman, accom
made by Ruden
chamber there
standing on fou
of the chamber
filled with sto
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by a large leather hanging. In each vessel besides the stones, (...) there
quantity of seeds of hemp {Cannabis sativa L. of the variety of C. ruder
was also made of the hemp seeds in the leather flasks attached to one of the
hexapod stand over the vessel of 'Scythian cauldron' shape. Burning ho
been placed in the censer and part of the hemp seeds had been charred.
the handle of the cauldron-censer had been bound round with birch bar
because the heat of the stones was such that its handle had become too hot
bare hands". All of this indicates that the Scythians burnt female hemp pla
containing red-hot stones in order to inhale the narcotic smoke.4 Therefor
doubt regarding the accuracy of the account given by Herodotus!
Alcohol: Traces of Fermented Drinks
In prehistoric times, alcohol was obtained through the fermentation of sug

certain products by the action of naturally occurring yeasts and some type
The main raw materials used to prepare alcoholic beverages came from f
sugars: sugar-rich fruits and honey (fructose and glucose), malted grain
sap (sucrose) and milk (lactose). Therefore, the variety of alcoholic drinks i
Europe was very limited and involved fruit wines, mead, beer and ferm
made from dairy products; the spread of viticulture and the dev
winemaking in temperate Europe and the Western Mediterranean did n
until as recently as the first millennium BC during the Iron Age, and it is
commercial expansion of the Phoenicians, Greeks, Etruscans and Rom
Doce 2009; Hornsey 2003; McGovern 2003; McGovern et al 2013b).
It has been suggested that many primates and early hominids could have
consumed over-ripe fruits in search for their mood-altering properties due
content (this is a naturally occurring substance resulting from the ferment
rich fruits) (Dudley 2004). According to this "drunken monkey hypoth
come to be named, primates' attraction to alcohol may have a genetic b
and Dudley 2004). This habit could have led to the discovery of alcoholic dr
as the Palaeolithic (McGovern 2003, pp. 7-11). Some scholars rule out t
that fermented beverages could have been produced before the inventio
during the Neolithic (Vend 1994, p. 307). However, the technological a
prerequisites of brewing were well established in the Natufian (Hayden e
the drinking of beer made from fermented wild crops could have had an i
in the course of ritual feasts among Epipalaeolithic communities of th
(Dietrich et al. 2012). Yet, for the time being at least, direct evidence is
4 Hemp is a dioecious plant, that is, male and female flowers are found in different
psychoactive compound is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which occurs most abundantly in t
(Schultes and Hofmann 1980). The presence of burnt seeds in Pazyryk proves that the Scythian
this, and consequently, they burnt female plants. In 1993, a similar kurgan containing the pre
young woman, known as the Siberian Ice Maiden, was discovered on the Ukok Platea
Mountains, and more specifically in "The Pasture of Heaven", an area used as a burial g
centuries. Among the grave goods of this Scythian lady, a small stone dish with burnt seeds w
this case they turned out to be coriander. This is a strong-smelling plant that was probably bur
(Polosmak and O'Rear 1994).
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758 Guerra-Doce
Another inter
first place. May
small grain agr
cereal crops w
product5 (Braid
here is that th
and, moreover,
cereal growing
p. 24) pointed o
fermented bev
fermentation)6,
the fermentati
process in the
reason, it is m
resulting from
kumis (Hornse
Traces of the o
eye, may have
be detected an
techniques. Yet
procedures (gas
(GC/MS and LC
early 1970s (M
(Condamin et
Archaeology h
etal. 1990). Det
fying organic
provided in th
Whilst it is no
vessels, the det
pottery sherds
grains (phytoli
tion of pollen o
acid, which o
5 It should be note
suitable for brewin
of beer.
6 Unlike fruits, wh
soluble sugars, thr
cereal grains, in wh
is, steeping the gra
triggered by diast
amylase). Malted gr
the mash. The added
for a period of ti
Temperature is cri
and the enzymes w
Finally, wort, the t
yeast to produce a
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associated with wine, since it is present in many vegetables and fru

