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ELECTRICAL
AND
ELECTRONIC
TECHNOLOGY
 Section 1:
Electrical
Principles
&
Measurement
Resistors/lamps connect in series and parallel(codes and industry
specifications)
In electronics, resistors and lamps (which are often represented as light bulbs) can be connected
in different configurations: series and parallel. These configurations affect the overall resistance,
current flow, and brightness of the lamps. There are certain industry specifications and codes that
govern the use of these configurations for safety and performance reasons.

 Series Connection:
When resistors or lamps are connected in series, they are connected end-to-end, forming a single
path for the current to flow through. In a series configuration, the same current flows through all
the components, but the voltage across each component can vary based on its resistance or
characteristics. The total resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistances.

 Lamps in Series:
When lamps (light bulbs) are connected in series, they share the same current, and the voltage
across each lamp adds up. However, this is not a commonly used configuration for lamps
because if one lamp burns out or is disconnected, the entire circuit is broken and all lamps will
turn off.

 Resistors in Series:
For resistors in series, you can calculate the total resistance using the formula:
Total Resistance (R_total) = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...

 Parallel Connection:
When resistors or lamps are connected in parallel, they are connected across the same two points,
creating multiple paths for the current to flow. In a parallel configuration, the voltage across all
the components is the same, but the current flowing through each component can vary based on
its resistance or characteristics. The reciprocal of the total resistance in a parallel circuit is the
sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

 Lamps in Parallel:
Lamps connected in parallel will all have the same voltage across them. This configuration is
often used for lighting systems because each lamp can operate independently. If one lamp fails,
the others will continue to function.

 Resistors in Parallel:
For resistors in parallel, you can calculate the total resistance using the formula:
1 / Total Resistance (1 / R_total) = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 + ...

 Industry Specifications:
There are several industry standards and codes that regulate the use of resistors, lamps, and other
electrical components in various configurations. These standards ensure safety, efficiency, and
compatibility of electronic systems. Some common standards organizations include:

 IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

 IEC (International Electro technical Commission)
 NEC (National Electrical Code) in the United States
It's important to follow these standards and codes to ensure proper design, installation, and
operation of electrical circuits.
Remember that specific applications may require different configurations based on desired
outcomes and safety considerations. Always consult relevant standards and guidelines for your
specific project.

Diagram of Resistors connected in series

 Resistors Connected in Parallel

Connecting resistors in parallel means that their terminals are all connected to the same two
points in the circuit, creating multiple paths for the current to flow. This configuration has
several implications for the overall resistance, current distribution, and voltage across the
resistors.
Diagram of Resistor connected in Parallel
 Resistivity and temperature coefficient measurement on electric motor
windings

Resistivity and temperature coefficient are crucial factors in the design and performance of
motor winding wires. The resistivity of a material determines its ability to conduct electrical
current and is essential for minimizing energy loss and maximizing efficiency in electrical
systems. Copper, a commonly used material for motor windings, offers low resistivity, making it
an excellent choice for conducting current efficiently. Furthermore, the temperature coefficient
plays a significant role in maintaining the stability of motor winding performance. Different
materials exhibit varying changes in resistance with temperature fluctuations. Copper, with its
low temperature coefficient, shows minimal alterations in resistance over a wide temperature
range. This attribute ensures that the motor winding remains relatively stable even when
subjected to variations in operating conditions and environmental temperatures.
 Testing and servicing primary and secondary cells (codes and industry
standards)

Testing and servicing primary and secondary cells (batteries) involve evaluating their
performance and ensuring they are functioning correctly. Industry standards and codes play a
crucial role in setting guidelines for these procedures. Here are some steps you might consider
for testing and servicing batteries, along with relevant industry standards:

1. Visual Inspection:
- Check for physical damage, leaks, or swelling in the battery casing.
- Look for corrosion on terminals.

