Magnetism, Electromagnetism and Generating Electricity

Triple Award Notes

Edexcel iGCSE Specification content:

*** 6.2 to 6.7 NOT ASSESSED summer 2022 but needed for “End of Module Test”
*****4.18P, 4.19P NOT ASSESSED summer 2022 or in “End of Module Test”

6.2 know that magnets repel and attract other magnets and attract magnetic
substances
6.3 describe the properties of magnetically hard and soft materials
6.4 understand the term ‘magnetic field line’
6.5 understand that magnetism is induced in some materials when they are placed in a
magnetic field
6.6 practical: investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and
that between two bar magnets
6.7 describe how to use two permanent magnets to produce a uniform magnetic field
pattern.
6.8 know that an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field round it
6.9P describe the construction of electromagnets
6.10P draw magnetic field patterns for a straight wire, a flat circular coil and a solenoid
when each is carrying a current
6.11P know that there is a force on a charged particle when it moves in a magnetic field
as long as its motion is not parallel to the field
6.12 understand that a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field,
and how this effect is applied in simple d.c. electric motors and loudspeakers
6.13 use the left hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force when a wire
carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
6.14 describe how the force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
increases with the strength of the field and with the current.
6.15 know that a voltage is induced in a conductor or a coil when it moves through a
magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it and describe the factors
which affect the size of the induced voltage
6.16 describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a coil of
wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field and describe the factors which
affect the size of the induced voltage
6.17P describe the structure of a transformer, and understand that a transformer changes
the size of an alternating voltage by having different numbers of turns on the input
and output sides

1
6.18P explain the use of step-up and step-down transformers in the large-scale
generation and transmission of electrical energy
6.19P know and use the relationship between input (primary) and output (secondary)
voltages and the turns ratio for a transformer:

6.20P know and use the relationship:

input power = output power
VPIP = VSIS
for 100% efficiency
4.18P describe the energy transfers involved in generating electricity using:
• wind
• water
• geothermal resources
• solar heating systems
• solar cells
• fossil fuels
• nuclear power

4.19P describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity

production from various renewable and non-renewable resources.

2
Magnetism Bullseye Grid
*** Not on iGCSE but needed for end of module test

Content Bullseye

Know that a magnet is an object which can attract “magnetic materials” such as Iron, ***
Cobalt, Nickel and Steel
Know that two like poles attract and opposite poles attract ***

Know that magnetic fields are regions where other magnets or magnetic materials will ***
experience a force whenever they are placed in the field.
Know that a permanent magnet always has a magnetic field surrounding it ***

Know that an induced magnets is a temporary magnet which occurs when a magnetic ***
material is placed inside a magnetic field.
Know that magnetically hard substances can be permanently magnetised. Steel is an ***
example of a magnetically hard material.
Know that magnetically soft substances that can only be temporarily magnetised. Iron ***
is an example of a magnetically soft material
Know that magnetic field lines describe the direction of the magnetic force on a ***
magnetic north pole at any given position.
Be able to describe the plotting compass method of drawing magnetic field lines ***

Be able to describe the iron filings method of drawing magnetic field lines ***

Know that using iron filings to show magnetic field lines does not show the direction ***
of the field lines
Know that the concentration of magnetic field lines indicates the magnetic field ***
strength
Know that the closer the field lines the stronger the magnetic field strength ***

Know that parallel field lines indicate a uniform field strength and the field strength ***
stays constant in this region
Know that magnetic field lines always point from North to South ***

Be able to draw magnetic field lines around a bar magnet ***

Be able to draw magnetic field lines between two opposite poles and two like poles ***

3
Electromagnetism and Generating Electricity Bullseye Grid
Know that an electric current in a conductor produces a magnetic field round it

Be able to draw concentric circular magnetic field lines around a current carrying wire
(in a plane perpendicular to the wire).
Know that the magnetic field is stronger when closer to the wire. This is shown by the
magnetic field lines being more concentrated closer to the wire.
Know that increasing current increases the strength of the magnetic field

Know that the direction of the magnetic field is reversed if the electric current is
reversed
Be able to use the right-hand grip rule to determine the direction of the field lines

Be able to draw the magnetic field lines around a flat circular coil (when carrying a
current)
Be able to draw the magnetic field lines around a solenoid (when carrying a current)

Be able to describe in detail how to build and test an electromagnet using a variable
power supply, insulated wire, iron nail and paperclips
Know 3 ways to increase the strength of an electromagnet

Know that an electromagnet can be turned on and off instantly if a soft iron core is
used
Know that any charged particle moving inside in a magnetic field will experience a
magnetic force as long as its motion is not parallel to the magnetic field
Understand that a force is exerted on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field

Understand that a current-carrying-conductor placed (perpendicular) inside another

magnetic field causes magnetic fields to interact and exert forces on the conductor
Understand that the “motor effect” is the name given to the movement of a
conductor when it is carrying current inside a magnetic field
Know that the direction of the force on a current-carrying-wire will always be
perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of the current.
Know that reversing either the current or the magnetic poles causes the force on the
conductor to act in the opposite direction
Know that the force on a conductor can be increased by increasing the current in the
conductor or increasing the magnetic field strength
Be able to use Fleming’s left-hand rule to predict the direction of the resulting force
when a wire carries a current perpendicular to a magnetic field
Know that the force on a conductor can be increased by increasing the current in the
conductor or using stronger magnets
Understand that a single coil carries current in opposite directions.