indicate the presence of different grape products (juice, raisins, vine
trated syrup) (McGovern et al. 2013b). However, certain residues have
as the remains of fermented beverages as a result of the (combination o
indicators (Barnard et al. 2011; Guasch-Jané et al. 2004, 2006a, b; Ju
1998; Maksoud et al. 1994; McGovern 2003, 2009; Michel et al. 19
2013):
- Starch granules affected by malting and the enzymatic attack, suggesting the
development of the saccharification process
- Yeast, the role of which is to convert sugars into alcohol
- Lactic acid bacteria, indicators associated with the fermentation of sugars
- Frustules of diatoms, as above
- Calcium oxalate, a major component of the "beerstone" which is produced during
the malting process7
- Lignoceric and cerotic acids, which indicate the presence of either beeswax or
honey
- Tartaric, malic, succinic, fumarie, citric and syringic acids and malvidin, bio-
markers for wine
The results indicate that the cereals used for malting were barley ( Hordeum
vulgare) and wheat ( Triticum sp.), and in some cases, the presence of honey and
aromatic herbs ( Filipendula , Arbutus , Epilobium angustifolium , among others) has
been detected. There is some evidence for the making of fruit wines using grapes and
other sugar-rich fruits. Occasionally, these drinks were strengthened with psychoactive
plants in order to reinforce their mood-altering properties (Delibes et al. 2009).
The distinction between those substances which were meant to ferment and those
simply added to, or macerated in, a fermented beverage for flavour can rarely be
determined. For instance, it is difficult to verify when beer was made from fermented
cereals as well as fermented honey, and when honey was added at the time of drinking
(Nelson 2005, p. 2).
Consequently, the interpretation of the organic residues adhering to the walls of the
pots is not so easy to assess. As Eerkens and Barnard (2007, p. 6) have noted: "It
remains unclear, however, if the residue represents the first food to come into contact
with the ceramic matrix, after which the available binding sites are saturated, or the last,
if older residues are continually replaced by new ones, or a combination of all food ever
to have been inside the vessel, if the molecules that make up the residue compete for the
available binding places". Generally speaking, most of the organic remains may be
related to the function of the vessels. Therefore, the traces found in the course of
organic residues analyses might be associated with the final stages of the use of the
pots. The archaeological context (e.g. one-time burial) needs to be assessed when
reaching a decision as to whether a vessel was used many times.
7 According to some authors, there are no biomarkers available for confirming the presence of beer in ancient
residues. Calcium oxalate detection on potsherds could have resulted from their being buried in calcium
oxalate rich soil (Hornsey 2003, p. 92).
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760 Guerra-Doce
Alcoholic ferme
of plants and an
drink in the wo
yet unidentifie
domesticated var
the case of some
Valley of Chin
Similarly, win
region during t
pottery jars o
volume of abo
Mountains of
contained a r
preservative a
that the wild E
in the arc of m
to the northw
have provided
vinifera L. sub
to the Bible, N
located in the
2009, p. 82).
Not long after
large quantitie
Chalcolithic site
unearthed a full
presses where g
bowls and remain
in some potsherd
red color (Barna
could have been
winemaking fac
(Areshian et al.
One of the earli
the cave of Can
levels dated to t
evidence of mal
tree fruits {Arb
process and alte
suggestive of h
8 There is now ampl

intentionally, probab
later; resins used to c
BC at the earliest) (M
Malvidin only provid
(see McGovern et a
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occupation underneath the burial levels of the passage grave of Az

