THUONG MAI UNIVERSITY

ENGLISH FACULTY


GROUP DISCUSSION
PRAGMATICS

Topic: Reference and inference: Types of reference; Reference and inference; Context
and co-text.
Group: 03 Class: 2233ENTH2931
Teacher: Nguyen Thuy Giang
Group preparation assessment:
Presentation assessment:

No. Name (for students) Comments (for teacher only) Mark

1 Pham Thi Hien

2 Tran Hong Hanh

3 Nguyen Thi Hanh

4 Bui Thi Thanh Hoa

5 Phung Thi Thu Hang

6 Vu Thi Hang

Ha Noi, 09/2022
 PRESENTATION OUTLINE
INTRODUCTION
1. Greeting:
Good afternoon, everyone, we are group 3. Today we are very glad to be here to
present topic 2.
2. Introducing the group’s members:
There are six members in our group:

13. Phùng Thị Thu Hằng

14. Vũ Thị Hằng
15. Nguyễn Thị Hạnh
16. Trần Hồng Hạnh
17. Phạm Thị Hiên
18. Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa
3. Introducing the group’s topic:
Today we together discuss about the topic: “Type of reference; Reference and
inference; Context and co-text”.
4. Outlining the presentation:
There are three parts in our presentation. The first is Reference. The second is
Inference. The third is Context and Co-text.
5. Presenting the introduction of the topic
BODY/ DEVELOPMENT
1. Reference (The first part is being presented by Pham Thi Hien)
1.1. Definition (is being presented by Pham Thi Hien)
1.2. The categories of referring expressions (is being presented by Pham Thi Hien)
1.3. Referential and attributive use (is being presented by Tran Hong Hanh)
1.4. Names and referents (is being presented by Tran Hong Hanh)
1.5. Types of reference (is being presented by Nguyen Thi Hanh and Bui Thi Thanh
Hoa)
1.5.1. Endophora: Textual
1.5.2. Exophora: Situational

1
2. Inference (The second part is being presented by Phung Thi Thu Hang)
2.1. Definition of Inference
2.2. Difference between Reference and Inference
3. Context & Co-text (The third part is being presented by Vu Thi Hang)
3.1. Context
3.2. Co-text
3.3. Difference between Context and Co-text
CONCLUSION
1. Reviewing all main points
We’ve just talked about “Type of reference; Reference and inference; Context
and co-text”.
2. Ending the presentation
We’ve finished our presentation. If you have any questions for us, raise your hand. We
are looking forward to your comments and questions.

2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PRESENTATION OUTLINE...................................................................................................1
CONTENTS.......................................................................................................................... 4
1. Reference....................................................................................................................... 4
1.1. Definition......................................................................................................... 4

1.2. The categories of referring...............................................................................4

1.3. Referential and attributive use.........................................................................6

1.3.1. Attributive use:..................................................................................................6

1.3.2. Referential use:..................................................................................................6
1.4. Names and referents........................................................................................ 6

1.5. Types of reference............................................................................................ 7

1.5.1. Endophora: Textual...........................................................................................7

1.5.2. Exophora: Situational......................................................................................10
2. Inference...................................................................................................................... 11
2.1. Definition of Inference................................................................................... 11

2.2. Difference between Reference and Inference.................................................11

3. Context & Co-text........................................................................................................13

3.1. Context.......................................................................................................... 13

3.1.1. Definition........................................................................................................13
3.1.2. Types of contexts:...........................................................................................13
3.2. Co-text........................................................................................................... 14

3.3. Difference between Context and Co-text........................................................15

The 1st MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3..........................................................................16

The 2nd MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3.........................................................................18
The 3rd MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3...........................................................................20
REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 21

3
 CONTENTS

1. Reference

1.1. Definition
- Reference is an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a
listener, or reader, to identify something.
- Reference is a relationship between a word or expression and the objects it refers to
(called referent). It is also a social act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or
phrase chosen to identify an object or a person will be understood as the speaker’s
meaning.
- In different situations or contexts, speakers use references to refer to different objects.
Eg: “It looks so beautiful”
=> Context: When I see a teddy bear, "it" in this example refers to the teddy bear. But
when I see a picture, “it” refers to the picture.