Know that a d.c. motor uses a commutator to flip the current every half rotation

Understand that when the current flips direction, the force on each arm is reversed,
causing the motor to keep rotating in the same direction

4
Understand that a motor with many turns of wire experiences greater forces and
spins faster
Understand that using stronger magnets increases the magnetic field strength which
causes the motor to spin faster due to the greater forces on the wire
Be able to explain in detail how a loudspeaker design uses the motor effect to convert
electrical signals into sound waves
know that electromagnetic induction occurs when a voltage is induced in a conductor
as it moves through a magnetic field or when a magnetic field changes through it
Know that if the conductor is part of a closed circuit, then an induced current will flow

Be able to explain electromagnetic induction by the cutting of magnetic field lines

Know that increasing the rate of cutting magnetic field lines increases the induced
voltage (and associated current)
Be able to describe 4 methods of increasing the size of the induced voltage

Be able to interpret and explain an induced-voltage vs time graph produced by a

magnet falling through a solenoid
Be able to describe the generation of electricity by the rotation of a magnet within a
coil of wire and of a coil of wire within a magnetic field
Understand that the voltage output of a generator can be increased by increasing the
rate of cutting magnetic field lines and know 3 ways to achieve this
Understand that the main purpose of a transformer is to change the amplitude of an
alternating voltage.
A transformer consists a primary coil and a secondary coil wound around a laminated
soft iron core.
Understand that transformers will only work with alternating voltages

Know that the primary coil is connected to the input and the secondary coil is
connected to the output
Be able to describe in detail how a transformer uses an iron core to transfer a
alternating voltage across the primary coil into an alternating voltage output on the
secondary coil.
Understand that there is a there is a magnetic connection between primary and
secondary but no electrical connection.
!! "!
Understand and be able to use the formula: =
!" ""
Know that step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than the
primary coil
Know that step-up transformers induce an alternating output voltage which is more
than the alternating input voltage
Know that step-down transformers have less turns on the secondary coil than the
primary coil
Know that step-down transformers induce an alternating output voltage which is less
than the alternating input voltage
Understand that transformers also transfer power. If the transformer is 100% efficient
then: power in the primary coil = power in the secondary coil
Understand and be able to use the formula: 𝐼! 𝑉! = 𝐼" 𝑉"

5
Know that in the national Grid, a step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage
to 400,000 V and at the same time the current is massively reduced
Understand that less current means less energy is lost through heating the
transmission wires
Understand that pylons are used to support transmission lines above the ground to
protect people from these high voltage wires
Know that in the national Grid, a step-down transformer reduces the voltage from the
transmission voltage to the safer voltage of 230 V for home use.
Understand that real transformers are not 100% efficient as thermal energy is always
dissipated into the surroundings
Describe the energy stores and transfers involved in generating electricity using: *****
wind, water, geothermal, solar heating, solar cells, fossil fuels, nuclear power
describe the advantages and disadvantages of methods of large-scale electricity *****
production from various renewable and non-renewable resources.

6
Magnets
A magnet is an object which can attract “magnetic materials” such as Iron or attract/repel other
magnets (depending on their orientation).

Legend has it that a Greek shepherd called

Magnes was herding his sheep in a region
called Magnesia about 4000 years ago.
Suddenly both the nails in his shoes and
the iron tip of his staff became firmly
stuck to the large black rock on which he
was standing. To find the source of
attraction he dug down to find
“loadstones”. Lodestones contain Fe3O4
which is a form of Iron oxide. Fe3O4. is a
natural magnetic material and was
subsequently named magnetite after
either Magnesia or Magnes himself.

Magnetic Materials
Materials that can easily be magnetized are called magnetic materials. The elements Iron, Cobalt
and Nickel are magnetic however there are many different alloys of these which can form magnets
(for example steel and neodymium-iron alloys).
Magnetic materials Mnemonic:

“Nick Irons Creased Shirts”

Magnet Properties
Magnets always have two opposing poles called North and South.

7
Magnetic Fields
All magnets are surrounded by an invisible magnetic field. Magnetic fields are regions where other
magnets or magnetic materials will experience a force whenever they are placed in the field.

