ALAN BELL

S O M E E X P E R I M E N T S IN D I A G N O S T I C T E A C H I N G

ABSTRAcr. Three teaching experiments are reported which study aspects of a diagnostic teaching
methodology based on identifying key conceptual points and misconceptions, focusing on these,
giving substantial open challenges, provoking cognitive conflict, and resolving it through intensive
discussion. An experiment in the field of directional quantities showed a positive relation between
the intensity of discussion and amount of learning; one on fractions and another on geometric reflec-
tions both showed - - in comparison with individualized booklets, for which retention was very low
strikingly good two-month retention under the experimental teaching methods. The particular
misconceptions found in each topic are also described.

INTRODUCTION

This paper reports three experiments conducted within the framework of a pro-
ject on diagnostic and responsive teaching (Bell et al., 1985; Bell, 1986). The
theoretical basis of this method is discussed fully in "Principles for the Design
of Teaching" (Bell, 1993), the introductory article to this issue. The experimen-
tal teaching methodology consists of identifying the key conceptual points and
common misconceptions within the topic, using existing research, and testing
directly the students who are to be taught. The teaching is then designed to
focus on these points, giving the students substantial challenges, provoking cog-
nitive conflict by exposing misconceptions, and resolving them through discus-
sion.
All three experiments were designed to test an aspect of this methodology.
For the first experiment, which was in the field of directional quantities, the
main question for study was the relation between successful learning and inten-
sity of discussion. A second question was whether the resolving of the miscon-
ception in one context transferred to other familiar contexts.
In each of the other two experiments, a pair of classes were taught a topic
by two distinct methods - - one the experimental method, based on conflict-
discussion and creative productions, the other a more standard method using
individual booklets containing gently graded, guided discovery sequences of
problems. The topics were fractions and geometric reflections.
The outcomes showed a general ineffectiveness of the individual booklets,
and good retention for the conflict and discussion methods. Of particular inter-
est for the present theme are the choice of the learning situations and the
designs of the tasks.

Educational Studies in Mathematics 24:115-137, 1993.

© 1993 KluwerAcademic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
116 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

Conflict versus Positive-Only

A fourth experiment, on the understanding of decimals, will not be reported in
detail, but it is necessary to mention its result. In this case, the conflict method
was compared with a "positive only" method which used the same tasks, but
instead of arousing conflict by allowing the pupils to make the key errors and so
expose their misconceptions, it forewarned them of the possible hazards so that
they might avoid them, and so make only correct responses. Thus, this method
also focused on the misconceptions but to avoid rather than arouse conflict. It
produced moderately good learning but significantly less than the conflict
method (Swan, 1983a, b).

FIRST EXPERIMENT

Conflict Teaching with Directional Quantities

This was an early experiment in the series and had a less-tight design than later
ones. Two sets of contexts were used, "League Tables and Pop Charts" and
"Money and Temperature". The former were chosen as familiar embodiments
of up and down movements and for the similarity with the negative part of the
directed number system, in that "up" means moving towards smaller numbers,
and vice versa.
The focus of the teaching in the Leagues and Pops context was on the mis-
conceptions of (1) regarding "going up" as implying increasing numbers, (2)
counting both start and finishing members of a list when finding a difference,
and (3) "failing to reverse" in questions where the initial state is unknown; that
is, assuming that statements involving "rise" or "more" necessarily imply
adding. In Money and Temperature, the same misconceptions were treated and
also those relating to negative quantities; that is, (4) ignoring the sign, (5)
regarding sign as denoting region (e.g., from -6 to -2 is a rise of -4), and (6)
treating differences across zero by subtraction instead of addition of the magni-
tudes.
The conflict-discussion lessons typically had three parts. First there were
some questions to answer which explored the topic and which were likely to
expose misconceptions. For example, a lesson on world weather begins with a
page of "newspaper headlines" (see Figure 1) and the students are asked for the
temperatures in New York and Calgary, and the change when travelling from
Budapest to Moscow.
When there has been sufficient time for pupils to write their answers to these,
a di scu s sion i s begun. The teacher says, for ex ample,' From B udape st to Me scow
you may have a rise or fall of 3 °, or 4 °, or 5 ° or -4°; has anyone any other
 ALAN BELL 117

CANADA COOL, WO R LD
~330 IN CHURCHILL W E A T H E R
C h u r c h i l l is 29 ° c o l d e r t h a n N e w Y o r k , ~5th Feb.
C a l g a r y is 18 warmer than Churchill.

EAST E U R O P E IN
SUB-ZERO COLD SPELL:
- 7 ° IN M O S C O W ,
- 3 ° IN B U D A P E S T .
B u d a p e s t is 3 * c o l d e r t h a n R e y k j a v i k
_ I : l e y k j a v i k is 12 ° c o l d e r t h a n L i s b o n .

