Principles of Animal Breeding and Genetics: A Review

CAS Estrella
ADSC-CA, UPLB
May 10, 2011

Animal Genetics
…study of principles of inheritance in animals.

Animal Breeding- application of the principles of animal genetics with the main goal of
improvementof animals.
- art and science of the genetic improvement of farm animals.
Animal Genetics-study of principles of inheritance in animals

Disciplines in Genetics:
Mendelian / Classical genetics-deals with the transmission of genes from generation
to generation.
Population genetics-Study of heredity in groups of individuals
Quantitative genetics-study of heredity of traits that could be measured
Molecular genetics-study of molecular structure and function of genes

Breed: Animals which have a common origin and common characteristics which
distinguish them from other groups within the same subspecies.

Breeds of swine: Landrace, Large White, Duroc, Hampshire, Pietrain

Breeds of Beef cattle: Angus, Brahman, Hereford,Charolois
Breeds of Dairy cattle: Holstein Freishan, Shorthorn,Jersey
Breeds of Egg type chickens: Leghorn, Mikawa
Breeds of meat type chickens: Cochin, Cornish, Australorp

UPLB projects on breed development

Philamin cattle… a triple cross between Philippine Native, American Hereford, and Indian Nellore
Berkjala pigs… cross between Native pigs from Jala-jala, Rizal and BerkshireLos Banos Cantonese
Chicken… cross between Cantonese and Los Banos chickens
Laguna duck… cross between Pekin, Mallard, and Muscovy

MENDELIAN / CLASSICAL GENETICS

Genes and Their Functions
Gene:a segment of the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)which determines the base
sequence of nucleotide in the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) that makes up
the code for a certain biological function (from Watson-Crick hypothesis).

DNA (coding sequence or “gene”) →mRNA →protein

Are all DNA sequences considered genes?

DNA- is a biochemical compound consisting of a chain of nucleotides or polynucleotide.
Each nucleotide consists of phosphate, sugar, base.
Specific combination of purine with pyrimidine: Adenine and Thymine
Guanine with Cytosine
Four bases:
PUrines –
Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidine –
Thymine and Cytosine

Functions of Genes
- Store and transmit genetic information from cell to cell (mitosis) and from parent to
offspring (meiosis).
- Copy or replicateitself with great consistency and precision, and
- Undergo mutationor error in copying which would subsequently be copied and
replicated.

The Mechanics of Inheritance

Animal reproduction makes it possible for the genetic material to be inherited.

Gametogenesisis the process of producing the reproductive cells,

i.e.,spermatogenesis for males, oogenesis for females.

Fertilization- is the process of the union of the sperm and egg forming a zygote.
I.e.,Sperm (n) + Egg (n) = Zygote (2n)

The Mechanics of Inheritance

Sperm and Eggs are HAPLOIDS (i.e, they carry half of the Genetic complement of the parent)!
HAPLOID (n)
One copy of genetic
material subdivided
into chromosomes
chromosomes3 nonhomologous chromosomes

DIPLOID (2n)Two copies of genetic material subdivided into chromosomes3

3 pairs of homologous chromosomes

Mendelian Laws…Chromosome number of different animal species (2n):

Cattle –60 Chicken –78 Buffalo (swamp) -48
Goat –60 Turkey –82 Buffalo (river) -50
Sheep –54 Horse –64 Buffalo (hybrid) –48,
Swine –38 Donkey –62 49,50

MENDELIAN LAWS
1. Law of Segregation
…Characters are determined by “particulate factors” (genes) occurring in pairs.
…During gametogenesis, these factors are segregated such that only one of the pair
goes to a particular gamete.

1. How many gene pairs are we considering?

2. Name the alleles.
3. Name the gametes. D, O, o, G

Non-Mendelian Inheritance
1.Linkage: Genes located near to each other on the same chromosome tends to be inherited
together.ParentsAaBb x aabbIf following Mendel’s law, ratio is1 AaBb: 1Aabb: 1aaBb: 1aabbIf
linked, ratio may be1 AaBb : 1 aabb

2. Sex related traits

Homogametic Heterogametic
Mammals Females (XX) Males (XY)
AviansMales (ZZ)Females (ZW)
* Sex linked –Barred feather pattern in Barred plymouth chickens
*Sex influenced -dominance of an allele is influenced by the sex of the animal (Pp male not
same phenotype as the Pp female)
*Sex limited –expression of the autosomal genes in one of the sexes, e.g., milk production