1.2. The categories of referring

- Linguistic forms are referring expressions. A referring expression is any word or phrase
used in an utterance to refer to something or someone (or a clearly delimited collection
of things or people), i.e. used with a particular reference in mind. The choice of one type
of referring expression is based on the mutual understanding between the listener and
the speaker.
Eg: John broke my vase.
=> In this example, the speaker and the listener both have a common knowledge of a
person named John. So “John” is a referring expression.
- Referring expressions can be:
+ Proper nouns: When we want to refer to the specific name of a person, a place or a
thing, we use a proper noun.
Eg:
- Pham Tuan is the first Vietnamese astronaut to set foot on the moon.

4
- Da Nang is becoming the highlight of our country in tourism, attracting millions of
visitors every year.
+ Definite noun phrases: refer something or someone that is known or familiar to the
listener or reader.
Eg:
- At the 70th Academy Awards, the film won the Best Picture.
=> In this case, I assume that all you guys know Titanic. So “The film” is referring to
Titanic and it is a referring expression.
- The city is one of the most impressive art centers in Europe.
=> Similarly, “the city” is a referring expression of Berlin
+ Indefinite noun phrases: Indicate nouns that are new, unknown, or unfamiliar to the
listener, at the time they are mentioned.
Eg:
- A girl who wore a red dress is beautiful.
- I saw an elephant when I went to the zoo.
- Some apples are bought by my sister.
+ Pronouns: He, she, it, him, her, them, etc.
E. g.
- My friend saw her on TV last night.
=> In the sentence, we all know “her” is Taylor Swift. Therefore, “her” is a referring
expression.
- The teacher gave them a pragmatics exam on last Monday.
- I prepared it for your birthday.
=> Analysis like example 1.
Note:
- Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference.
Eg: The word “angry”: It means an emotional state of people when someone behaves
badly towards them, but it has no reference.
- The reference of an expression depends on the circumstances (time, place, etc.) or
topic of the conversation in which the expression is used.
- Two different expressions can have the same referent.

5
Eg: People are talking about Jenny.
+ Student A: Our monitor has just won a scholarship.
+ Student B: She is not only cute but also smart.
=> The word “our monitor” and “she” refer to Jenny.

1.3. Referential and attributive use

1.3.1. Attributive use:

Attributive use is the use that “a speaker who uses a definite description attributively in
an assertion states something about whoever or whatever is the so and so”.
Eg: She is keen on a pair of white sunglasses.
The referent in “a pair of white sunglasses” can be known to the speaker only with
respect to its descriptive properties. In that case, “any” could replace the indefinite
article “a”. This is called attributive use, meaning “whoever/whatever fits the
description”. It is different from referential use, where the referent is a specific person.

1.3.2. Referential use:

A speaker who uses a definite description referentially in an assertion … use the
description to enable his audience to pick out whom or what he is talking about and
states something about that person or thing.
Eg: There’s a wooden boat next to a coconut tree.
A particular object is introduced. The expression “a wooden boat next to a
coconut tree” is used to accurately describe an object in real time, which is
distinguished from other red cars by the feature “next to a coconut tree”. Listeners can
accurately identify the object.

1.4. Names and referents

There’s a pragmatic connection between proper names and objects that will be
conventionally associated, within a socio-culturally defined community, with those
names.
E.g:
- May I borrow your Harry Potter?

6
- Yes, It’s over the table.
This assumption may lead us to think that a name or proper noun like “Harry
Potter” can only be used to identify one specific person, and an expression containing a
common noun can only be used to identify a specific thing. This belief is mistaken. A
truly pragmatic view of reference allows us to see how a thing can be identified via the
name “Harry Potter”.
Given the context just created, the intended referent and the inferred referent
would not be a person, but probably a book.

1.5. Types of reference

According to Halliday and Hassab (1976) there are two types of reference:

1.5.1. Endophora: Textual

Endophora is the use of a word or phrase in a text to refer to something within
the immediate text.
An endophoric reference is a reference in a text to something else inside the text.
For example: If you want one, I've left some cupcakes on the counter.
In this example, “one” is being used to refer to something later in the sentence,
‘cupcakes.’ We as readers fully understand the context because it is provided in the
discourse.
Anaphora- Anaphoric reference:
- Anaphoric reference is the use of a word or a group of words which refer back to
another part of the text. The important information that helps to have a complete
understanding comes first.
Example: Ana plays the piano. She likes music.

