RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES &

APPROACHES
IN SOCIAL SCIENCES

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Research ‘Onion’ (Saunders et al, 2014)

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‘both qualitative and quantitative methods may be used appropriately
with any research paradigm. Questions of method are secondary to
questions of paradigm, which we define as the basic belief system or
world view that guides the investigation, not only in choices of method
but in ontologically and epistemologically fundamental ways’.

- Guba and Lincoln (1994)

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What is Research Philosophy?
• Research Philosophy is an overarching term that relates to the development of
knowledge and the nature of that knowledge.

• Even if the research work has a relatively modest ambition of answering a specific
problem (related to an economy or business or market)…, it is nonetheless, developing new knowledge in
a particular field.

• The research philosophy you adopt contains important assumptions about the way in
which you view the world.

• These assumptions will underpin your research strategy and the methods you choose as
part of that strategy.

• In part, the philosophy you adopt will be influenced by practical considerations. However,
the main influence is supposed to be your particular view of the relationship between
knowledge and the process by which it is developed.
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A brief introduction to ‘Philosophy’

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What is Philosophy?
• The word ‘Philosophy’ is derived from Greek word ‘philosophia’ and thus,
in its widest etymological sense means 'love of wisdom’ or ‘love of
knowledge’.

• The theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought,

knowledge, and the nature of the universe. (Webster's New World
Dictionary)

• Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental questions, such as

those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.

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Branches of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics and Ontology
• Epistemology
• Logic
• Ethics
• Aesthetics
• Axiology

Subfields: philosophy of science, political philosophy, philosophy of

language, and philosophy of mind.

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How you ever asked such questions?
• Is a material thing, eg. rock or computer or phone or pen, real?
• Is the real only what is physical, material, tangible?
• Is reality only particles of matter in meaningless motion, ending in death;
the death of the individual body or the death of a vast solar system?
• Who am I? Am I only a body, a material organism which wants to avoid
pain and seeks pleasure… a collection of atoms programmed to grow, to
mature, and to self-destruct… a product of the genetic material inherited
from the past or the product of environment I live in?
• If I refuse to regard myself as a material body, then what kind of reality do I
have?
• Is my reality consist of my being in a mind or a soul? But what kind of
reality is that? How can a mind or a soul inhabit a material body?

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Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with matters that
go beyond our existing knowledge, such as questions about the
existence of god, the nature of “reality” or the origins of the universe.

Although criticized by many empiricists as simply speculation, it

remains that, at a mundane level, such speculations, or assumptions
about the world, are the basis of theories that should be testable.

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Metaphysics and Ontology
• Ontology is the branch of philosophy concerned with existence and the nature of
those things that exist.
• Metaphysics is a very broad field, and metaphysicians attempt to answer
questions about how the world is. Ontology is a related sub-field, partially within
metaphysics, that answers questions of what things exist in the world. An
ontology posits which entities exist in the world.

"The world is such that matter is governed by physical laws."

• This is a metaphysical conclusion because it describes a way that reality is - laws
are a property of reality

"There is a physical law of gravity."

• This is ontological because it is about a posited entity - the entity that we call
"the law of gravity".
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How you ever asked such questions?
• Is a statement only true, if it can be believed using one’s senses, or
what one can see and touch?
• Is truth fixed, eternal and absolute, or is subject to change?
• Is science true? Or religious teachings true?
• Does true knowledge have its sources in observation by senses or in
human reason?
• Are there limits to what we can know?

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Epistemology
• Epistemology or Theory of Knowledge (ToK) enquires into the nature
of human knowledge, as to how it develops and how far it is able to
grasp reality.

• The branch of philosophy dealing with the study of knowledge;

theory of knowledge, asking such questions as "What is knowledge?",
"How is knowledge acquired?", "What do people know?", "How do
we know what we know?".