Permanent Vs Induced Magnets

Permanent Magnet:
A magnet which always has a magnetic field surrounding it

Induced Magnets:
A temporary magnet which occurs when a magnetic material is placed inside a magnetic field.
For example, steel paperclips or iron pins become magnets themselves when placed inside a
magnetic field. These induced magnets can then attract other paperclips or pins when inside the
field but when they are not inside the magnetic field they don’t behave as magnets.

8
Extension: magnetic Domains
Magnetic domain theory models how magnetic
materials can become induced magnets. Microscopic
regions within magnetic materials act like “mini
magnets”. Normally, these domains are randomly
organised and the magnetic fields cancel out. However,
in the presence of a magnetic field, these domains line
up together to produce a temporary magnet.

Hard/Soft Magnetic material

Substances that can be permanently magnetised are described as magnetically hard. Steel is an
example of a magnetically hard material.
Substances that can only be temporarily magnetised are described as magnetically soft. Iron is an
example of a magnetically soft material

Magnetic Field Lines

Magnetic field lines are a visual tool used to represent magnetic fields. They describe the direction
of the magnetic force on a magnetic north pole at any given position.

Observing/recording Magnetic Field Lines

Method 1: Plotting field lines with a compass
Step 1:

1. Place the magnet on top

of a piece of paper
2. Draw a dot at one end of
the magnet (neat its
corner)

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Step 2:

3. Place a plotting compass

next to the dot, so that
one end of the needle of
the compass points away
from the dot
4. Use a pencil to draw a
new dot at the other side
of the compass needle

Step 3:

5. Move the compass so

that it points away from
the new dot, and repeat
the process above

Step 4:

6. Keep repeating the process

until there is a chain of dots
going from one end of the
magnet to the other
7. Then remove the compass,
and link the dots using a
smooth curve – this will be
the magnetic field line

Step 5:

8. Repeat the whole process

several times to create other
magnetic field lines

10
Summary of plotting compass method: (you need to know this to answer iGCSE questions):

• place the magnet on a piece of paper

• draw around the magnet
• mark north and south poles
• place the compass by a pole of the magnet
• make a dot at the tip of the compass needle
• move the compass tail to the new dot
• make a dot at the tip
• repeat until the compass reaches the other pole of the magnet
• draw a line through the dots
• add arrow to show direction of field line (from north to south)
• repeat for different starting positions at the poles

Method 2: Using iron filings to show field lines

Method for this experiment (you need to know this):

• Place a piece of paper over a magnet
• Sprinkle over iron filings
• Tap paper very gently
Note:
Using iron filings to show magnetic field lines does not show the direction of the field lines

Magnetic field strength

The concentration of magnetic field lines indicates the magnetic field strength
• If the field lines spread out, the field strength is decreasing.
• If the field lines get closer together, the field strength is increasing.
• Parallel lines indicate a uniform field strength so the field strength stays constant in this region

11
Magnetic field patterns
You need to be able to recognise/draw these patterns.
Field lines always point from North to South
Single bar magnet:

Note:

1. Field lines come out of North into South.

2. The field is strongest at the poles as the
field lines are very concentrated
3. The field strength gets weaker further
from the magnet (indicated by the field
lines getting further apart)

Opposite poles attract:

Note:

1. There is a uniform magnetic field

pattern between opposite poles
indicating a uniform (constant) field
strength
2. Between poles, the magnetic field lines
align in the same direction causing
attraction

Like poles repel:

Note:

1. Field lines point in opposing

directions causing repulsion
2. The field lines curve away from each
other leaving a blank spot in the
middle

12
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics that investigates the interaction between electricity and
magnetism.
Electromagnetism was first discovered in 1820 when a compass placed near a wire was observed
to move whenever an electric current passed through that wire.
• An electric current flowing through a conductor will create a magnetic field around it.
The shape of the magnetic field can be shown using iron filings:

In the picture opposite, iron filings have been

sprinkled around a “current-carrying- conductor”
(in this case a copper wire that has a current
flowing through it).
The iron filings show that the magnetic field lines
form concentric circles around the wire.

This drawing shows the pattern more clearly.

The current carrying wire is passing vertically
through a horizontal card. Note how the field
lines get further apart with increasing distance
from the wire. This shows that the magnetic
field strength decreases as the distance from
the wire increases.

The current flowing through a wire can be

changed using a variable resistor. When the
current is increased, the magnetic field lines
become denser showing the magnetic field
strength increases with increasing current
through the wire

The iron filings show the shape of the magnetic field lines, but not the direction.

13
A compass can be used to show both the shape and direction of field lines around a current-
carrying wire.

In picture (a) all

compasses point to North
when no current flows
through the wire.
Picture (b) shows how
current flowing upwards
in the wire causes the
compasses to point in an
anticlockwise direction
around the wire

If the current in the wire is reversed, the direction

of the magnetic field lines is also reversed

Right hand grip rule

An easy way to remember which direction the field lines circle around a wire is to use the
right hand grip rule.