7
 Here, the word She is an anaphor and refers back to a preceding expression, in this
case, it’s Ana but no one else.
- Anaphora can be intra-sentential, when both the anaphora and the reference are in
the same sentence, or inter-sentential, if the reference is located in a different sentence
than the anaphora.
Eg: “John took his license when he was 18. He passed his exam at his first attempt.”
In this example, it contains several anaphoras (various occurrences of ‘he’ and ‘his’),
all referring to entity John. The first two are intra-sentential (located in the same
sentence mentioning John), the others are inter-sentential (located in a different
sentence).
Anaphoric Comparatives
- Like all other types of reference, comparative reference uses various items to
indicate things or persons previously mentioned in a text or spoken discourse and thus
become anaphoric and cohesive, or it may indicate items in a following text to function
cataphorically denoting entities of a forward reference.
- Comparative reference establishes relations of identity or similarity with expressing
similarities "such, similar ...
Eg: “Jack is a quiet, observant man. Such men are not the life and soul of the party.”
Here, “such” is anaphoric comparative. It refers back to the nominal group qualifier of
the quiet, observant man.
Anaphoric demonstratives
- Halliday and Hasan (1976) mention that demonstrative reference, like any other types
of reference, identifies persons and objects in semantic rather than grammatical terms;
it requires an explicit repetition of the noun or some form of synonym in order to signal
the identity of specific reference in its anaphoric function.
Here is an example we have: “I lost my wallet on the train. That made me angry.”
That can be understood by looking back in the text. So, it is anaphoric demonstratives
that refers to “I lost my wallet on the train”. It is obviously very convenient you don’t
have to keep saying the same thing over and over.
Anaphoric Ellipsis

8
Ellipsis is a relation within the text, and in the great majority of instances the
presupposed item is present in the preceding text. That is to say, ellipsis is normally an
anaphoric relation.
Eg: “Tina will come to the party. At least I hope so.’’
 So is anaphoric ellipsis. It refers back to “Tina will come to the party”. The speaker
doesn't have to repeat the same as the first sentence because it is replaced with “so”.
Anaphoric Lexical Cohesion
- In this kind of cohesion, a lexical item coheres with a preceding occurrence of the same
item.
Eg: “My friend bought a new car. The car costs a fortune.”
 “The” is anaphoric lexical cohesion referring back to a new car.
- It is the same with this example: “Suddenly I saw a boy. The child was all shaking with
cold”
Anaphoric substitution
When an element has already been introduced in a text it is possible to refer to it with
an anaphoric substitution.
Eg: “Did you hear about the accident that happened yesterday? That was a terrifying
one”
“That” is the anaphoric substitution referring back to a preceding occurrence “the
accident happened yesterday”
Eg: “Okay, Jules. Thanks for the meeting. Let’s start the next one.”. The word one in let’s
start the next one is a substitute term for meeting.
Zero anaphora/ ellipsis
Textual ellipsis is closely connected to cohesion as the context is needed in order to
identify what has been ellipted. It may be said then that the interpretation of textual
ellipsis is dependent on what has been said or written in the linguistic context. With
respect to the position of the ellipsis and its antecedent, textual ellipsis is divided into
anaphoric ellipsis and cataphoric ellipsis. In the former, the interpretation depends on
what comes before, as it is illustrated in the following example.
Example: I’’ll gladly pay for the hotel, if you will for the food.