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To know vs. To believe
Know
• Perceived Directly
• No doubt
• Remains eternal
• Absolute certainty
• Provides confidence
• Truth

Belief
• Perceived indirectly
• Element of doubt
• Remains transitory
• Uncertainty
• Can create chaos
• Can be true or false RESEARCH METHODOLOGY - DR VINEETH M
“Our beliefs would have been less contaminated by errors and on
firmer ground if, from childhood, we had never been under the
influence of teachers and subjected to their confused ideas, but had
been guided by our own reason.”

- RENE DESCARTES

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Theory of Knowledge: Rationalism
• Rationalism claims in support of reason, that reason is universal in human beings; is the most
important element in human nature and is the only means to certainty in knowledge. Reason is
the only way to determine what is morally right and good.

• How can an individual establish permanent truth? “Let Mathematics be your model for the use of
reason.”

• “Of all who have sought for the truth in sciences, it has been the mathematicians alone who have
been able to succeed in producing reasons which are evident and certain.” – Descartes, Discourse
on Method

• Descartes believed that Philosophy can achieve absolute certainty and be acknowledged as
universally true, by using Mathematics.

• Method of Mathematics : intuition and deduction

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Intuition
• Understanding of self-evident principles
• Eg. A straight line is the shortest distance between two points
(Geometry)
• Eg. Two numbers which are equal to a third number should also be
equal to each other; or 3 + 2 = 5
• Eg. The set of all coordinate points of x and y of the equation x2 + y2 = 4
shall create a circle of radius 2, centered at the origin of the plane.

Deductions
• Orderly, logical reasoning or inference from self-evident propositions

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Theory of Knowledge: Skepticism
• Skepticism is the philosophical position of doubt concerning the reliability
of knowledge.

• Skepticism associated with the methodology of René Descartes is known as

Cartesian skepticism, Cartesian doubt or methodological skepticism.

Four stages of Cartesian skepticism:

i. Belief based on sense perception
ii. Belief on material things or physical world
iii. Beliefs on natural sciences
iv. Belief in mathematics

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Cogito, ergo sum: I think, therefore I am
“…when I considered that the very same thoughts which
we experience when awake may also be experienced
when we are asleep, while there is at that time not one of
them true, I supposed that all the objects that had ever
entered into my mind when awake, had in them no more
truth than the illusions of my dreams. But immediately
upon this I observed that, whilst I thus wished to think
that all was false, it was absolutely necessary that I, who
thus thought, should be something; And as I observed
that this truth, I think, therefore I am, was so certain and
of such evidence that no ground of doubt, however
extravagant, could be alleged by the Sceptics capable of
shaking it, I concluded that I might, without scruple,
accept it as the first principle of the philosophy of which I
was in search.”

- Rene Descartes, Discourse on the Method (1637)

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The three principles of certainty
i. Certainty must be such that it is impossible to doubt, it must be self-
evident to reason, must be clear and distinct. [The Cogito satisfies this
principle, as every time you doubt it, you affirm it.]

ii. Certainty must be ultimate and not dependent upon the certainty of any
other belief. [The Cogito satisfies this principle, as it is not based on any
bigger ultimate truth: All who think, exist; I think, therefore I exist]

iii. Certainty should be about something that exists. [The Cogito satisfies
this principle, as it refers to I, who exists as a thinking being.]

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Realism vs Idealism
Idealism
• The theory that only the mind and its contents exist.

Realism
• what the senses show us as reality is the truth: that objects have an existence independent of the human
mind.
• assumes a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. This assumption underpins the collection of
data and the understanding of those data.
• Direct realism: what we experience through our senses portrays the world accurately.
• Critical realism: what we experience are sensations, the images of the things in the real world, not the things
directly. Senses can deceive us. What we really see are sensations, which are representations of what is real.
• Critical realism: there are two steps to experiencing the world. First, there is the thing itself and the
sensations it conveys. Second, there is the mental processing that goes on sometime after that sensation
meets our senses.
• Direct realist would respond to the critical realist that what we call illusions are actually due to the fact that
we have insufficient information.
• Critical realists’ position is that our knowledge of reality is a result of social conditioning.
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Subjectivism vs. Objectivism
Subjectivism
• The cartesian cogito introduces subjectivism into modern philosophy.
• Subjectivism is a view that “I can know with certainty only myself as conscious subject and my thoughts or ideas”.
• Therefore the existence of everything other than own mind becomes questionable. Those must be proved to exist using
ones own consciousness and content.
• For a subjectivist, a particular statement can be true for one person and false for another, based solely on one’s mental
choices, subjective processing, or emotions.