• ~l D A K A P
Figure 1. World Weather data.

answer?" He then asks how many pupils have each of these answers, then asks
pupils to explain how each answer is obtained, and also asks others if they
agree. He aims to arouse and expose as much conflict as possible at this point,
and may, if necessary, put forward faulty arguments to be challenged. He tries
to get pupils to express the false and the true generalizations in general terms.
After this discussion, the pupils continue with further questions in writing.
Feedback on correctness is provided by giving additional clues, such as "In
questions 4 and 5, the rise should be 26 more than the fall". (In a similar exer-
cise on League Tables, feedback was provided by getting pupils to fill in their
answers on a partially completed table.)
Figure 2 shows another temperature situation, portraying the temperatures in
various cities and the changes in temperature experienced by an air traveller in
flying from one to another. The letters represent unknowns to be found. In some
of these the final temperature is unknown; in some the change, in others the
temperature at the starting point need to be found. The last is the most difficult
type, involving a mental reversal of the specified change.
Figure 3 shows some of the material from a money situation. Various
cheques and bank statements provide data, and questions are asked relating to
balances and transactions of the same mathematical structure as those on tem-
perature.
Figure 4 shows how some of the data were presented on League Tables; the
Pop Chart information was given in a similar way, as a collage of cuttings from
118 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

F i g u r e 2. W o r l d T r a v e l : t e m p e r a t u r e s and c h a n g e s .

a pop music newspaper. The task illustrated in Figure 5 asked pupils to make up
appropriate questions based on the given data; this included information about
rises and falls in the League Tables and Pop Charts, and also about attendance
at matches and sales figures for records. This broadened the range of linguistic
expressions to include more/fewer, this week/last week as well as mixing situa-

9 doe had a balance of [3 one evening;

M,,,..~,.. tt,,~. ~t.~
Ij.~l* that same morning lie had been [17
.~:~.:~i:~'.:~ ....... o,er~ra~ Whatt,an~,~Uo, had
.., i . ~ occurred dur|n 9 the day?

~ l m m m ~ I ...... I I overdrawn. That was after paling tn

--X'~( ~ - ~ ' - a l L Jl~ [ | 0 ~hlch he had received as a
'~" '~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... ' ~ l l b ~ C h r l s t m a s present, ill,at ~as bts

t°'l~lq /o/Ito / ~. i~, ~o.4j •

F i g u r e 3. M o n e y d a t a - - and q u e s t i o n s .
 ALAN BELL 119

dons where "up" had its

usual connection with
larger numbers with
-- ~ l'Ort'~
those in which the
C'~,~_~ o ~ '~'"---f ~ H ~ t o n ~u.~ ,~ ,~ reverse was the case.
Important questions
\~ /~ I£rom .6 ~' ~=,U~n were those such as that
arising from the Not-
tingham Forest (foot-
ball club) gate figures
(Figure 5).
1800 fewer fans this week
than last. 12000 this week ....
How many last week?

This produced strong

conflict and was in sev-
Figure 4. Sport headlines data.
eral classes the key
question which made
pupils aware of the possible need to reverse thinking to resist the cue word and
to take careful note of the direction of the relation.

INFOR,,~A7"1 o N. 0 You~ QuzS-rl o ~ s .

4r
~ey aid ~is ~ , . ~z.~s ~ ~ ,.,,,,~ 0
T,r r ~ r~ ~a~ w ~ , - uP ~. ~ a ~ ~ ~z~"

NOW 19~- "~

o.~P, ~,,,,~,,e -up 4f~s ~ 5 = 0
~,,750 more fx~ae ~ = ~ d ' ~ mo~_h
~ u r r e d o u ~ t~ w~b=h.

.,~i/ly.,Joet.~ ~ , . ¢ o l a -~s6~.~ ,'.o,"a " ~ , " C ~ - -

tg, s ~ 6 .. •

Figure 5. A make-up questions task.

Four classes of pupils in a Leicestershire secondary school used the Leagues

and Pops (LP) material, and three classes in a Nottingham secondary school
120 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

used Money and Temperature (MT). Details of the classes appear in Table I.
They were each taught by their own teachers and were observed by one or more
of the research team, who also discussed the lessons with the teachers before
and afterwards. The teaching occupied about three lessons. A form for record-
ing details of the lessons was used, and attention was paid to the quality and
intensity of the discussion. Particular points noted were: the ratio of pupil and
teacher contributions; the extent of class participation; whether conflict was evi-
dent (a) between pupils, or (b) within an individual (an expression of uncertain-
ty or tension); how far resolution of the conflict was in evidence; and whether
misconceptions were expressed in specific or general terms, whether explained
or merely noted, and whether by a pupil or by the teacher. For example, "Going
up from 12th means it has to be 5th" is specific, while "In these charts, the high-
er numbers go with lower places" is general.
The discussion was rated by the observer as "good", "fair", "poor", "very
poor", or "none" in relation to the general level over all of the lessons. Among
the four LP groups, there was a deliberate intention to conduct one class without
any discussion. This class worked on the material like a "normal" class, the
teacher introducing the material briefly and then setting the questions to be
answered in writing by the pupils and helping individuals as necessary. One of
the other classes had a particular emphasis on a game (Directed Scrabble) in
which cards beating either directed numbers or ranks, and moves were to be
placed to form correct chains, as in Scrabble. Figure 6 shows a typical state of
the game. Points were scored for the number of number cards played, and chal-
lenges were possible. Another class emphasized the activity of making up ques-
tions for one's partner, of the same general types as those given. Both these
activities went rather slowly, due to their unfamiliarity, and the brief three-
lesson span did not allow time for them to reach their potential; and they did
not, in fact, lead to very significant differences between the classes compared
with the amount and quality of discussion engendered. (We have since observed
them both becoming good and effective activities after the initial slow start.)