9
 In this situation, no linguistic expression is present, but the listener can clearly infer
what the speaker intends to say. Ellipsis occurs in the second clause. Where “pay” is
supplied from the first clause to the second. In complete sentence, that is I‟ll gladly pay
for the hotel, if you will (pay) for the food.
Anaphora- Cataphoric reference:
A cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase references a thing or idea
mentioned later in the text
For example: Before she returned at 7 o’clock. Mary went out for drinks
In this sentence, the pronoun ‘she’ is still referring to Mary, the subject. However, as
'she' is referencing the subject which is mentioned later in the sentence, ‘she’ is a
cataphor.
5 types of cataphoric reference
 Cataphoric Demonstratives (word: this)
 Cataphoric Personal Reference (word: He/ She/ They/ We)
 Cataphoric Substitution (word: one/ so)
 Cataphoric Temporal Conjunction (word: first/ at first/ fist of all..)
 Cataphoric “the”
Some examples about cataphora
EX1: After she was sure of herself, the gymnast approached the pole.
'She' is the cataphor and 'gymnast' is the postcedent. We do not know who ‘she’ is until
the second half of the sentence.
EX2: If they would like some, there are snacks in the next room.
'Some' is the cataphor, 'snacks' is the postcedent.

1.5.2. Exophora: Situational

Exophoric reference occurs when a word or phrase refers to something outside the
discourse.
For example:
- “They‘re late again, can you believe it?”
- “I know! Well, they’d better get here soon or it‘ll get cold.”
They refer to some people outside the discourse known to both speakers.

10
It also refers to something that both speakers know about (perhaps the dinner).
The use of exophoric reference requires some shared knowledge between two
speakers, or between writer and reader(s).
Some examples about exophoric
EX1: Look over there!
We have no way of understanding what ‘there’ refers to. ‘There’ can only be
understood by the listener, who can see what the speaker is referring to.
‘There’ is being used to refer to something outside of the text that we, as readers, are
not privy to. ‘There’ has no meaning to us because we do not have the context of the
situation. Therefore, this is an exophoric reference.
EX2: Another example would be a couple referring to their newborn as 'the baby'.
Imagine the speaker saying, 'The baby is hungry, it needs feeding'. The listener is only
aware of which baby is being spoken about because of their shared knowledge.

11
2. Inference

2.1. Definition of Inference

 Inference is any additional information used by the listener to connect what is
said to what must be meant.
Example:
A: I took another look at the board, and I realized you were right.
B: So you were wrong.
B’s inference that, because A admitted that B’s opinion was right, A was actually
wrong.
 Inferring is connecting prior knowledge to text based information to create
meaning beyond what is directly stated.
Example:
“Mary's face turned red and she started to yell, balling her hands up into sharking fists”
From the evidence of her face, voice, and hands, we infer that she’s really angry about
something, though we don’t yet know what it is.
The role of inference in communication is to allow the listener to identify correctly
which particular entity the speaker is referring to. We can even use vague expressions
relying on the listener’s ability to infer what is the referent of what we have in mind.

2.2. Difference between Reference and Inference

 Reference is an act in which a speaker or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a
listener or reader to identify something
Inference is connecting prior knowledge to text based information to create meaning
beyond what is directly stated.
 Reference is the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the
concrete object or abstraction it represents.
Inference is the conclusion you draw from what you have observed. The choice of one
type of referring expression rather than another seems to be based, to a larger extent,
on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows.

12
Example:
Reference
· “John's friend is absent because he ·
was sick.”
“He” refer to John’friend
“She is keen on a pair of black shoes.”
The referent in a pair of black shoes can
be known to the speaker only with
respect to his descriptive properties.
Inference
“Harry lives with his aunt and
uncle. His room is a cupboard under the
stairs.”
You can infer that Harry’s parents have
died because he doesn’t live with them.
You can infer that his aunt and uncle
don’t like him because of where he
sleeps.
“A detective enters the house, which
has been ransacked. He sees blood on
the floor, and it leads out the back
door.”
You can infer that a crime has occurred
in the house
13
3. Context & Co-text

3.1. Context
Pragmatics is the study of how language is used and of the effect of context on
language.

3.1.1. Definition
- Context is the physical environment in which a word is used. So, the world around us,
the situation in which a piece of discourse happen is the context.
- Context includes place/setting, situation, objects, person, tone, the linguistic
background, etc.
- In simple terms, pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics which studies the meaning of
language in its physical, epistemic, linguistic, and social contexts. The four aspects of
context can all affect pragmatics.