et al. 2005a). From the Neolithic onwards, ca. fifth millennium BC
foodstuffs and alcoholic drinks among the burial offerings will b
archaeological record. 10 Funerals became, not unintentionally, i
political and ideological action where those apparently economicall
ditures aimed to advertise the success of the surviving family an
consequently, endeavoured to consolidate their allies (Hayden 200
dues highly suggestive of fermented beverages have mainly bee
throughout the whole of prehistoric Europe (Table 1). Assuming t
substances remained in the vessels the better the absorption (Reg
seems that the vessels were deposited in the tombs completely fil
beverages.
From the third millennium BC onwards, evidence for fermented beverages becomes
increasingly abundant. At that time, most of the territories of central and western
Europe have in common an assorted assemblage of items consisting of pottery,
weapons and ornaments. Among them all, its most distinctive object is a thin-walled
ceramic vessel with an inverted bell-shape profile. This cultural phenomenon has thus
been named Bell Beaker after this kind of pot. These artifacts, collectively known as the
Beaker package, are principally found in graves and are mostly associated with male
adults. Traditionally, these vessels have been related to the consumption of liquids,
hence their name. Professor Vere Gordon Childe, in his seminal work The Dawn of
European Civilization , first brought out in 1925, put forward the idea of beer as one of
the most suitable candidates for explaining the influence of these pots "as a vodka flask
or a gin bottle would disclose an instrument of European domination in Siberia and
Africa respectively" (Childe 1958, p. 213).
These theories received great attention when archaeologists found a remarkable
concentration of lime tree pollen and other aromatic plants inside a beaker, deposited
in a burial cist at Ashgrove, in Scotland, belonging to a male adult. These residues were
interpreted as mead, a fermented honey drink, made from lime honey and flavoured
with flowers of meadowsweet (Dickson 1978). Consequently, Sherratt (1987) went on
to propose a model in which Beakers were used for the consumption of an alcoholic
beverage during the celebration of male drinking rituals, as part of a European pattern
of warrior feasting and alcohol-based hospitality. He even suggested that the cord-
impressed decoration which is distinctive of the AOC varieties might have been made
with fibres of hemp (C. sativa) as a way to celebrate the importance of its intoxicating
properties. A number of Iberian Beakers from tombs and ritual sites have provided
residues highly suggestive of alcoholic drinks (Delibes et al. 2009; Guerra-Doce
2006b), supporting those theories that connect Beakers and alcohol (Fig. 1).
10 Merryn Dineley (2004) upholds that barley beer may have been produced in Neolithic Britain, on the basis
of the association of barley grains (some of them malted and barley lipids), level floors, drains and large
Grooved Ware vessels. This pottery style of the British Neolithic comes in many sizes. Some pots are
extremely large and would be suitable for fermentation of the wort. Similarly, some Irish archaeologists argue
that the fulacht fiadh - the most common type of prehistoric site in Ireland, which consists of a horseshoe-
shaped mound of soil and rocks surrounding a depression - were used primarily for the brewing of beer
(Mullally 2012). Yet, for the time being, no solid evidence has been found to establish that these sites were
used to malt, mash or brew beer.
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762 Guerra-Doce
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768 Guerra-Doce
Fig. 1 Ciempozuel
beeswax and traces
from the burial pi
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129). Some Dani
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Alcoholic drink
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79.18.225.202 on Sun, 25 Jun 2023 14:39:24 +00:00
illustrates the existence of two drinking ideologies11 of ancient Eu

Indeed, mead was deposited in several princely tombs of the Iron A
Europe (Koch 2003), and beer has been found in singular ceramic t
prominent individuals at some Pre-Roman cemeteries. A highly u
beverage, which combined grape wine, barley beer and honey me
some of the bronze vessels deposited in the royal tomb known as the
Phrygian capital city of Gordion, Turkey, dating to around 750-
et al. 1999). One of the most impressive examples comes from the
wagon burial of a 40-year-old male, dated to around 530 BC, a
Stuttgart, where an enormous bronze cauldron imported from Gr
in the grave chamber, containing 350 L of mead12 (Körber-Grohne
are similar to those from vessels at other funerary sites. This may
evidence of the traditional role played by beer and mead in the bu
prehistoric societies, or at least, of the upper class people.
Psychoactive Alkaloids in Archaeological Artefacts and Skeletal R

from Prehistoric Times
The third line of evidence refers to psychoactive alkaloids. Alkaloid