Figure 6. Directed Scrabble.

 ALAN BELL 121

The Money and Temperature classes were intended to have good discussion,
but, as the results show, this was not very successful. The reasons appeared to
the observers to lie in the combination of material, teachers, and classes. The
MT material contained too many easy questions and too few hard ones for the
second- and third-year average and above-average pupils with whom it was
used; and teaching by conflict discussion was an unfamiliar style, particularly to
one of the two teachers involved.

Results
The test contained 18 questions including four contexts and covered all the previ-
ously noted misconceptions. For analysis, it was divided into three sections. The
first contained all the six Leagues and Pops questions and two other questions
similar in structure to the Forest attendance question quoted above, requiring the
rather difficult this week/last week type of reversal, where a cue word like
"more" needs to be resisted. The second section contained the four temperature
questions involving crossing zero, where the sign has to be carefully dealt with
and the "difference" requires addition. The third section contained the six money
questions and the remaining two temperature questions, which did not contain
negatives. All of these required attention to before/after and the possible need to
reverse. Transfer was the point of interest here. The four temperature questions
crossing zero were those which it was predicted should derive greatest benefit
from the attention to sign in the MT material and should be unaffected by the LP
TABLE I
M e a n percentage scores and g a i n s for each class

Class Year and Discussion LP QNS Tem~ACR MT REV QNS Overall

Set Rating Zero Gains
1~: Gain Del Pre Gain Del Pie Gain Del
LPl 3:3/4* Good 62 +37 99 63 +35 98 66 +31 97 +35
LP2 3:5/5 Fair 46 +50 96 54 +27 81 53 +40 93 +42
LP3 I:MA Poor 67 +23 90 33 +34 67 67 +21 88 +25
LP4 2:3/5 None 65 +18 83 61 +15 76 63 +7 70 +14

MTI 3:2/4 Poor 62 +16 78 65 +18 83 74 +14 88 +16

MT2 3:2/5 V Poor 71 +13 84 79 +3 82 76 +6 82 +8
MT3 3:1/2 V Poor 67 +9 76 73 +16 89 72 +12 84 +12

* 3rd y e a r (age 13-14); 3rd of 4 sets; ranked by ability. MA = m i x e d ability

122 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

learning material, while the third-section questions might have been expected to
gain from the LP emphasis on time referencing and reversal. A pre-test and a
delayed post-test, about six weeks after the end of the teaching, were given.
Table I and the scatter graph, Figure 7, show the results. The relation between
the quality of the discussion and the gains is clearly visible. The relationship is
strong in the LP classes except for the somewhat less good performance of the
"good" discussion class compared with the "fair". The differences in the MT
group - - both in quality of discussion and gains - - are smaller, but they con-
form to the same pattern, even when all seven classes are considered.

0
(3
3~

i i

IVoNE ~ ~oo~ J ¢ o oJ~

tSc. u ~ N I o N

Figure 7. Mean overall gains against quality of discussion (Table I)

for Leagues and Pops classes (O) and Money and Temperature classes (D).

Table II compares the results, on each facet of the test, of the classes taught
the Leagues and Pop unit with those who were taught Money and Temperature.
These classes have made similar gains on all facets of the test, and these gains
are substantially greater than those made by the MT classes. The scatter graph
of Figure 7 suggests that the main reason for the difference is that the discussion
was more rigorous and more effective in the LP classes. But it is also evident
that when classes with similar discussion ratings are compared, those taught MT
still have lower gains than those taught LP. Moreover, the gains are similar
across all three facets of the test, showing that the aspects taught in LP are
transferable to MT questions, but the reverse is not true. It may be that success
 ALAN BELL 123

of LP is due to the absence of difficulties concerning negatives, and the conse-

quent opportunity to focus more clearly and strongly on the reversal difficulties
and the need to resist cue words such as more and higher.

TABLE II
Overall mean gains

LP qns. Temp qns. MT reversal qns.