Objectivism (Read Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand, by Leonard Peikoff)

• Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Russian-American philosopher Ayn Rand (Alice O'Connor).
• Reality exists independent of consciousness.
• Human knowledge and values are objective. Things exist to be discovered by one's mind, and are not the creation of the
thoughts one has.
• One can only reach a truth when one choose to conceptually process percepts by reasoning using the method of logic.
• For an Objectivist, a particular statement can be true for one person and false for another, only when there is a radical
difference in the relevant perceptual evidence available to the two people. It does not depend on mental choices,
subjective processing, emotions, or whims.
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Positivism (Auguste Comte, 1844)
• The positivist paradigm of exploring social reality is based on the idea that one can best
gain an understanding of human behaviour through observation and reason.
• It is an approach similar to the physical and natural scientists.
• It is working with an observable social reality and that the end product of such research
can be law-like generalisations similar to natural sciences.
• Only phenomena that the researcher can observe will lead to the production of credible
data.
• For developing a research strategy to collect the data researchers are likely to use
existing theory to develop hypotheses.
• These hypotheses will be tested and confirmed, in whole or part, or refuted, leading to
the further development of theory which may then be tested by further research.
• Positivist researcher will be likely to use a highly structured methodology in order to
facilitate replication
• Positivist approach can be used in both quantitative and qualitative research.
• Positivist thinkers lean strongly on determinism, empiricism, parsimony and generality.
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• ‘Determinism’ means that events are caused by other circumstances; and
hence, understanding such causal links is necessary for prediction and
control.

• ‘Empiricism’ means collection of verifiable empirical evidences in support

of theories. The researcher will be seen as being independent from the
study. The researcher concentrates on facts rather than human interests.

• ‘Parsimony’ refers to the explanation of the phenomena in the most

efficient and simple way possible.

• ‘Generality’ is the process of generalising the observations regarding a

particular phenomenon to the world at large.
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Empiricism (John Locke, 1690; David Hume, 1748)
• Empiricists take the approach that different contexts, circumstances, the passing of time
and the experiences of the enquirer might produce different results, with knowledge
coming from the experiences of our senses – observation and experiment. Knowledge is
considered to be true when a hypothesis has been proven.

• In the view of Locke, anything must be tested repeatedly, with the same result each
time, to be proven. He also argued that everything has the potential to be disproven.

• David Hume agreed that knowledge was derived from our observations and
experimentation. Unlike the foundationalists, Hume believed it was wrong to assume
that events could not change in the future.
• Hume was clearer than his predecessors about what constitutes evidence: hypotheses
should be constructed based on what we know; experiment and observation should be
used to gather data; and knowledge may be obtained and validated from this
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Interpretivism
• Interpretivism was developed as a critique of positivism, but from a subjectivist
perspective. It is known as ‘anti-positivism’.
• Interpretivism has its origins in the 18th century with the philosopher
Giambattista Vico, and emerged in early- and mid-twentieth-century Europe,
through the works of German, French and occasionally English thinkers.
• It is formed of several strands, most notably hermeneutics, verstehen,
phenomenology and symbolic interactionism.
• Interpretivism argues that truth and knowledge are subjective, as well as
culturally and historically situated, based on people’s experiences and their
understanding of them.
• Researchers can never be completely separate from their own values and beliefs,
so these will inevitably inform the way in which they collect, interpret and
analyse data.

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Hermeneutics (Heidegger 1962)
• This is commonly associated with interpreting and understanding of cultural artefacts such as texts or documents, symbols, stories
or images, and find the deeper meaning in them.