3.1.2. Types of contexts:

Physical context: The situation, time or place in which words are used (The Study of
Language).
For example:
- Be here at 9:00 tonight. (Physical context here is the place “here” and time “9:00
tonight).
- I will go back to pick up that book. (Accompanied by pointing)
Most of our understanding of what we read and listen is tied to physical context,
particularly, the time and place in which linguistic expression are used. But it is not
actual physical situation that constitutes the context for interpreting words and
sentences.
Epistemic context: Epistemic context refers to the background knowledge shared by a
speaker and his or her audience. A comfortable dialogue might be meaningful for the
speaker and listener, because they share the same background knowledge.
For example: It must be hot outside.

14
(Both speaker and hearer are in the classroom which is air-conditioned. They can see
that people coming in wear T-shirt and these people are sweating.
Both speaker and hearer have shared knowledge or understanding.)
Linguistic context: The information that has already been shared in the discussion is
known as linguistic context, including all antecedents, topics of conversation, and
intonations. A sarcastic, sad, or joking tone of voice can easily change the meaning of a
sentence.
For example:
- Linda came home late yesterday. She thought nobody would notice. (“she” in the
second sentence refers to Linda)
- I can’t believe Tom said that! (“that” refer to what Tom have told to “I” before).
Social context: Social context is the term for the relationship between a speaker and an
audience. Social context includes the social setting and the status of both the speaker
and the person who's addressed.
For example:

- Mr. President, stop bugging me and go home. (This sentence is quite informal.
You can’t talk like this to the President. It will be more appropriated if you say:
Mr. President, would you mind not bugging me and going home, please?
- When you talk to your friend: I do hereby humbly request that you might endeavor
to telephone me with news of your arrival at your domicile when such arrival
occurs. (This sentence is too polite and not appreciated when the person you are
talking with is your friend. You better say: Call me when you get home.)
3.2. Co-text

- In linguistics, co-text is the text that surrounds a particular word or phrase and
influences its meaning. It can be helpful to think of co-text as the context in which a
word or phrase is used. Just as the context in which we use words can influence their
meaning, so too can the co-text.
- Our ability to identify intended referents has actually depended on more than our
understanding of the referring expression.

15
 For example:

- The word “bark” is a noun in: The tree has silver bark.
- And a verb in: I wish that dog wouldn’t bark so much.

Only the co-text allows us to understand which meaning of the word is the correct
one to assume. “bark” in the first sentence is used with the meaning that is the hard
outer covering of a tree, but the meaning of the one in the second sentence is the loud,
short noise that a dog make.

3.3. Difference between Context and Co-text

- Co-text is just the linguistic part of the environment in which a referring expression is
used.
- Context is the non-verbal environment in which a word is used.
Put another way, the surrounding situation in which a word is used is its context
whereas the surrounding words are its co-text, the most obvious manifestation of which
is collocations.

16
 THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
Independence - Freedom - Happiness
*****

The 1st MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3

Time: From 8pm to 9:30pm on Sept 11, 2022
Place: Google Meet Participants: 6

13. Phùng Thị Thu Hằng 16. Trần Hồng Hạnh

14. Vũ Thị Hằng 17. Phạm Thị Hiên

15. Nguyễn Thị Hạnh 18. Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa

Contents for discussing:
- Team members introduce and get to know each other.
- Members read and analyze the content of the topic together:
+ Specify and analyze reference types.
+ Distinguish between reference and inference; context and co-text
+ The main content of the topic is related to chapter 3: Reference and inference
- The leader assigns the members to search for information related to the topic through
the textbook and the internet.
Conclusion:
- Group members discuss enthusiastically and actively
- The group has identified the content of the topic and the presentation goal.
Duties for participants:
- Phạm Thị Hiên: Collect and search for information about Definition of reference & The
categories of referring expressions.
- Trần Hồng Hạnh: Collect and search for information about Referential and attributive
use & Names and referents.
- Nguyễn Thị Hạnh: Collect and search for information about Endophora: textual
(anaphora-anaphoric reference)

17
- Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa: Collect and search for information about Endophora: textual
(cataphora-cataphoric reference) & Exophora: situational (exophoric reference).
- Phùng Thị Thu Hằng: Collect and search for information about Definition of Inference &
Difference between Reference and Inference.
- Vũ Thị Hằng: Collect and search for information about Context & Types of Context &
Co-text & Difference between Context and Co-text.
Deadline: 5pm on Sept 15, 2022.