LP classes +32 +37 +33
MT classes + 13 +12 +11

The indication is that mastery of these slructural features is more important to

success than knowledge of the meaning of overdrawing, credit, balances, and
negative temperatures. It is also worth noting that these successful discussions
took place in classes drawn from the lower half of the range of ability.
An alternative or additional explanation for high transfer may lie in the more
general beneficial effects of good conflict-discussions; for example, the value it
places on probing a situation and seeking explanations may simply have encour-
aged a more purposeful and determined approach to the problems. As one artic-
ulate pupil said on another similar occasion, "I never realized before that you
could think about a problem and work out how to do it; I always thought that if,
when you looked at it, you couldn't do it suaight away, that was the end of it".

SECOND EXPERIMENT
Conflict and Challenges with Fractions
This experiment aimed to compare the effectiveness of the diagnostic/responsive
teaching method with an individualized booklet method based on rather different
principles. Method A was a system of learning from a very popular scheme of
individualized booklets containing gently graded guided discovery material (SMP
11-16). Method B was a version of the diagnostic method described above. In
this, the pupils worked in groups of three or four at fairly hard challenges involv-
ing the production largely of their own examples; these challenges were devised
by the teacher and the discussion of the groups' conclusions was handled by him.
Method A is related to the following theoretical principles: (a) that time spent
on a task is a highly significant variable and is maximized by individualized
work; (b) that individual differences within a class in previous attainment and in
learning capacity demand individualized learning tasks; and (e) that the experi-
124 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

ence of success is highly important in the development of mathematical compe-

tence and confidence. Method B depends on the principles (a) that misconcep-
tions need to be exposed and the conflicts resolved by discussion and (b) that
individual differences can be satisfactorily provided for by working with open-
ended (and open-middle) problems and by pupils' generation of their own
examples. The experiment thus provides some indication of the relative signifi-
cance of these two sets of principles in determining learning outcomes.

The Experiment
In the experiment, two classes of 10- and ll-year-old pupils were taught by the
same teacher. The two groups were closely matched on the basis of the pre-test
and on previous attainments. All had had similar mathematical experiences pre-
viously. This included some recent work on fractions.
The groups each had nine lessons of about 50 minutes each on the topic of
fractions over the course of three weeks. Group A was taught by using the indi-
vidualized booklet scheme, Group B by the method of challenges, investigation,
conflict, and discussion. The content of the booklets was taken as defining the
field of work. By choosing a set of critical problems capable of challenging the
pupils, the teacher devised the material for the conflict and investigation lessons
to cover the same field.

Teaching Methods
Method A - - Individual Booklets, Guided Discovery: These booklets are
attractively illustrated and refer to practical contexts wherever possible. In this
unit, flags, farm animals, windows, cars, and trains entering tunnels appear. The
questions are gently graded and it is intended that pupils of all levels of ability
should be able to work steadily through the material without meeting difficulties
that retard their progress. A summary of the material appears in the following
list. Each section of work consisted of some 10 to 20 questions of the kind
indicated, and in the case of numerical questions, often considerably more.

Teaching Method A
( I n d i v i d u a l Booklets, Guided Discovery)

1. Meaning of fractions: Given flag divided 1/4 yellow, 112 red, 114 blue.
(plane regions) Is 1/3 of the flag red7 What fraction is yellow?

Draw a flag and eolour 1/5 blue, 2/5 red and 2/5 white.
 ALAN BELL 125

2. Fractions of numbers: How do you work out 1/3 of a number? Work out ... 1/3
e.g. 1/3 of 12... 3/5 of 15 of 72 ... 1/8 of 928.

To work out 3/4 of a number, work out 1/4 of a

number and multiply by 3.

3/5 of 15 pigs, 7/10 of 40 hens.

Reverse problem: Given Window showing 4 square panes, rest curtained.

part, find whole.
You can see 1/3 of this window. How many squares
are there in the window?

4. Fractions of an hour: Clock face showing 1/4 hour shaded.

Minutes as 60ths.
How many minutes in 1/4 of an hour?

5. Addition of fractions: Recipe: Preparation 1/2 hour, frying 1/4 hour

baking 3/4 hour, finishing 1/4 hour. Total?

3/4 hour + 1/2 hour = ...; 2 3 / 4 hour + 13/4 hours . . . .

Two strips shown one divided into quarters, one into

fifths

6. Comparison of fractions: Which fraction is greater, 3/4 or 4/5?

(using given strips).

7. Equivalence: Put halves strip against twelfths strip.

Write fractions equal to 1/2, 2/3 ...

8. Decimal equivalents: 4/10 of this strip coloured ... you can write 0.4 of the
strip is coloured.

Using a sevenths strip, complete: 2/7 is between 0" ...

and O' ...