• Imagine holding a current-carrying wire in your right hand.

• Point your thumb in the direction of current flow (form + to -)
• Your fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field

14
Points to remember:
• The magnetic field lines around a current carrying wire form concentric circles around the
wire (in a plane perpendicular to the wire).
• The magnetic field is stronger when closer to the wire. This is shown by the magnetic field
lines being more concentrated closer to the wire.
• The strength of the magnetic field increases if the electric current is increased
• If the current is reversed in the wire, the direction of the magnetic field is reversed
• Use the right-hand grip rule to determine the direction of the field lines

Flat circular coil magnetic field pattern

If a wire is looped to form a flat coil, the current flows in opposite directions through opposite
sides of the coil. This forms clockwise and anticlockwise magnetic field patterns that meet and
reinforce inside the coil, thereby increasing the magnetic field strength inside the loop.

Dot cross notation

It is not easy to show 3-dimensional situations in 2-D. The dot-cross notation is a simple way to
show situations where a current in a wire is coming directly towards you (out of the page) or going
directly away from you (into the page).

The easiest way to remember the notation is to imagine

a dart.
If the dart is coming towards you, you will see a point. If
the dart is moving away from you, you will see a cross.

15
Solenoids
By curling a wire into many coils, the electromagnetic effect is much enhanced.
The following picture shows how many coils produce a powerful electromagnet because the
magnetic fields reinforce each other both inside and outside of the coil.

The current in each coil is going into

the page along the top row.
The magnetic fields of the top row all
go anticlockwise and point to the right
when they combine inside the coil.

The current in each coil is coming out

of the page along the bottom row. The
magnetic fields of the bottom row all
go clockwise and also point to the right
when they combine inside the coil.

If the current in the wire is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field lines is also reversed
Notice the similarity between the external magnetic field patterns of a solenoid and a bar magnet.
However, always remember to draw magnetic field lines inside the solenoid.

16
Building an electromagnet

1. wrap an insulated wire around an iron nail

2. connect the wire to the power supply (with connecting leads and croc clips)
3. switch on the power supply
4. A magnetic field is created inside and around the coil
5. The iron nail acts as a soft iron core. When a magnetic field goes through the core, it
becomes a temporary magnet.

Testing an electromagnet
Paperclips can be used to test the strength of the electromagnet:

• the more paperclips suspended, the stronger the electromagnet is

• the further the distance from which paperclips can be attracted the stronger the
electromagnet is

The strength of the electromagnet can be increased by:

• Increasing the number of turns (on the coil)

• Increasing the current through the coil (by increasing the voltage across the coil)
• Using a soft iron core

17
Motor Effect
Any charged particle moving inside in a magnetic field will experience a magnetic force as long as
its motion is not parallel to the magnetic field
A current (of moving charges) in a wire will cause a magnetic field around the wire. If this electric
current is placed (perpendicular) inside another magnetic field, then the two magnetic fields will
interact and exert forces on the conductor.
If a wire is placed perpendicular inside a magnetic field, it will move as soon as a current passes
through the wire. This is called the motor effect.

The direction of the force on the wire will always be perpendicular to both the magnetic field and
the direction of the current.

• If the magnetic poles are reversed, the force on the wire acts in the opposite direction
• If the current in the wire is reversed, the force on the wire acts in the opposite direction
• Increasing the current in the wire increases the force on the wire (wire moves faster)
• Using stronger magnets increases the force on the wire (wire moves faster)

18
Extension: Catapult effect
Magnetic field patterns can be used to explain why a current-carrying-wire experiences a force
when placed inside a magnetic field:

This diagram shows the magnetic field pattern

(from North to South) between two parallel
magnetic poles.

This diagram shows the electromagnetic field around a wire

that is carrying current into the page

If the current-carrying-wire is put inside the permanent magnetic field, the two magnetic fields
interact and creating a new magnetic field pattern which looks as follows:

Direction of Resultant force
Above the wire, the magnetic field lines from
the wire are going in the opposite direction to
the magnetic field lines from the permanent
magnet. These lines will tend to cancel each
other out, creating a region where there is a
very weak magnetic field.

Below the wire, the magnetic field lines from

the wire are going in the same direction to the
magnetic field lines from the permanent
magnet. These lines will tend to reinforce each
other, creating a region where there is a very
strong magnetic field

The imbalance between the weak magnetic field

above the wire and the strong magnetic field
below the wire creates a resultant magnetic
force upwards which pushes the wire upwards.
The field line diagram above can be likened to
how a stretched elastic band can propel an
object using a catapult. The “stretched” field
lines below the wire act like a catapult. Hence the
name “catapult effect”.

