Notes

15-Reproduction

Biology
 Reproduction: Is the process by which an organism can produce ( new
offspring) of the same kind.

 Asexual Reproduction: Is the process resulting in production of Genetically

identical offspring from one parent by Mitosis.

 Mitosis: Is the process resulting in

production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent by Mitosis.

o Examples:
1- In Bacteria: Binary fission.
2-In Potatoes: Tuber formation.
3-In Fungus: Spore formation.
o
 Sexual Reproduction: It is the process involving the fusion of nuclei of 2
gametes from two parents, to form a zygote. And the production of genetically
different offspring from each other and from their parents.

 Meiosis: A type of cell division that

results in four daughter cells each
with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell.
 Fertilization: It is the fusion of the male and female gamete together forming a
zygote.
 Gamete: A haploid cell containing half the original number of chromosomes
present in parent cell.
 Zygote: Is a diploid cell containing full number of chromosomes present in a
parent cell. But not identical to parent cell as it has received one set of genes (n)
from father and one set from the mother (n).
 The flower is the reproductive organ of a plant; A flower might be unisexual or
bisexual.

Male part of the flower is the stamen which consists of: Filaments & anthers.

Female part of the flower is the carpel which consists of: style, stigma & ovary.
Flower part Functions
Sepals Usually green, Protect the flower when it is in the bud.
Petals Large colored leaves :
1-for protection of reproductive organs.
2-with scent to attract insects (Pollinators) for pollination.
3-with nectary guide lines to lead insects to the nectary gland.
Anthers Produce pollen grains (contain male gametes).
Stigmas The surface which receives pollen grains and produce nutritive
materials to help them germinate to form pollen tube.
Ovaries Produce the ovules contains female gamete).

 Steps of sexual reproduction in flowering plants:

 1st Pollination: it is the transfer of the pollen grain from the male part of the
plant (Anther) to the female part (stigma).

Which is divided into:

 Self-pollination: occurs in bisexual plants.

 Cross pollination: occurs in both unisexual and bisexual plants.
Point of Wind pollinated flower Insect pollinated flower
comparison
Petals Small petals, dull in color, with Larger petals, brighter in color
no guidelines. with guide lines.
Nectary Absent. Present.
Reproductive Hang outside the petals (both Enclosed inside petals (both
organs stigma & stamen). sigma & stamen).
Stigma Feathery with large surface Sticky with smaller surface area.
area to trap pollen from air.
Pollen grains Smaller in size, light & dry Larger in size, sticky pollen grains.
pollen grains. Less in number.
Large in number (more).
Smell Not scented. Scented.

 2nd Fertilization: it is the fusion of the pollen nucleus with nucleus of an

ovule.

Factors affecting seed germination

Temperature Water Oxygen

needed for aerobic
for maximum to activate
respiration to
enzymatic activity. enzymes.
release energy.
1 Male Reproductive Organs:

Prostate gland

Urethra
Penis
Testis
Scrotum

Organs Function
Testes 1-Formation of the sperms (male gamete).
2-Produces male sex hormones (testosterone).
Scrotum 1-Protects the testes from physical damage.
2-Keeps the testes at cooler temperature (2-3 C0 lower) than the body which
is ideal for development of sperms.
Sperm duct Transports the sperms from the epididymis to the urethra by peristalsis.
Prostate gland Secretes seminal fluid for :
1-Providing nutrients for sperms to help them stay alive.
2-provide medium for swimming of sperms. (Mixture of sperm in fluid is
called semen).
Urethra Tube inside the penis:
1-Carries the semen from the sperm duct to the tip of the penis.
2-Carries urine out of the body.
Penis 1-Passes semen into the vagina of a woman during sexual intercourse
(copulation).
2-Passes urine out of a man’s body.
1 Female Reproductive Organs:

Organ function
Ovaries 1-Formation of the ovum (female gamete).
2-Produces female sex hormones (progesterone & estrogen).
Fallopian tube  Site of Fertilization.
(Oviducts) Carry the ovum or zygote to the uterus by peristalsis.

Uterus (womb)  Site of implantation of a fertilized egg (zygote).

 Site of growth and development of the embryo.
Cervix 1-Closes lower end of uterus to keep the baby in place while
a woman is pregnant.
2-Dilates and relaxes to pass the baby during birth.
Vagina  Site of copulation (sexual intercourse).
 Site of sperm deposition.
Is the way out for the baby birth.

 Fertilization: fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm) and a female
gamete (egg cell/ovum).
 Sperm cells:
 Are smaller than ova egg).
 Are produced in huge
numbers.
 Are motile; they swim by
the help of their flagellum.
 Have a streamlined pointe
head to help them swim
faster and penetrate the
membrane of egg cell.
 Have a part which releases
an enzyme to help
penetrate the egg.

 Egg cells:
 Egg is larger in size than sperms.
 One egg matures every month.
 Eggs can’t move, but cilia in cells lining
oviduct push them down to the uterus.
 Each egg contains large store of food, to
be used in early development of the
zygote/ ball of cells.
 No flagellum.
 Contains jelly layer that protects cells
and attracts sperm, changes at
fertilization so only one male nucleus
can enter the egg cell.