Method B m Conflict/Challenge Method: Whereas in the booklets method,

examples are given and explained before the pupil is asked to answer the
questions, in the conflict and challenge method, the pupils were simply given
the key question and asked to devise and justify a solution. So, for example,
when they were asked in section 5 to find the result of adding 1/2 and 1/3, they
had to consider its meaning, devise a situation to display these fractions from
which they could find an answer, and resolve conflicts between different
answers or methods which arose - - first within the group then across groups.
The list below gives a summary of the material used in this method. In this
case, the questions quoted are all those which were specifically presented to the
pupils. In most lessons, additional questions bearing on the same point were
126 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

generated and explored by the different groups of pupils. The types of response
produced by the pupils and examples of the made up questions are also quoted
since in this method they constitute an important part of the work.

T e a c h i n g M e t h o d B: C o n f l i c t / C h a l l e n g e

1. Meaning of fractions: Circle cut by secant into unequal segments.

need for equal parts. What has the line done to the circle?

Responses (1) halved (2 pupils only)

(2) 3/4 + 1/4.

Conflict about (2), chaUenges to prove result.

Divide a square into halves in as many ways as possible.

(Use squared paper.) (Discuss, explain, justify.)

See computer program TAKE HALF.

2. Meaning of fractions: Sharing Chocolate.

Equivalence, +, -.
• Share 3 bars of chocolate amongst 4 people ...
5 people
Find as many solutions as possible.
Draw, symbolize e.g., 1/4 + 114 + 1/4; 1/2 + 1/4.

• Share 23•4 bars among 4 people.

• Make up own for other groups.

Responses included: I0 bars/6 people, 1000

bars/900 people, 6 bars/4 people.

3. Comparison of fractions: Which is bigger, 4/5 or 3/47

Responses: (1) Look at numerator (only)

(2) Draw and divide a rectangle.
(3) Use times: 48 mins, 45 mins.

4. Equivalence: Find all fractions equal to 4/5.

Groups' challenges: Reduce:

(1) 4444 (2) 72 (3) 16 (4) 5__66

4444 184 32 64

5. A d d i t i o n : Find 1/2 + 1/3.

 ALAN BELL 127

Methods used: (I) Rectangles,

(2) Minutes,
(3) Equivalent fractions.

Further: 3/4 + 2/3; 5/6 + 3/4.

Classroom Organization
In Method A, pupils worked individually at their own pace through the book-
lets; at the end of each booklet, they marked their work from an answer book
available in the classroom and answered a further set of test questions. These
were shown to the teacher, any difficulties discussed, and then the pupils pro-
ceeded with the next booklet.
For Method B, pupils were arranged into four groups, each of three or four
pupils. Pupils were asked first to make their own individual written response to
the given challenge, then to discuss this within the group and arrive at an agreed
conclusion. Following this, there was a class discussion in which the conclu-
sions of the various groups were put forward and the correctness and other mer-
its of each solution considered.

Observation of the Teaching

The teacher recorded the following notes about the progress of the work in
Group A:
• few difficulties, little or no stress, quiet and orderly working
• a remarkable change in attitude and motivation from highly enthusiastic at
the the outset to bored and lethargic near to the end
• interaction between pupils less than usual, and little opportunity for class
or group discussion, as the pupils were at different stages in their work;
however, more teacher-pupil discussion than usual
• pupils of lower ability found security in having the rules and methods
given to them by the booklets
s booklets encouraged an artificial enthusiasm to complete the work, more
for the status of commenting "I'm on Book 3, which are you on?" than for
the satisfaction of learning and understanding
In Group B:
• teacher's role much more prominent, required an expertise in generating
and guiding discussion, encouraging the shy to participate; knowledge of
the main misconceptions also required
128 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

• pupils needed fu'st to make a written response before any useful discus-
sion could ensue.
* pupils needed guidance in developing their ability to discuss
• no boredom, but increasing interest and involvement
,, in the group contributions to class discussion, the spokesperson should
not always be the most able or vocal
• no limit on the level of difficulty; often pupils were able to demonstrate
their learning with quite difficult examples (e.g., cancelling 168/216)
• atmosphere sometimes noisy; stressful for teacher compared with Group
A
• several pupils discussed the problems with parents
• most rated the work very interesting but quite hard

The Test
The test was taken mainly from the test material provided with the booklet scheme;
hence, most of the questions were very similar to those quoted above. There were
some items not explicitly covered in Method B. These were the reverse problem
(given the part window, find the whole), the addition of mixed fractions and whole
numbers (e.g., 23/4 + 1lf2), the explicit connection of fractions with time (parts of
an hour in minutes). The connection with decimals is also made in the booklet
teaching but this does not appear on the test. However, the test contains a few items
in which harder fractions appear. Some such fractions were treated in Method B,
but not in Method A. Overall, the test had a slight bias in favour of Method A.

Attitude Questionnaire
At the end of lessons 3, 6, and 9 for each group, the pupils answered a very
short set of attitude questions. These asked them to rate the lesson as "very
interesting", "quite interesting", "not very interesting", or "boring" and in a
similar way to rate how hard they had worked and how difficult they found the
material. The general conclusions from these are given in the notes on observa-
tions of the teaching above.