Leader Minute-Taker
(Signature and name) (Signature and name)
Hạnh Hiên
Trần Hồng Hạnh Phạm Thị Hiên

18
 THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
Independence - Freedom - Happiness
*****

The 2nd MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3

Time: From 7pm to 8pm on Sept 16, 2022
Place: Google Meet Participants: 6

13. Phùng Thị Thu Hằng 16. Trần Hồng Hạnh

14. Vũ Thị Hằng 17. Phạm Thị Hiên

15. Nguyễn Thị Hạnh 18. Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa

Contents for discussing:
- Summarize the information that has been searched and select the necessary
information for the discussion.
- Team members together add the missing information.
- The leader assigns each member to prepare specific content in the topic (Prepare both
Word and Powerpoint)
Conclusion:
- Team members actively participate in contributing ideas and summarizing necessary
information.
- Complete division of task for members.
Specific duties for participants:
- Phạm Thị Hiên: Definition of reference & The categories of referring expressions.
- Trần Hồng Hạnh: Referential and attributive use & Names and referents.
- Nguyễn Thị Hạnh: Endophora: textual (anaphora-anaphoric reference)
- Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa: Endophora: textual (cataphora-cataphoric reference) & Exophora:
situational (exophoric reference).
- Phùng Thị Thu Hằng: Definition of Inference & Difference between Reference and
Inference.

19
- Vũ Thị Hằng: Context & Types of Context & Co-text & Difference between Context and
Co-text.
Deadline: 5pm on Sept 12, 2022.

Leader Minute-Taker
(Signature and name) (Signature and name)
Hạnh Hiên
Trần Hồng Hạnh Phạm Thị Hiên

20
 THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
Independence - Freedom - Happiness
*****

The 3rd MEETING MINUTES - GROUP 3

Time: From 9pm to 10pm on Sept 24, 2022
Place: Google Meet Participants: 6

13. Phùng Thị Thu Hằng 16. Trần Hồng Hạnh

14. Vũ Thị Hằng 17. Phạm Thị Hiên

15. Nguyễn Thị Hạnh 18. Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa

Contents for discussing:
- Members present their presentations, other members contribute ideas and make
comments
- The group leader summarize the parts into a complete presentation.
- The group leader assigns specific tasks to each member in the official discussion.
Conclusion: Team members actively participate in contributing ideas and giving
comments AND complete the group presentation.
Specific duties for participants:
- Phạm Thị Hiên: Writing meeting minutes & Participating in the discussion and answer
the questions from others group.
- Trần Hồng Hạnh: Word Summary & Participating in the discussion and answer the
questions from others group.
- Nguyễn Thị Hạnh: Participating in the discussion and answer the questions.
- Bùi Thị Thanh Hoa: Participating in the discussion and answer the questions.
- Phùng Thị Thu Hằng: Participating in the discussion and answer the questions.
- Vũ Thị Hằng: Powerpoint Summary & Participating in the discussion and answer the
questions from others group.
Leader Minute-Taker
(Signature and name) (Signature and name)

21
 Hạnh Hiên
Trần Hồng Hạnh Phạm Thị Hiên

22
 REFERENCES

1. https://www.facebook.com/1604593269816182/posts/reference-and-inference-
within-pragmatics-and-semantics-the-chain-of-communicati/
2458565531085614/

2. https://www.slideshare.net/dr.shadiabanjar/reference-and-inference-by-
drshadiapptx

3. https://www.studocu.com/vn/document/truong-dai-hoc-su-pham-ky-thuat-
thanh-pho-ho-chi-minh/pragmatics/yule-g-1996-pragmatics-oxford-oxford-
university-press/21622156

4. https://www.studocu.com/vn/document/universidad-nacional-de-jujuy/ingles/
pragmatics-by-george-yule/12919369

5. https://www.academia.edu/9731557/Pragmatic_Reference_and_Inference

23