19
Fleming’s left-hand rule
To predict the direction that the wire will move, make a shape with your left hand that has the
first finger, second finger and thumb all pointing perpendicular to each other:

To use Fleming’s LHR:

• Point the first finger (of the left hand) in the direction of the magnetic field,
• Point the second finger points in the direction of the current,
• Then the thumb will point in the direction of the force of the wire (which is also the direction of the
motion)

This following diagram can help you to remember which finger relates to which direction:

The following you-tube video (called GCSE-IGCSE Physics Fleming's left-hand Rule-Electromagnetic
Force-Electric Motor) has a good explanation of Fleming’s left-hand rule with lots of examples:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-OA3HjMHr4

20
DC (direct current) Electric Motor
Recall:
1. a current-carrying conductor (wire) will experience a force when put inside a magnetic field
2. The force on the wire will act in the opposite direction when the current is reversed
3. The direction of the force on the wire can be determined using Fleming’s LHR

Coiling the wire into a single loop causes the wire to carry current in opposite directions!
This has the effect of causing two opposite forces to act on the same wire as shown below:

The following diagram shows how the magnetic fields interact to produce an opposite catapult
effect on either side of the coil (these opposite sides of the coil are called arms)

These opposing forces can cause the coil of wire to rotate, creating an electric motor.

Dysfunctional motor design

However, there is a major problem associated with the design of the simple electric motor above.
The above motor will not continue to rotate in the same direction.
After half a rotation, the current in each arm will continue to flow in the same direction but the
arm is now on the opposite side of the central axis.
The force on the wire will now cause the motor to spin in the opposite direction resulting in the
motor not spinning

21
Why does the “bad” motor spin in the opposite direction after half a rotation?
Referring back to the simple motor in figure 1, the (conventional) current in the left arm is flowing
to the negative terminal of the battery and the current in the right arm is flowing away from the
positive terminal of the battery.
We can draw this simply using dot and cross notation as follows:
Start of cycle:

The red arm on the left is connected to the positive

terminal and has current coming out of the page.
Using Fleming’s LHR the force acting on this arm is
upwards.
The blue arm on the right is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and has current
going into the page. Using Fleming’s LHR, the force
acting on the arm in downwards.
These opposite forces cause the motor to spin
clockwise.

After half a rotation:

The red arm is now on the right but still connected

to the positive terminal of the battery. This means
that the direction of the current is still out of the
page and the force on this arm is still upwards.
The blue arm is now on the left but still connected
to the negative terminal of the battery. This means
that the direction of the current is still into the
page and the force on this arm is still downwards.
These arms are now rotating in the opposite
direction to previous. This causes the motor to spin
anti-clockwise

In this poorly designed motor, every half a rotation the motor reverses the direction of its spin.
Clearly this motor will not work!

22
Simple d.c. motor

This simple DC motor is designed to keep

rotating in the same direction by using a
simple commutator which reverses the
direction of flow of electric current every
half turn.
Insulated electrical wire is coiled around
a wooden block. The two ends of the
wires are stripped of insulation and
attached to the axel using rubber bands.

The exposed wire ends are connected to “brushes”. In the simple motor above, the brushes are
simply stripped wires. One of these brushes is permanently connected to the positive terminal of a
battery. The other brush is permanently connected to the negative terminal.
This means that every half rotation, both arms will disconnect from the terminal they were
touching and reconnect to the opposite terminal. This means that the current in each arm flips
direction every half turn.
As can be seen in the diagrams below, the commutator keeps the motor spinning in the same
direction:
Start of cycle:

The red arm on the left is connected to the

positive terminal and has current coming out
of the page. Using Fleming’s LHR the force
acting on this arm is upwards.
The blue arm on the right is connected to the
negative terminal of the battery and has
current going into the page. Using Fleming’s
LHR, the force acting on the arm in
downwards.
These opposite forces cause the motor to spin
clockwise.

23
After half a rotation:
The commutator flips the direction of the current in each arm after every half rotation so that
the forces on each arm also flips every half rotation.

The commutator has changed the connections so

that the blue arm (now on the left) is connected to
the positive terminal (when this same arm was on
the right-hand side it was connected to negative).
The current in the blue arm has flipped directions.
The force on the blue arm has flipped with the
current and is now an upwards force.
The red arm on the right is now connected to the
negative terminal of the battery.
The current in the red arm has flipped directions.
The force on the red arm has flipped with the
current and is now an upwards force.

Every half turn, the current in each arm flips direction so the force on each arm also flips
direction. This enables the motor to continue to spin in the same direction (in this example
clockwise).