TegResul~
For each group, the post-test was given immediately at the end of the teaching
and the delayed test seven weeks later, after the summer holiday. The results are
shown in Table III.
 ALAN BELL 129

TABLE III

Mean Scores (Max 40) Mean Gains

Pre Post Delayed Pre-post Pre-delayed
Group A (N=14)
Individual Booklets 18.3 20.1 15.0 +1.8" -3.3**

Group B (N = 13)
Conflict/Investigation 17.7 21.2 21.4 +3.5* +3.7**

N is the number of pupils present for all three tests.

* Difference on borderline of 5% significance.
** Difference highly significant (at 0.1% level).

Discussion
When noting the dramatic fall in the performance of Group A to a level below
that at which they began the experiment, it should be remembered that all of the
pupils had had some fairly recent experience of fraction work before the experi-
ment began; so both groups have probably begun at a level somewhat higher
than might otherwise have been the case. However, the result shows clearly that
the learning of Group B has been well retained, while that of Group A has been
substantially lost. This is a much more striking result than might have been ~
expected, but it is consistent with the observations made during the course of
the teaching and it has survived our somewhat sceptical scrutiny. We believe
that this is a genuine result. On its own, we would not claim it as a def'mitive
and generalizable result, since the experiment was performed with only one pair
of classes. But taken together with the other experiments reported here, the
results show a consistent pattern. The matter is of considerable importance since
the scheme from which Method A was taken is in use in a large proportion of
British secondary schools. It has some visible merits in terms of presentation
and is generally well liked. However, a number of teachers have misgivings
regarding the depth of learning which pupils achieve with it. This experiment
shows not only the comparative ineffectiveness of the individual booklets, it
shows also the high level of learning, retention, involvement, and enjoyment
achieved with the method of conflict and investigation.
These are the practical outcomes. From the theoretical standpoint, the results
call into question the theories on which Method A is based - - that is, that an
appropriate way to respond to the wide differences in rates of learning and of
prior knowledge which exist within a normal class is to provide individual
materials. The conflict, discussion, and investigation method provides for flexi-
bility and creativity in the response of the pupils and thus generates an activity
from which the class as a whole is able to learn more successfully. On the ques-
130 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

tion of whether the exploration of a relatively small number of well-chosen

problems can promote learning which covers the whole field of the topic, the
experiment shows that it can indeed do so. (For a more detailed report, see
Bassford, 1988.)

THIRD E X P E R I M E N T

Conflict-Discussion in Reflection Geometry

This study concerns the transformation of reflection; a quite different set of
didactic variables arises, as well as different ways of generating the field of
examples.
The range of problems considered - - and most of the misconceptions
observed - - are illustrated by Figure 8, part of the last worksheet of the teach-
ing sequence. The aim was the construction of plane reflections in a line and the
identification of the lines of reflective symmetry in plane figures. Previous
research by Schultz (1978), Ktichemann (1981), and Grenier (1985) had identi-
fied as relevant variables:
1) the direction of the mirror (horizontal, vertical, 45 °, other),
2) the complexity of the figure being reflected,
3) the presence of a grid, and
4) the size of the figures and distance from the mirror.
The first three of these were incorporated by Ktichemann into a structured
sequence of questions. He identified levels of response as global, semi-analytic,
analytic, and analytic-synthetic. In global responses the object is considered and
reflected as a whole with no reference to particular parts, angles, or distances; in
semi-analytic responses, a part of the object D usually an end point - - is
reflected fast and the rest drawn from it matching the original in shape and size.
In fully analytic responses, the object is reduced to a set of key points, each
reflected individually. These are connected and the result accepted even though
sometimes the image looks wrong. In analytic-synthetic responses, the analytic
and global responses are co-ordinated so that the final image is accurate and
also looks correct.
The study consisted of interviews and a pilot teaching experiment with a
mixed ability secondary school class aged 11 and 12 years, followed by a com-
parative teaching study with two other parallel classes of the same age. We
shall report here the main misconceptions found in the interviews, the design
of the materials for the teaching experiment - - noting particularly modifica-
tions made following the pilot work D and finally, we shall give the results of
the comparative teaching.
 ALAN BELL 131

Pupils' Concepts
The first group of misconceptions comprised beliefs that horizontal objects
must have horizontal images and vertical objects vertical images or that hori-
zontal objects have vertical images and vice versa. These can be seen in ques-
lions 2, 4, 5 of Figure 8. Approximately 40 percent of the sample made errors
corresponding to one or more of these misconceptions during the pilot testing.
The next misconception consisted of associating reflecting with various pairs of
opposites such as forwards and backwards, towards and away, left and right,
upwards and downwards. For example, one pupil - - producing a response
somewhat like that in number 2 of Figure 8 - - said, "this one is on the left and
points up so that one must be on the right and point down".
Such verbal descriptions of the relation between object and image, which
might be derived initially from some correct observation, are thus transferred to
other situations to which they do not apply. In a similar way, the term "straight
across" was in some circumstances interpreted by some of the sample in a way
dependent on the nature of the object and/or the presence of the grid and/or the
slope of the mirror line. Thus the term might be used in item 4 Figure 8, and
in cases like those shown in Figure 9.
The somewhat unexpected misconception that there could be more than one
possible correct image was displayed by some 14 percent of the pupils inter-
The following wotksheet was given to Edward Green [or Homework. Mark the work,
correO.ing all the mistakes. In your book, explain where Edward is gu:ng wrong

An~e~

I--

Figure 8. Parts of a "marking homework" worksheet.