nitrogen-containing organic compounds, found primarily in plants,
tant physiological and pharmacological effects on humans and ot
examples include morphine, nicotine, caffeine and ephedrine. Thus
plants have been exploited as medicinal and psychoactive agents s
times. These compounds can survive in the archaeological artefac
preparation and consumption of the plants containing them, as wel
remains (bones, teeth, tissues, hair) of past populations that used th
1992, 1995; Bruhn et al. 2002; Carimeli et al. 1991, 1994; El-Seedi
et al. 2009; Oxenham et al. 2002; Rafferty 2002; van der Merwe 197
Loughmiller-Newman 2012).
Usually, the identification of alkaloids in the archaeological rec
chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) or applies high-
chromatography (HPLC) (Rafferty 2007); however, other technique
munoassay (Balanova et al. 1996) or enzyme-linked immunosorben
1 1 References to the fondness of Celtic peoples for mead and beer are indeed pro
writers (Pliny the Elder, Strabo, Dioscorides, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Tacitus
references are very one-sided in their evaluation of Celtic beverages, showing a prejudic
2005). It has been suggested that wine progressively replaced mead as the élite drink
p. 75). Apparently, wealthy classes, emulating the Greek custom of the symposium , con
from the Mediterranean, whilst lower classes drank local mead and beer, at least am
tribes dwelling near to the Rhine or Danube. In contrast, Germanic tribes in northern E
permit wine to be imported to them, because they consider that men degenerate in the
fatigue, and are rendered effeminate by that commodity" according to Julius Caesar in
Gallic Wars (Book IV, 2). Certainly, that area, in what is now Belgium, Germany and
still reputed to brew some of the finest beers in the world. However, the importance o
declined as the Romans gained political and cultural hegemony over them (Nelson
This cauldron reminds the impressive bronze krater found in the grave of the Lady o
in this case it was likely to have been used for wine mixing (Joffroy 1962).
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79.18.225.202 on Sun, 25 Jun 2023 14:39:24 +00:00
770 Guerra-Doce
(Báez et al 2000
Old World have
positive or hav
et al 1994; Ho
conducted by B
the Pre-Potter
nicotine. Conve
corresponding
dating to the m
similar analy
Franzhausen, A
within this gr
By the second
regarding the
Mediterranean
of certain jugle
Egypt and Lev
inferred. Thes
globular bodies
white lines. It
opium poppy
represents the
ooze out for co
reported on s
Koschel 1996;
Base-ring jugle
et al 2012).
At approximately that time, the Argaric period, named after the type site of El Argar,
at Antas, Almería, in south-eastern Spain, was one of the most important Bronze Age
cultures in Iberia. Argaric tombs are indicative of a ranked society on the basis of their
contents, with elite burials including rich grave goods (bronze weapons and ornaments,
silver and gold pieces and specific drinking cups), and other burials devoid of any
object at all (Lull 1983). The cemetery of Fuente Álamo, near Cuevas de Almanzora,
Almería, one of the most representative sites of this culture, has provided traces of
opiates in tombs corresponding to the elite group. Organic residue analyses have
detected opium in a vessel deposited in the burial cist of a man, as well as in a similar
vessel belonging to a woman buried within a pithos , associated with opium poppy
seeds (Schubart et al 2004).
Residue analyses carried out on some Iberian potsherds have identified
hyoscyamine, a highly hallucinogenic alkaloid present in some members of
the Solanaceae family, in several archaeological contexts. The excavation of a
Middle Bronze Age ritual pit at Prats, Canillo, Andorra, brought to light five
pots containing residues of beer, charred capsules of jimsonweed {Datura
stramonium ) and dairy products. Moreover, residue analyses on some potsherds
have detected the alkaloid hyoscyamine, suggesting that these vessels were used
for the preparation of an alcoholic drink with hallucinogenic properties (Yáñez
et al. 2001-2002).
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79.18.225.202 on Sun, 25 Jun 2023 14:39:24 +00:00
The identification of this alkaloid has also been reported in the N