Powerful motors
A motor doesn’t have a single loop of wire, but a coil of many turns.
(Exam tip: always state “coil” not wire)
Each turn of wire will experience the motor effect. A motor with many turns of wire will
experience greater forces and spin faster because all the individual motor effects on each turn of
wire will combine to create a very large motor effect.
Using stronger magnets increases the magnetic field strength which causes the motor to spin
faster due to the greater forces on the wire

Extension: Split ring commutator

DC Motors use a “split ring”

commutator which is directly
connected to the coil. The commutator
rotates with the coil.
Every half turn, the split ring
disconnects from one terminal and
reconnects with the opposite terminal.
This flips the current in the coil every
half turn.

24
Loudspeakers

A loudspeaker uses the motor effect to

convert alternating electrical signals into
alternating movement.
A solenoid is placed inside a magnetic field.
The solenoid is connected to a large cone.
Both coil and cone are free to move
perpendicular to the magnetic field.

• Alternating current passes through the coil

• This produces a changing magnetic field
• The changing magnetic field interacts with the permanent magnetic field
• producing a changing force on the coil
• As the current changes direction, the force on the coil changes direction
• This changing force causes the coil and attached cone to vibrate
• The vibrating cone causes the air molecules to move
• The air molecules bunch together forming compressions and spread apart forming
rarefactions
• This produces pressure variations in the air
• Which create sound waves

Electromagnetic induction (generator effect)

When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, a potential difference is induced across the
conductor. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction.

voltmeter

If the wire is part of a closed circuit, then an induced current will flow:

25
Moving a magnet into (and out of) a solenoid will also induce a potential difference across the
wire:

Cutting magnetic field lines

When a conductor cuts through magnetic field lines, a potential difference (voltage) is induced
across the ends of the conductor.

Similarly, when magnetic field lines move through a conductor, a voltage is induced across the
ends of the conductor (which can drive a current)

26
Factors which affect the size of the induced voltage
Changing the rate of cutting lines changes the voltage (and associated current).

The induced voltage can be increased by:

1. Increasing the strength of the magnet
2. Increasing the number of turns of coil
3. Increasing the speed of movement of
either magnet or coil
4. Increasing the radius of the coil

Free falling magnet Investigation

The voltage output from a coil is measured by a data logger as a bar magnet falls freely through the coil.
The induced voltage is recorded as a function of time.

27
 This picture shows a typical graph of the
results obtained when a bar magnet falls
freely through the coil.

• As the magnet moves through the coil, magnetic field lines are cut which induces a voltage in the
wire.
• The voltage increases from A to B because the rate of cutting magnetic field lines increases as the
magnet moves deeper into the coil
• The voltage at D has a larger magnitude than the voltage shown at B because the magnet is
accelerating. A faster moving magnet means that the rate of cutting magnetic field lines increases.
• The graph has a positive and a negative section. As the magnet falls through the coil, the poles are
first entering the coil so the field lines are moving into the coil. But as the magnet exits, the field
lines are moving out of the coil. This changes the direction of the induced voltage.
• The areas under both segments of the curve are the same since the total number of magnetic lines
cut is the same in both cases. Faster movement creates a bigger amplitude but for a shorter time.
• Decreasing the number of coils, decreases the peak amplitude because the rate of cutting magnetic
field lines decreases
• Decreasing the height that the magnet is dropped from decreases the amplitude (and widens the
trace) because the rate of cutting magnetic field lines decreases
• When the magnet is reversed, the trace obtained is also reversed.

Electrical generators
Electrical generators are designed in two ways:
1. A coil is rotated inside a magnetic field
2. A magnet is rotated inside a coil
Generators are usually combined with turbines powered by steam, falling water, or wind.

As the coil rotates, the rate of cutting field lines changes. When the coil is moving parallel to the
field lines, no voltage is induced as no field lines are cut.
A rotating coil produces a sinusoidal output.

28
Small “dynamo” generators rotate a magnet inside a fixed coil.

The amplitude of the induced voltage output from any generator can be increased by increasing
the rate of cutting magnetic field lines. This can be achieved by:
• rotating the coil (or magnet) faster (this also produces an alternating voltage output with a
higher frequency)
• increasing the magnetic field strength
• increasing the number of coils of wire

Transformers
The main purpose of a transformer is to change the amplitude of an alternating voltage.

A transformer consists of two coils of wire, called the primary and the secondary coils. These
are usually wound around a laminated soft iron core.

Note: Transformers will only work with alternating voltages

29
 • The primary coil is connected to the input voltage
• The secondary coil is connected to the output voltage
• The alternating input voltage causes an alternating current in the primary coil.
• The field lines of the primary coil repeatedly first grow in one direction and then
shrink and then grow in the opposite direction and then shrink again.
• An alternating current in the primary coil will produce a changing magnetic field
around it.
• This changing magnetic field occurs throughout the iron core.

• The secondary coil experiences a changing magnetic field.