132 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

viewed; all of these were pupils who saw reflection as a mirror image rather
than as a folding, and they often justified their conclusion by showing how the
mirror could be moved - - still standing on the same line - - to produce a move-
ment of the image. The same connection with physical mirrors rather than fold-
ing gave rise to another misconception - - that the image might simply be
similar to the original object and not necessarily congruent to it (Figure 8, Num-
ber 5). Over-generalizations of verbal statements were also used to justify erro-
neous placings of lines of symmetry on, for example, the letter N or as a
diagonal of a rectangle; the shape was held to have a line of symmetry if it
could be split into two equal parts even if they were inverted or displaced.
Pupils said, for example, "It is the same on both sides". Another difficulty arose
when a fairly complex figure might have symmetry if certain details were
ignored. It would seem important that this type of example should be given, and
pupils encouraged to give alternative statements about its symmetry according
to whether or not various details are considered (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Some misconceptions concerning reflection.

Teaching Experiment
The experimental teaching occupied ten one-hour lessons for each of the two
groups. In the diagnostic method, the pattern of each lesson was that pupils
in groups of about four - - discussed the problems on a given worksheet and
arrived at agreed conclusions. Following this, there was a class discussion in
which the conclusions from each group were conlributed and defended and con-
flicts among the various interpretations were resolved. Extracts from the work-
sheets for lessons 1, 3, 5, and 10 are shown in Figures 10, 11, and 8.
Some modifications were made to the sheets and to the mode of conduct of the
lesson following the pilot work. These were as follows:
1) Certain easier tasks were omitted (marked O in Figure 10). These were
 ALAN BELL I33

2
Figure 10. Worksheets omitted (O) and retained (R) following pilot teaching.

answered correctly by most pupils, which left some of them with the impres-
sion that they were doing reasonably well and did not need to change their
strategy even if they in fact possessed serious misconceptions causing errors
on the harder questions.
2) On the workshcct following Figure 11 (which asked the pupils to write an
explanation of why their choice in Figure 11 was correct) some groups
responded with rather weak explanations. In the modified lesson, the teacher
intervened by playing "devil's advocate" and so provoking them to produce
more cogent arguments.

0 •
g

•
tl

•
•
•

•
•

.
•
iiili
.
•
.
.
.

•
.
.

•
. . . . .
. . . . .
• " ' "
.
.
"
.
.
" "

30 p u p i l s w e r e asked to find the point that

w a s straight across f r o m A. Ten different
suggestions were given and are s h o w n above.
Circle the point that y o u think is correct or
s u g g e s t a n o t h e r point if y o u do not agree w i t h
a n y of their a n s w e r s .

Figure l 1. A "conflict" task.

134 D I A G N O S T I C TEACHING

3) More time was taken at the beginning of the teaching to discuss the positive
aspects of making errors, the importance of explanation and of listening
skills, and the need for mutual respect of other's opinions.
The alternative teaching method was based on two booklets on reflections
(from the SMP 11-16 course). These were in use in the school as part of an
individual learning scheme during the first two years. The pedagogical method
embodied in these is that of examples with explanation, followed by questions
for individual practice. The first booklet concentrates on reflection as mirror
images, the second booklet on folding. The questions become increasingly com-
plex, but the learners are not asked to devise their own methods and none of the
situations demands a high level of thought or enquiry. This contrasted with the
diagnostic method, in which the aim was to lead pupils - - through the discus-
sion of difficult questions - - to recognize and to state explicitly and carefully
the general properties of reflection. The booklets were well received and
enjoyed. In this group, the teacher was fully occupied in managing the issue of
the booklets, administering the review and check tests, and answering pupils'
individual questions relating to the material. An example of the material is
given in Figure 12.
( : , , p v i h¢~," ; , u Sl.,~Ll ~r p+ll't'+ I14 "l+~itl/it~.d i i i . l l g u l . r ~I~,ii v 11~ii~.¢ +,,t i hi.~c.
I ~I ~I~+~'+~ h I c l h ' t ' l l q l n w i t l , +l+l' h e l p + , l . l l l l l l . + . (~hc.+k ¢~('Ii <llle W i l h . l U l t F + , t
. . . . . +ll " " I

' " " (hl . . . . . ¢, I . . . . . (a) + J"

I
. . . . . . . . / • .