3. Multiple alleles: Refers to the presence of many alleles (not just two alternative alleles) at a
single locus in a population of animals.
4. Cytoplasmic Inheritance:Refers to the inheritance of genetic materials outside the
nucleusReciprocal crosses give different results

POPULATION GENETICS

Population- refers to the total of all individuals of some specified group (i.e., same breed,
species, or other subgroupings) living in the same geographical area.
Genetic Composition of Populations: expressed in frequencies
Gene Frequency: refers to the proportion of a gene in a population with a specific allele.
Genotypic Frequency: refers to the proportion of the total animals with a particular genotype.

Example, Total population of Shorthorn cattle in Texas =1000

ColorGenotypenumber
RedRRnRR = 360
Whiterrnrr = 160
RoanRrnRr = 480
Genotypic frequency
f(red) = f(RR) = 360/1000 = 0.36
f(white) = f(rr) = 160/1000 = 0.16
f(roan) = f(Rr) = 480/1000= 0.48
Gene frequencies
f(R) = f(RR) + 1/2 f(Rr) = 0.36 + 0.24 = 0.6
f(r) = f (rr) + 1/2 f(Rr) = 0.16 + 0.24 = 0.4

Population in Hardy-Weinberg (HW) Equilibrium

HW Equilibrium refers to a state when the genetic composition of a population does not
change.
Gene and genotypic frequencies remain constant from generation to generation with the
following conditions:
It is a large population
Undergoing random mating
No selection
No migration
No mutation

Factors Affecting the Genetic Composition of a Population

1. Selection - is a process in which certain genotypes contribute more progeny in the next
generation than other genotypes.
Types of selection:
- Natural selection –natural forces,“survival of the fittest”. FIT: survive AND
reproduce.
- Artificial selection –imposed by man to improve certain traits.Effect: increase
frequency of genes associated with the phenotype.
2. Migrationis a process in which individuals from one population transfer to another
population.
Ex, the introduction of new breeds of beef cattle from Europe in US.
The change in the genetic composition in the host population after migration is directly
proportional to the following 2 factors:
a. The number of migrantsin proportion to that of the resulting population after migration;
b. The difference in the gene frequencies between the migrants and the natives.
 3. Mutationis a spontaneous change in the base sequence of DNA molecules.
Note: Mutation occurring in the germinal cells, could be transmitted to the next
generation.
4. Small populationsize causes genetic drift.
Genetic drift - is the change in gene frequency due to chance.
Note: the offspring generation may not have the same gene frequencies as the parental
generation

5. Non-random mating occurs when some individuals do not have the same chances of
mating with individuals of the opposite sex.

Forms of non-random mating:

Assortative – individuals that are more phenotypically similar tend to mate more often.
Disassortative –individuals which are less phenotypically similar tend to mate more
often together than would be expected by chance.
Inbreeding –individuals that are related by descent tend to mate more often than under
random mating.

QUANTITATIVE GENETICS Quantitative Traits

•Quantitative traits are measurable, “quantifiable”, with units of measurement.
•Most economically important traits in livestock are quantitative.
•These traits are controlled by many pairs of genes.
•Quantitative traits are affected by the environment

Quantitative traits follow a normal distribution

Height distribution of male students in Conneticut Ag College

Description of the Quantitative Phenotype

Phenotype (P) is the observable manifestation (appearance or performance) of a given

character of an individual.
P = G + E + (GxE)
G: Genotype (genetic make-up)
Gene action may be: additive, dominance or epistasis
E: Environment
Non-genetic: nutrition, physical environment, management
GxE: Genotype by Environment interaction
GxE causes certain genotypes to perform well under certain environments than other
genotypes

Important Terminologies…

Genotype: genetic make-up of the individual;dictates the phenotype of the individual

Genotype = Additive+ Dominance + Epistasis
(G) (A)(D)(E)

Additive gene effect : Phenotypic effect of one gene “ADDS” to the phenotype of its own allele
 or other genes

Non-additive effect: DOMINANCE: effect of 2 alleles at the same loci (1 gene pair)

Non-additive effect EPISTASIS: Interaction between2 different lociA

IMPORTANCE OF KNOWING THE TYPE OF GENE ACTION

1.Traits that are moderately to highly heritableare determined by ADDITIVE Genes. These
traitscan be improved via SELECTION.