Verstehen (Weber 1947)

• Verstehen focuses on the exploration of understanding and perception from the points of view of research participants, to
understand why a phenomenon exists or why they behave the way they do. Empathetic understanding of human behaviour and
"interpretive or participatory" examination of social phenomena.

Symbolic interactionism (Mead 1962)

• People’s behaviour is based on their own meanings. Meanings are generated from social interactions. People may adapt meanings,
based on their perceptions of situations or their experiences of them. Hence symbolic interactionism focus on the observation and
analysis of social interaction such as conversations, meetings, and teamwork.

Phenomenology (Schutz 1962)

• Phenemenology study the structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. It focus on participants’
lived experience; that is, the participants’ recollections of those experiences. Phenomenology focuses on the interpretation and
description of people’s experiences. It is deeply informed by philosophical assumptions.
In general, interpretivists emphasise the importance of language, culture and history in the shaping of our interpretations and
experiences of organisational and social worlds.

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How you ever asked such questions?
• What is moral and immoral?
• What values should one live by?
• Is morality defined by our actions, or what is in our hearts?
• What values should one be taught?

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Axiology
• Axiology in its etymological sense means study of value or worth (in Greek “axios” means worthy;
“logos” means science or study)

• It is also called ‘Theory of Value’

• Axiology is the branch of philosophy that studies judgements about goodness, or value. It asks
questions about the nature and classification of values and about what kinds of things have value.

• The term was first used in the 20th century by Paul Lapie, in 1902 and Eduard von Hartmann, in
1908

• Intrinsic vs. extrinsic value

• Two branches of Axiology: Ethics and Aesthetics

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Ethics
• Ethics "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong
behaviour“ (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy).

• It seeks to solve the questions of human morality by defining concepts such as good and evil,
right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.

• Virtue Ethics (Aristotle) – Character of an individual and not specific action

• Consequentialism - the morality of an action is contingent on the action's outcome or result
(Utilitarianism: action is right if it leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of people)

• Three major areas of study within Ethics:

• Meta-ethics, concerning the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions (What is “Right” or
“Bad”?), and how their truth values can be determined;
• Normative ethics, concerning the practical means of determining a moral course of action (how one ought to
act?);
• Applied ethics, concerning what a person is obligated (or permitted) to act in a specific situation.

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Aesthetics
• branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and taste
• What is beauty? What is art? What makes a good art?
• Beauty vs Sublime

• Kant divided the kinds of aesthetic response into the Beautiful and the
Sublime.
• Beauty represents a pleasure in order, harmony, delicacy and the like. It
presents the appearance of form. Sublime is a response of awe before the
infinite or the overwhelming. The sublime may often seem formless. The
pleasure it gives us derives from our awareness that there is something in
us that transcends the overwhelming power or infinity outside us.

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Axiology in Research
• Researchers demonstrate axiological skill by being able to articulate
their values as a basis for making judgements about what research
they are conducting and how they go about doing it (Heron, 1996).

• At all stages in the research process, the researchers will be

demonstrating one’s values:
• In the selection of the research topic.
• In the choice of philosophical approach
• In the choice of data collection techniques.
• In drawing conclusions data.

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Research Ethics
• Research ethics refer to the standards of behaviour that guide the researcher’s conduct in
relation to the rights of those who become part of the research work or are affected by it.

• The philosophical foundations of research ethics: deontological and teleological

• The deontological view is based on following rules to guide researchers’ conduct. According to
this view, acting outside the rules can never be justified. Where the rules are inadequate or
contested, it would be necessary to reappraise and if required amend them.

• The teleological view argues that deciding whether an act of conduct is justified or not should be
determined by its consequences, not by a set of predetermined rules. This would involve deciding
whether the benefits of undertaking an act outweigh the negative consequences from this action.