In early development, the zygote forms an embryo (a ball of cells) that implants
into the wall of the uterus.
 Placenta: 1-Nourishes the baby by providing him with glucose , amino
acids, fatty acids, glycerol, vitamins and minerals.
2-Provides baby with oxygen.
3-Removes carbon dioxide and urea from the baby.
4-Secretes progesterone to prevent uterine contractions and
maintaining the thickness of the uterine lining.
5-Transferes antibodies from the mother to the fetus.

 Umbilical cord: 1-Joins the fetus to the placenta.

2-It contains arteries which take away carbon dioxide and
Urea from the baby to the mother.
3-contains veins which deliver oxygen and nutrients from
The mother to the baby.

 Amniotic fluid: protects the fetus against:

1-Mechanical shock.
2-Drying out.
3-Temperature fluctuations.
4-Allows fetus to practice movements.

Fetal Development: Within 24 hours after fertilization, the egg that will become
a baby rapidly divides into many cells. By the eighth week of pregnancy, the
baby will change names from an embryo to a fetus. There are about 40 weeks
to a typical pregnancy.
 Antenatal care of pregnant women: the pregnant woman should:

o Eat balanced diet such as:

1-Calcium: to help form the growing fetus’s bones.

2-Iron: because her body will produce a lot of extra blood to help carry oxygen and
nutrients to the placenta and her growing baby is also forming blood.

3-Carbohydartes: because she needs extra energy to help moving her heavier
body.

4-Proteins: to help forming her fetus’s growing cells.

o Continue to do exercises as swimming or walking to facilitate labor and

strengthen the circulatory system.

o Regular visits to the doctor.

o Avoid smoking and drinking alcohol (Nicotine and Carbon monoxide passes
to the baby across the placenta causing the baby to grow more slowly and
smaller than the normal size) also alcohol may damage the brain of the baby
(fetal alcohol syndrome).

 processes involved in labor and birth:

 First (labor pain):  Second (Birth):  Third ( After birth):

 Contractions in the  Contractions continue  Umbilical cord is tied
wall of the uterus. and the baby is and cut.
 Cervix becomes soft delivered out of the  Placenta is expelled
and dilated. uterus and vagina. out of the vagina.
 Rapture of the
amniotic sac.
 Release of the
amniotic fluid
through the vagina.
 Puberty and Role of sex hormones:
 Adolescence is the time when puberty is occurring and emotional changes
happens.
 It starts between the age of 11-15 and ends at about 18.
 When puberty is reached, the brain causes the testes or ovaries to pour Sex
Hormones into the blood. Development of secondary sexual characteristics
happens because of sex hormones.

Boy’s Sex hormone: Girl’s Sex hormone: Both

Testosterone Estrogen
Voice deepens. Menstruation starts. Hair grows in armpits.
Shoulders get wider. Hips widen.
Penis gets bigger (grow). Vagina enlarges. Body smell increase.
Testes are stimulated to Ovaries start to release
begin production of egg cells.
sperms.
Hair grows on face Uterus develops. Hair grows on legs.
Increase in the thickness
of uterus lining.
Facial hair develops Breasts develop and
increase in size

 Menstrual cycle: this is a regular series of changes to the female

reproductive system (changes in the ovaries and lining of the uterus) in
preparation for fertilization and pregnancy.

Menstrual cycles stop while the woman is pregnant and end completely at the
menopause, when she is about 50 years old.

 Stage 1: Menstruation. In which the lining of the uterus breaks.

 Stage 2: Repair phase. In which lining of the uterus starts to thicken.
 Stage 3: Fertile period. In which ovulation occurs.
 Methods of birth control in humans:
A)Natural:
1-rhythmic: Avoid copulation around ovulation time (from day 11 to day 16).
Detected by change in female body temperature/ changes in vaginal mucus.

B)Chemical:
1-Contraceptive pills: Pills that contain progesterone and estrogen, thus prevent
the release of egg.so ovulation will not occur.
2-IUD: Intra uterine device (a device inside the uterus by a doctor).
3-IUS: a device which slowly releases hormones that prevents implantation and
development of any egg that does get fertilized.

C)Mechanical : (putting a barrier between eggs and sperms)

1-Condomn: males wear a rubber sheath over the penis to stop any sperm from
getting into the woman’s vagina. (good protection against the transmission of
diseases as it prevents mixing of body fluids between penis and vagina).

2-Femidom: alternative to condom in females. Lines the vagina.

3-Diahragm(cap): female wears a piece of rubber which is inserted into the
vagina and covers the cervix, stopping sperms from getting past it and into the
uterus.

D)Surgical:
1-Vasectomy: cut and tie both sperm ducts so no sperms can be ejaculated.
2-female sterilization: cut and tie both oviducts so that no eggs can be passed
down to be fertilized.

 Sexually transmitted infection: An infection that is transmitted via body

fluids through sexual contact.
 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is considered a sexually transmitted
disease. It is flu like illness in the early stages. Many AIDS related conditions
may follow as the immune system begins to fall.

 Methods of transmission of HIV:

1-Unprotected sexual intercourse with infected partner.
2-From mother to fetus during pregnancy or through breast feeding.
3-Blood transfusion of contaminated blood.
4-Using contaminated syringe or razor.

 How to control the spread of STI:

1-checking blood before transfusion.
2-using condoms/femidomes during intercourse with infected person.
3-avoid breast feeding to babies of infected mother.