Pedra Cavada, near Gondomar, Pontevedra, Spain, possibly dated to
nium BC. There are many cup-marks and basins at this site, wit
containing traces of hyoscyamine (Fabregas 2001, pp. 63-64), alth
contamination cannot be discarded (Tresserras, personal comm
2003). In the burial cave of Calvari d'Amposta (Tarragona, S
Maritime Beakers, ca. middle of the third millennium BC, deposite
undisturbed graves located inside, revealed the presence of the alk
and traces of beer (Fabregas 2001, pp. 63-64). The same combinat
Solanaceae species containing hyoscyamine, has been detected in
vase of Greek origin, with many small bowls for multiple offer
one of the most luxurious tombs in the Vaccean cemetery of La
Duero, Valladolid, Spain, dated to the second century BC (Sanz an
Therefore, this hallucinogenic drink consisting of beer and drug
significant role during the burial rites and ceremonial events of the
in Iberia.
Artistic Depictions of Psychoactive Plant Species
Iconographie representations are another source of evidence to i

psychoactive substances in the past. Drinking scenes can be disce
ancient civilisations (especially Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Gre
Considering the contexts and the typology of the vessels thems
supposedly involved. However, the identity of the beverages can
for certain. Likewise, it has been claimed that the inspiration behind
traditions in prehistoric Europe was associated with altered stat
often induced by psychotropic agents. These theories are based on th
neurological structure of the brain of our species {Homo sap
unchanged since the Palaeolithic; consequently, the abstract patter
cinations created under altered states of consciousness - known
entoptic phenomena - are universal, since they are effects of th
system. This idea has been applied to the study of the Upper Pala
and Lewis- Williams 1998; Lewis- Williams 1997, 2002, 2004; L
Clottes 1998; Lewis-Williams and Dowson 1988; Lorblanchet and S
well as to a number of artistic traditions dated to the Neolithic and
1989; Budja 2004; Dronfield 1993, 1995a, b, 1996; Fairén and
Guerra-Doce 2006a; Lewis Williams and Dowson 1993; Lewis-W
2005; Patton 1990; Stahl 1989).
Certain motifs have been interpreted to represent the fly agar
proposed by Dikov (1972) for certain petroglyphs of the Pegtym
Kaplan (1975) for some Scandinavian rock art and Samorini (1998)
of Mount Bego, in the Alpine region. The mushroom-like pictogr
Selva Pascuala mural paintings, at Villar del Humo (Cuenca, Spain),
the Iberian schematic tradition, may also represent hallucinogen
Psilocybe hispanica (Akers et al. 2011). These theories imply
psychotropic mushrooms. Similarly, a correlation between cup-ma
cavities carved onto rocky outcrops by Neolithic and Bronze Ag
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772 Guerra-Doce
ritual use of t
explains these a
ritual cults inv
Many archaeol
1600-1100 BC)
(Askitopoulou
to other opinio
artefacts is still
opium poppy.
The Late Bronze Age on Mainland Greece, locally known as Late Helladic
period, is represented by the Mycenaean civilisation, named after the celebrated
archaeological site of Mycenae. During the excavations conducted by H.
Schliemann in the acropolis of Mycenae, a golden signet ring (ca. 1450 BC)
depicting a religious scene was recovered (Nilsson 1927, p. 347). A seated
goddess is receiving an offering of three opium poppy capsules from a female
devotee, whilst two other female worshippers hold lilies and flowers, respec-
tively. The scene also includes a number of religious symbols of Minoan origin,
such as the double axe, the palladium (a statuette with a figure-of-eight shield)
or animal skulls. The Mycenaean world offers similar religious scenes contain-
ing representations of opium poppy heads on other golden signet rings, as
occurs in two examples from a hoard at Thisbe (Evans 1925).
One of the most illustrating depictions of the opium poppy associated with
ritual practices is found in the Minoan civilisation. Conventionally, Minoan
female deities are portrayed as bare-breasted figurines with upraised arms. In
1937, in a subterranean secret room of a cult chamber at Gazi, near Knossos,
on Crete, dated to the Late Minoan III period (1300-1250 BC), a large
terracotta goddess figurine (height 78 cm) bearing on its head three movable
hairpins in the shape of poppy capsules was discovered (Fig. 2). The poppy
heads on the "Poppy Goddess", as it has come to be known, display vertical
notches which suggest the method of extracting opium. Moreover, the figurine
has a trance-like facial expression, possibly induced by the inhalation of opium
fumes; as a result, the excavator of this site named her "Goddess of ecstasy"
(Marinatos 1937). Certainly, it should be emphasized that the same context
yielded a terracotta tubular vase and a number of charcoals, indicating the
inhalation of opium vapours (Kritiķos and Papadaki 1967a). All of this evi-
dence therefore suggests that opium was a sacred drug in the Minoan civilisa-
tion, since it was used to induce trances in the course of ritual ceremonies
(Askitopoulou et al. 2002).
Discussion
The contextual analysis of the archaeological record of prehistoric Europe reveals the
frequent association of psychoactive substances with burial and ceremonial contexts.
We cannot be sure whether they were consumed in the course of the mortuary rites, if
they provided sustenance for the deceased in their journey into the afterlife or if they
were a kind of tribute to the underworld deities. It can be argued, however, that
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79.18.225.202 on Sun, 25 Jun 2023 14:39:24 +00:00
Fig. 2 The Poppy Goddess from Gazi, Crete (Guerra-Doce 2006a)
inebriants were reserved for specific events, in which they were co