• Different social norms and conflicting philosophical approaches have resulted in the widespread
development of codes of ethics - a list of principles outlining the nature of ethical research and
statements of ethical standards to accompany these principles that are intended to guide
research conduct.
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Ethical Principles and Rationale (Saunders, 2019)
Ethical principle Ethical rationale
Integrity, fairness and Act openly, being truthful and promoting accuracy.
open-mindedness of the Avoid deception, dishonesty (fabrication and falsification), misrepresentation (of data and
researcher findings etc.). Declare any conflict of interest or commercial association.
Respect for others Development of trust and respect. The rights of all persons should be recognised and their
dignity respected.
Avoidance of harm Risks to emotional well-being, mental or physical health, or social or group cohesion of
participants due to embarrassment, stress, discomfort, pain, conflict, mental or social pressure
causing anxiety or stress.
Privacy of those taking The voluntary nature of participation and right to withdraw, informed consent, ensuring
part confidentiality and maintaining anonymity, responsibility in the analysis of data and reporting
of findings
Compliance in the Researchers need to understand and comply with the legal restrictions and regulations that
management of data relate to the management of research data within the country which they conduct research.
Ensuring the safety of The Social Research Association’s Code of Practice for the Safety of Social Researchers
the researcher identifies possible risks from social interactions including ‘risk of physical threat or abuse; risk
of psychological trauma; risk of being in a compromising situation; increased exposure to risks
of everyday life’
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Ethical issues at different stages of research
Stage of Research Ethical Issues

Formulating research topic Recognition of the responsibilities, risk and conflict of interests

Research Design Absence of Coercion, Informed Consent, Right to Privacy, Right to

Quality research

Data Collection Researcher’s safety and objectivity. Participants right to withdraw,

confidentiality and anonymity.

Data Analysis Objectivity, Anonymity, Consent, Verification of data, Security to

personal data

Reporting Objectivity, Confidentiality, Avoidance of harm, Sponsor’/

Institution’s right to quality research

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Ethical Points to be considered by Researchers
• Researchers should have the permission of the people to be studied to conduct research involving them.
• Not all types of research require permission—for example, analyzing something that is available publicly do
not necessarily need the permission of the authors.
• Do not do anything that would cause physical or emotional harm to your subjects. This could be something
as simple as being careful about the words or questions asked during interviews.
• Objectivity vs. subjectivity in research is another important consideration. Be sure that one’s own personal
biases and opinions do not get in the way of research and all sides have been given fair consideration.
• Researchers should let the subjects know whether the research results will be kept anonymous or not.
• While doing research, the researcher is sure of not taking advantage of easy-to-access groups of people.
Researcher should choose the subjects based on what would mostly benefit the research.
• When reporting the results, the researcher should be sure that the results accurately represent what the
researcher observed or were told. Do not take interview responses out of context and do not discuss small
parts of observations without putting them into the appropriate context.
• Obtain the approval of the ethical review board before engaging in any research.

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Needs Assessment
• A “need” is a discrepancy or gap between “what is” and “what should be.”

• A “needs assessment” is a systematic set of procedures that are used to

determine needs, examine their nature and causes, and set priorities for
future action

• Needs assessments are studies conducted to gather information about the

needs of populations or groups in communities. One of the more practical
types of research, needs assessments are used to develop new services or
to evaluate the relevance of existing programs.

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 Three-Phase Model of Needs Assessment

Comprehensive Needs Assessment, Materials adapted from “Planning and Conducting Needs Assessments: A Practical Guide” (1995)
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Ethical dilemmas involved in Needs Assessments
• To know of how the data will be used.
• Knowing the true intentions of the information collected and recommendations made is
important. Sometimes policy decision makers will use data to validate decisions they have
already made. Examples of this would be to lay-off a department or demote a manager.
• To maintaining confidentiality throughout the process and minimizing conflicts of
interests.
• To ensure the validity of the assessment tools used during the needs assessment.
• This makes sure that the results are represented correctly to those requesting the assessment.
• To be sensitive to those participating is important.
• For example, in an institution, the employees can be scared and hesitant to participate,
reassuring them and understanding this will allow for better results.
• To understand the subjects own ethical beliefs and knowing when to draw the line
between what makes the subject comfortable and what is outside the comfort
zone will be important in maintaining the integrity of the needs assessment
process.
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