• The magnetic field lines move back and forth through the secondary coil.
• As the magnetic field lines are cut by the secondary coil, an alternating voltage is induced
across the ends of the secondary coil.
• If the secondary coil is connected in a complete circuit, an alternating current will flow in
the secondary circuit.

Note:
• The iron core is not conducting any current between the primary and secondary
• There is a magnetic connection between the coils, but no electrical connection

30
Transformer design

For an ideal transformer:

the ratio of the input:output number of turns = the ratio of the input:output voltages

𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

=
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦)𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠

𝑉! 𝑛!
=
𝑉" 𝑛"

Worked example:
A primary coil has 12 turns and an input potential difference of 200 V. If the secondary coil has 6
turns, what is the output potential difference?

#! $!
Equation: #"
= $"

%&& '%
Substitution: #"
= (

%&&
Rearrange: #"
=2

%&&
Answer and Units: 𝑉" = %
= 100 V

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Step-up vs step-down transformers
Step-up transformers
Step-up transformers have more turns on the secondary coil than the primary coil
This induces an alternating output voltage which is more than the alternating input voltage

Example:
A UK hairdryer is rated at 230V. The mains electricity in the USA is 120V.
To operate a UK hairdryer in the USA, a step-up transformer must be used to increase the
120V mains supply to deliver 230V to the hairdryer.
Step-down transformers
Step-down transformers have less turns on the secondary coil than the primary.
This induces an alternating output voltage which is less than the alternating input voltage

Example:
For an American to use their hairdryer (rated at 120V) in the UK (mains supply is 230V), they
would need a step-down transformer to reduce the UK 230V down to 120V so their hairdryer will
operate as designed.

Extension: Isolation transformers

Another use of transformers is to isolate two

circuits from each other electrically so that
there is no chance of a person directly
contacting the mains supply. These are used
in bathrooms where the abundance of water
increases the risk of electrocution.

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Transformer Efficiency and Power
Transformers also transfer power. If the transformer is 100% efficient (an ideal transformer),
power in the primary coil = power in the secondary coil
𝑃! = 𝑃"

Recall:
The equation that links power, voltage and current is:

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉

So
𝐼! 𝑉! = 𝐼" 𝑉"

Where:
𝐼! = current in primary coil
𝑉! = voltage across primary coil
𝐼" = current in secondary coil
𝑉" = voltage across secondary coil

The formula shows that:

1. stepping up the output voltage decreases output current
2. stepping down the output voltage increases output current

Worked example:
3.

A primary coil has an input potential difference of 20 V and a current of 3 A . If the secondary coil
has an output voltage of 100 V, what is the output current?

Equation: 𝐼! 𝑉! = 𝐼" 𝑉"

Substitution: 3 x 20 = 𝐼" x 100

Rearrange: 100 x 𝐼" = 60

(&
Answer and Units: 𝐼" = '&& = 0.6 A

Note: transformers are never 100% efficient.

Current flowing in the coil will heat the wires and dissipate thermal energy into the surroundings.
The magnetic field through the iron core can also produce micro “eddy currents” which also heat
up the core and dissipate thermal energy. These currents can be reduced by using a laminated
core but they can never be fully eliminated.

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National Grid

• In the National Grid, a step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage and reduce the
current.
• The voltage is increased from about 25,000 Volts (V) to 400,000 V causing the current to
decrease.
• Less current means less energy is lost through heating the transmission wires.
• To keep people safe from these high voltage wires, pylons are used to support
transmission lines above the ground.
• Before reaching the end user, a step-down transformer, reduces the voltage from the
transmission voltage to the safer voltage of 230 V for home use.

Energy dissipation
As an electric current flows through the thick cables held up by the pylons, they will get hotter and
dissipate energy to the surroundings.

The electrical power dissipated depends on current and resistance according to the formula:

𝑃 = 𝐼% × 𝑅

where:

power (P) is measured in watts (W)

current (I) is measured in amps (A)
resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω)

To ensure that the minimum amount of power is lost from the cables, the current must be kept
very low. Reducing current can be achieved by using very high voltages to reduce the current
through the transmission lines
Transmission lines are also thick so that their resistance is low.
A low resistance and a low current mean that the transmission wires will not heat up much. As a
result, most of the power is delivered to the consumer, and not lost through the wires.