2. Open-Circuit Voltage Test (OCV):

- Measure the voltage across the terminals of the battery with no load.
- Compare the OCV with the manufacturer's specifications.
- Industry Standards: IEC 60086-1: Primary batteries - Part 1: General

3. Load Test (for Secondary Cells):

- Apply a specific load to the battery and monitor the voltage drop over time.
- Determine the battery's capacity by measuring the discharge time and current.
- Industry Standards: IEC 61951-2: Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other
non-acid electrolytes - Part 2: Secondary lithium cells and batteries for portable applications

4. Capacity Test (for Secondary Cells):

- Fully charge the battery, then discharge it at a constant current.
- Measure the capacity of the battery in Ampere-hours (Ah) or milliampere-hours (mAh).
- Industry Standards: IEC 61951-2: Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other
non-acid electrolytes - Part 2: Secondary lithium cells and batteries for portable applications
5. Internal Resistance Test:
- Measure the internal resistance of the battery using appropriate equipment.
- Internal resistance affects the battery's ability to deliver current.
- Industry Standards: IEC 61960: Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other
non-acid electrolytes - Secondary lithium cells and batteries for portable applications

6. Charging and Discharging Characteristics (for Secondary Cells):

- Monitor the voltage and current during charging and discharging cycles.
- Evaluate if the battery reaches its full capacity and charging cut-off voltage.
- Industry Standards: IEC 61951-2: Secondary cells and batteries containing alkaline or other
non-acid electrolytes - Part 2: Secondary lithium cells and batteries for portable applications

7. Safety Testing:
- Ensure that the battery does not overheat or pose any safety risks during testing.
- Follow manufacturer recommendations for safe testing procedures.
- Industry Standards: IEC 62133: Safety requirements for portable sealed secondary cells, and
for batteries made from them, for use in portable applications
Always refer to the specific industry standards and codes related to battery testing and servicing
for accurate and up-to-date information. Additionally, adhere to safety precautions while
handling batteries, as they can be hazardous if mishandled.
 Testing and servicing primary and secondary cells

Secondary Cell

Primary cell
 Installing, reading and recording ammeter and voltmeter measurements in
electric and electronic circuits (applying codes and industry standards).

Installing, reading, and recording ammeter and voltmeter measurements in electric and electronic
circuits is a fundamental skill in the field of electrical and electronic technology. Industry
standards and codes help ensure accurate and safe measurement practices. Here are steps you
might consider for installing, reading, and recording measurements, along with relevant industry
standards:

1. Safety Precautions:
 Ensure the circuit is de-energized before making any connections.
 Use appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) when necessary.
 Follow safety guidelines outlined in local regulations and industry standards.

2. Selecting and Installing Instruments:

 Choose suitable ammeters and voltmeters based on the expected current and voltage
ranges.
 Connect the ammeter in series and the voltmeter in parallel with the component being
measured.
 Follow the instrument manufacturer's guidelines for proper installation.
3. Reading and Recording Measurements:
 Ensure the instruments are properly calibrated before use.
 Read and record the ammeter and voltmeter readings accurately.
 Take multiple measurements to ensure consistency.
4. Applying Industry Standards:
 IEC 61010: Safety requirements for electrical equipment for measurement, control, and
laboratory use. This standard outlines safety guidelines for various measurement
instruments, including ammeters and voltmeters.
 IEC 60051: Direct acting indicating analogue electrical measuring instruments and their
accessories. This standard provides guidance on the accuracy, scale, and other
characteristics of analog electrical measuring instruments.
5. Considerations for Voltmeter Measurements:
 Ensure the voltmeter's input impedance is much higher than the circuit's impedance to
avoid loading effects.
 Take care to not short-circuit any component while connecting the voltmeter.
6. Considerations for Ammeter Measurements:
 Ensure the ammeter's internal resistance is low to avoid affecting the circuit's current.
 Use a shunt resistor for high-current measurements with a low-range ammeter.
7. Recording and Documentation:
 Record measurements along with relevant circuit parameters (voltage, current, resistance
values, etc.).
 Document the circuit configuration, instrument settings, and measurement conditions.
8. Circuit Integrity:
After measurements, ensure that the circuit components are reconnected correctly to their
original state.
9. Data Analysis:
 Analyze the recorded data to understand the circuit's behavior and validate theoretical
calculations.

Remember to always follow the specific industry standards and codes related to measurement
and safety practices. Accurate measurements and proper installation are crucial for reliable
analysis and diagnosis in electrical and electronic circuits.