alter the usual state of consciousness or even to achieve a trance s
As occurs nowadays in our contemporary society, ethnographic
important events require the consumption of special items that are
the rarest or the most labour intensive to produce (Dietler and Ha
drinks frequently have a prominent role on such occasions, since
food with certain psychoactive properties resulting from an al
preparation that tend to amplify their significance in the impor
13 It has even been claimed that the origins of spiritual concepts and religious beliefs
innate emotional foundation in humans, which consists of the ability to enter into ec
number of techniques (Bourguignon 1973; Hayden 2003; La Barre 1990). An excell
alcoholic beverages and psychoactive plants having had a deep impact on huma
McGovern 2009).
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774 Guerra-Doce
aspects of ritua
mation of food
ments the sym
2001, pp. 72-73
considered to b
scale societies, a
not consumed f
integrated psyc
the point wher
Their effects m
societies where
powerful tools
(Sherratt 1995,
and, as a result,
make use of the
of the evidence
ing the possibi
trolled in prehi
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The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence of the Consumption of Fermented

Beverages and Drugs in Prehistoric Eurasia

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43654200

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The Origins of Inebriation: Archaeological Evidence

Published online: 20 March 2014

Keywords Prehistory • Europe • Drugs • Fermented beverages • Ritual

To the memory of Professor Andrew Sherratt

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"After the bur

1 These scenes depi

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Similar references to the use of other drug plants in the Classical

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Four different categories of archaeological documents can potentially be used to trace

1. Macrofossil remains (desiccated, burned or waterlogged wood, leaves, fruits or

Macrofossil Remains of Psychoactive Plants

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Archaeobotanical remains for the use of psychoactive plant species in

"This juice is possessed not only of certain soporific qualities, but, if ta

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Alcohol: Traces of Fermented Drinks

In prehistoric times, alcohol was obtained through the fermentation of sug

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associated with wine, since it is present in many vegetables and fru

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occupation underneath the burial levels of the passage grave of Az

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illustrates the existence of two drinking ideologies11 of ancient Eu

Psychoactive Alkaloids in Archaeological Artefacts and Skeletal R

The third line of evidence refers to psychoactive alkaloids. Alkaloid

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The identification of this alkaloid has also been reported in the N

Artistic Depictions of Psychoactive Plant Species

Iconographie representations are another source of evidence to i

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Fig. 2 The Poppy Goddess from Gazi, Crete (Guerra-Doce 2006a)

inebriants were reserved for specific events, in which they were co

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Abels, B. U. (1986). Archäologischer Führer Oberfrankten. Führer zu archäologischen Denkmälern in

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