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Energy transfers involved in large scale electricity generation
Recall: There are eight energy stores and can be remembered using the mnemonic: 8 kg cement

Kinetic, Gravitational Potential, Chemical, Elastic Potential, Magnetic, Electrostatic, Nuclear,

Thermal
There are four energy transfers and can be remembered using the mnemonic: Mr He
Mechanical, Radiation, Heating, Electrical
In all the following transfers, energy losses are not included. For a full analysis, the following
energy losses should be accounted for:

• Hot objects will always dissipate thermal energy into the surroundings by heating and/or radiation
• Moving machinery will always involve friction which will transfer from the KE store into the thermal
• store by a mechanical transfer (friction can be reduced by lubrication)

Renewable and non-renewable resources

Renewable resources:

• are natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time

• are continuously replaced or renewed by nature

Advantages Disadvantages
• Won’t run out • Expensive to set up
• Have lower maintenance requirements • Weather dependent
• cheap to run with no primary fuel costs • Geographic limitations
• Do not produce pollution
• Do not produce carbon dioxide or other
greenhouse gases
• cuts down on waste

Non-renewable resources
• are natural resources that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable to its consumption
• cannot be replaced by nature when they are used-up

Advantages Disadvantages
• Reliable • Will run out
• Cheapest to set up • Have fuel costs
• Not weather dependent • Produce pollution
• No geographic limitations • Produce carbon dioxide or other
• Output can be easily increased to meet greenhouse gases
demand • Produces harmful waste

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Wind Generators:

Kinetic store Kinetic store

mechanical transfer (rotating electrical transfer

(moving wind) turbine and

(work done by wind (current in circuit)
generator)
on turbine)

Use of wind to generate electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable Expensive to set up
Non-polluting clean energy Not reliable as only produces electricity when
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases it is windy
released into atmosphere so no contribution Can only be situated in windy locations
to climate change Can be harmful to birds
Cheap running costs as there is no fuel Wind farms are large but the energy output is
comparatively low.

36
Water – Hydroelectricity power station:

Water – Tidal generators:

GPE store Kinetic mechanical transfer Kinetic store

mechanical transfer
store
(high level (work done by water (rotating
(work done by gravity
water) (falling on turbine) turbine and
on water)
water) generator)

electrical transfer

(current in circuit)

37
Use of water to generate electricity
Advantages
Renewable
Non-polluting clean energy
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases
released into atmosphere so no contribution
to climate change
Cheap running costs as there is no fuel
Produces a lot of energy
Disadvantages
Expensive to set up
Not reliable as cannot always produce
electricity. E.g., hydroelectric cannot be used
during a drought and tidal generators only
work at high tides.
Can only be situated where there is water
Can harm aquatic animals

Fossil Fuel power station:

Chemical Thermal mechanical transfer Kinetic store

store heating transfer store
(work done by steam (rotating
(chemical (burning fuel) (hot steam) turbine and
on turbine)
bonds) generator)

electrical transfer

(current in circuit)

Use of fossil fuels to generate electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
Cheapest type of power station Non-renewable source
Relatively cheap to extract and convert fuel Limited supply
into energy. Extracting the fuel can be destructive to the
Reliable environment
Can increase or decrease production easily Pollutes the environment
Releases carbon dioxide into atmosphere
which contributes to climate change

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Nuclear power station:

Nuclear Thermal Kinetic store

store heating transfer store mechanical transfer
(rotating
(nuclear (nuclear reaction) (hot steam) (work done by steam turbine and
bonds) on turbine) generator)

electrical transfer

(current in circuit)
Use of nuclear fuel to generate electricity

Advantages
Produces a lot of electricity
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases
released into the atmosphere so no
contribution to climate change
Uses a very small amount of fuel
Reliable
Can increase or decrease production easily
Disadvantages
Non-renewable
Radioactive waste is ionising and can remain
hazardous for thousands of years
Potential for disastrous accidents
Expensive to build a nuclear power plant

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Geothermal power station:

Thermal Kinetic store electrical transfer

mechanical transfer
store (rotating
turbine and (current in circuit)
(work done by steam
(hot steam) generator)
on turbine)

Use of geothermal sources to generate electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable Expensive to set up
Non-polluting clean energy Choice of location is very limited
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases
released into atmosphere so no contribution
to climate change
Cheap running costs as there is no fuel
Constant supply of energy

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Solar heating power station:

Nuclear store
Thermal Kinetic store
radiation transfer store mechanical transfer (rotating
(Sun’s nuclear
turbine and
reactions) (work done by
(EM waves) (hot steam) generator)
steam on turbine)

electrical transfer

(current in circuit)

Use of solar heat to generate electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable Renewable source
Non-polluting clean energy Expensive to set up
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases Not reliable as only produces electricity when
released into atmosphere so no contribution it is sunny
to climate change Can only be located in very sunny climates
Cheap running costs as there is no fuel

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Solar cell power plant

Nuclear store
radiation transfer electrical transfer
Solar
(Sun’s nuclear
(EM waves) cells (current in circuit)
reactions)

Use of solar power to generate electricity

Advantages Disadvantages
Renewable Renewable source
Non-polluting clean energy Expensive to set up
No carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases Not reliable as only produces electricity when
released into atmosphere so no contribution it is sunny
to climate change Can only be located in very sunny climates
Cheap running costs as there is no fuel

42