.
P+
. + . . . .
+ i 7i i
. . . .
I
[
....
/
/ . . . . . .
" " " / /
/:
" " -

J I his ti,'~rd tins rcl]cctlon

~vmmelrv when he stands
symmetry when ht: slands
llke lhis."
h k e thl%
( heckwllhvl rmrr

Figure 12. Tasks from the teaching booklets.

Results
A 23-item test containing a mixture of items of the types illustrated here from
both types of teaching was given to both groups before and immediately after
the teaching and again ten weeks later.
The graphs in Figure 13 show the performance of each pupil in each of the
two groups. The superiority of the experimental method for retention, and corre-
spondingly the long term inadequacy of the booklets teaching, is very evident.
(For a full report, see Birks, 1987.)
 ALAN BELL 135

Score Score

PRE POST DEL PRE POST DEL

(a) (b)

Figure 13. Scores of each pupil in (a) booklets group (b) diagnostic group,
in pre, post and delayed tests.

Implications
Teaching of the type represented by the booklets method in this experiment is
currently very common. It can best be characterized as "guided discovery". The
initial explanation shows the pupils how to approach the questions and, as these
are worked through, different aspects of the embodied principles are called into
play. Two elements commonly missing are (a) feedback and (b) awareness.
Errors made are not generally discovered until sometime later when responses
to the whole set of exercises are checked by the teacher or by reference to
answers and, at that stage, a score of 60 or 70 percent correct is regarded as sat-
isfactory. Thus misconceptions brought into play by the remaining questions
remain untreated; indeed, they are reinforced through the act of use.
These materials also ignore the importance of making the correct principles,
and the way in which they are manifested in various contexts, explicit through
discussion. Other research (Mayer and Greeno, 1972) has shown that what is
actually learnt from studying a given piece of material is strongly influenced by
136 DIAGNOSTIC TEACHING

the learner's orientation towards it, and this depends on the learner's expecta-
tion of the use to which this learning is to be put - - for example, whether a fac-
tual recall test will be given, or a test requiring comprehension of the material or
its application to fresh situations. In many current classroom environments, the
expectation of future testing is minimal and, in some cases, non-existent; and
the pupil's orientation is towards the completion of assignments and the attain-
ment of grades based on successful work. The distinction between doing and
learning is often not made by pupils, nor sometimes by teachers, successful per-
formance being what is rewarded rather than the acquisition of new knowledge
or skills not possessed before or the eradication of erroneous conceptions.
These considerations suggest that metacognition, in the shape of pupils'
awareness of their learning processes, is an important field for study and devel-
opment at the present time. In a 1990-92 project, we are making a study of
pupils' concepts of learning in a number of different mathematics classroom
environments, developing approaches aimed at improving pupils' self aware-
ness of learning, and studying the effects of the implementation of these.

REFERENCES
Bassford, D.: 1988, Fractions: A Comparison o/Teaching Methods, Shell Centre for Mathematical
Education, University of Nottingham.
Bell, A. W.: 1986, "Outcomes of the diagnostic teaching project', Proceedings of PME 10,
331-335'.
Bell, A.: 1993, "Prlnelples for the design of teaching", Educational Studies in Mathematics 24(1),
5-34.
Bell, A. W., Swan, M., Onslow, B., Pratt, K., and Purdy, D.: 1985, Diagnostic Teaching: Teaching
for Long Term Learning. Report of ESRC Project HR 849111, Shell Centre for Mathematical
Education, University of Nottingham.
Birks, D.: 1987, Reflections: A Diagnostic Teaching Experiment, Shell Centre for Mathematical
Education, University of Nottingham.
Grenier, D.: 1985, "Middle school pupils' conceptions about reflections according to a task of con-
stmetion", Proceedings of PME 9, 183-188*.
Kiichemann, D. E.: 1981, "Reflections and rotations", in K. Hart (ed.), Children's Understanding of
Mathematics 11-16, John Murray, London.
Mayer, R. E. and Greene, L G.: 1972, "Structural differences between learning outcomes produced
by different instructional methods", Journal of Educational Psychology, 63(2), 165-173.
Schukz, K. A.: 1978, "Variables influencing the difficulty of rigid transformation during the transi-
tion between the concrete and formal operational stages of cognitive development", in R. A.
Lesh (ed.), Research Concerning the Development of Spatial and Geometrical Concepts, ERIC,
Columbus, Ohio.
Swan, M. B.: 1983a, Teaching DecimalPlace Value, Shell Centre for Mathernatical Education, Uni-
versity of Nottingham.
Swan, M. B.: 1983b, "Teaching decimal place value: A comparative study of conflict and positive-
only approaches", Proceedings of PME 7, 211-216".
 ALAN BELL 137

* Copies of the Proceedings of the International Groupfor the Psychology of Mathematics Educa-
tion can be obtained from the Shell Centre, subject to availability, at the address below.

Shell Centrefor Mathematical Education

University of Nottingham
Nottingham NG7 2RD
United Kingdom