2. Traits that are lowly heritable are mostly determined by NON-ADDITIVE genes. These traits
can be improved via CROSSBREEDING

ANIMAL BREEDING Genetic Improvement achieved through:

A. Selection –a process wherein some individuals arechosen to be parents of the next
generation.Basis for selection:a. Physicalb. Performance Recordsc. Estimated Breeding
Values (genetic merit)d. Molecular level (Genotyping)2. Appropriate Breeding
SystemInbreeding vs Outbreeding

Breeding Systems
1. Inbreeding is the mating of individuals that are related.
Inbreeding depression refers to the decline in animal performance as a result of
increased homozygosity. Traits affected by inbreeding depression: REPRODUCTION
Inbreeding Depression (ID) = -2pq d Fd is the dominance effect 2pq is the frequency of
the heterozygote’s prior to inbreeding F is the inbreeding coefficient

2. Outbreeding: mating of animals less closely related

a. Outcrossing A x A
b. Crossbreeding A x B
c. UpgradingNative x A
Improves lowly heritable traits (reproduction traits), and usually governed by non-additive
genes.

Crossbreeding is the mating of individuals with different breed make-up.

Benefits of Crossbreeding
a. Heterosis is the average superiority of a crossbred individual over the average of the
breeds involved in the cross.
b. Breed complementarity is the advantage gained from using an optimum combination
of breeds. Ex, breeds for the sire lines would complement those breeds used for the
dam lines

REPRODUCTIVE & GENETIC TECHNOLOGIES Reproductive Biotechnology

•Artificial Insemination is a process of inducing fertilization without sexual contact between
the male and female animals.
•Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer (MOET)is a process by which the female animal is
induced to simultaneously ovulate more eggs than what is normally shed. Embryo transfer is a
technique wherein a young embryo is collected from adonor female parent and then implanted
into the uterus of a recipientfemale parent
•Sperm sexing is a process where the X-bearing sperm cell is separated from the Y-bearing
sperm cell.
•Cloning refers to the continued splitting of embryos that would lead toan indefinite duplication
of an individual.
Genetic Technologies Reproductive technologies operate at the level of the gametes (sperm
cell, oocyte) or embryo. Molecular technologies operate at the gene level.
•Genome mapping provides the locations of specific genetic markers and genes of interest.
•Transgenics is the insertion of a foreign DNA from another organism to a recipient. It is an
important tool for increasing genetic variation within populations.
•Marker assisted selection (MAS) refers to the selection for specific alleles using genetic
markers..

AB BB AB AB AA
Short et al., 1997 J of Anim Sci:Estrogen Receptor Gene

1. Discipline in animal genetics which involves the Study of heredity in groups of

individuals.
a.Mendelian b.Molecular c.Quantitative d.Population
2. Gene is a segment of ____which determines the base sequence of _____that makes up the
code for a certain ____.
a.mRNA –protein-DNAb.DNA –protein –mRNA c.Protein –mRNA –DNA
d.DNA-mRNA -protein
3. All are basic functions of a gene, except,
a.Store genetic information b.Regulate other genes c.Copy itself d.Undergo mutation
4. All statements are true, except,
a.Ewes would be the homogametic sex. b.Hens would be the heterogametic sex.
c.Boars would be the homogametic sex.
5. Adenine is a
a.Purine b.Pyrimidine c.Sugar d.Phosphate

6. If n is a haploid, 2n is a a. Diploidb. Triploidc. Mongoloidd. None of the above

7. Fit animals can…a.Reproduce b.Survive c.Survive and reproduce d.propagate

8. _____is the major cause of evolution.

a.Selection b.Random mating c.Migration d.Mutation
9. Example/s of inbreeding:
a.Parent x offspring mating b.Full sib mating c.Duroc x Pietrain d.A and B

10. ______carry the genetic material, but do not determine the sex of the individual.
a.X chromosomes b.Y chromosomes c.Autosomes d.Alleles

11. All are examples of non-random mating Except,

a.Panmixia b.Assortative mating c.Disassortative mating d.Planned breeding systems

12, All are reasons why molecular genetic information can result in greater genetic gain,
except, a.It is affected by the environment b.It is available at an early age
c.It can be obtained for traits that are difficult to record

13. All are reproductive biotechnologies except,

a.Artificial insemination b.Multiple ovulation embryo transfer c.DNA fingerprinting
d.Sperm sexing