a.

Individual and Sociability

2. 1: Relationship between Individual and Society:
a) Man is Social Animal
b) Human Life and Society go together
c) Society is biological and psychological need
d) Society is essential condition of human life
3. 2: The sociability of man: Central Problem of Sociology (Fundamental debates in
sociology)
a) How man is social animal?
b) Does man always belong to society?
c) In what sense society belong to us?
d) Who is prior? Individual and Collectivity? Person or group?
4. 3: Society In Man:
a) “Society not only controls our movements, but also shapes our identity, our
thought and emotions. The structure of society become the structure of our own
consciousness.”-(PETER L. BERGER)
b) “Society is the walls of our imprisonment in history.” (PETER.L BERGER)
c) “From it we receive the gift of individuality and in it we express our personality.”
(ROBERT BIERSTEDT)
d) C. wright Mills theory of social imagination: the ability to see the societal patterns
that influence the individual as well as groups of individuals; even highly
individual behaviours are influenced, shaped and moulded by social standards;
example of mirror and beauty.
e) People often feel that things are beyond their control, meaning that they are being
shaped by social forces larger than their own individual lives. Social forces
influence our lives in profound ways, even though we may not always know how

5. 4: Necessitation of society: a natural phenomenon

a) Sociological nature of human beings
b) Fulfillment of biological and psychological needs
c) Division of Labor
d) Functional specialization
e) Provision of security
f) Formulation of identity
g) Actualization and development of intellectual maturity
h) Realization of Self
i) Expression of one’s personality
j) Social conflicts and their necessity for human progress
 k) Scientific advancements and development
l) l)Growth of individualism and individual liberty
6. 4: Theoretical debate on the relationship between individual and society
a) Social Contract Theory
1) Hobbes
2) Locke
3) Rousseau
b) The Organism theory
1) Plato
2) Aristotle
3) Herbert Spencer
(Analogy)
BODY SOCIETY
a) --Sustaining System a) ----Manufacturing areas—agricultural areas
-Mouth-Stomach-intestines
b)—Distributing System b) Communication system—roads etc
--Vessels-arteries-heart-veins
c) Regulating system c) government- professionals—bureaucracy
 Nerve-motor mechanism
7. 5) Theoretical Framework
What is the relationship of individuals to society?
a) Functionalism: Individuals occupy fixed social roles.
b) Conflict Theory: Individuals are subordinated to society.
c) Symbolic Interaction: Individuals and society are interdependent.
 Culture
Note: For further insight do add things from the chapter on culture in making of Pakistan by
K.K.Aziz

1. Definition:
a. ’’ Culture is complex whole that consists of all the ways we think and do and
everything we have as members of society.’’ (ROBERT BIERSTEDT)
b. “culture is the complex system of meaning and behaviour that defines the way of
life for a given group or society. It includes beliefs, values, knowledge, art,
morals, laws, customs, habits, language, and dress, among other things. Culture
includes ways of thinking as well as pat- terns of behaviour.”
c. In any society, culture defines what is perceived as beautiful and ugly, right and
wrong, good and bad. Culture helps hold society together, giving people a sense
of belonging, instructing them on how to behave, and telling them what to think in
particular situations. Culture gives meaning to society.
d. the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is,
certainly is one of degree and not of kind” (Darwin) ; the word degree can be
translated here as ‘culture’ since scientists generally conclude that animals lack
the elaborate symbol-based cultures com- mon in human societies

2. Characteristics of culture: (hint: do add things from KK Aziz; chapter on culture)

a. Learned:
o Cultural beliefs and practices are usually so well learned that they seem perfectly
natural, but they are learned nonetheless
o taught through direct instruction, such as a parent teaching a child how to use
silverware or teachers instructing children in songs, myths, and other traditions in
school.
o learned indirectly through observation and imitation
o . A person becomes a member of a culture through both formal and informal
transmission of culture. Until the culture is learned, the person will feel like an
outsider. e process of learning culture is referred to by sociologists as
socialization

b. Social (acquisition of culture through socialization; culture develops when

individual coalesce into social groups; see socialization)
c. shared: Culture would have no significance if people did not hold it in common.
Culture is collectively experienced and collectively agreed upon. e shared nature
of culture is what makes human society possible. e shared basis of culture may be
di cult to see in complex societies where groups have different traditions,
perspectives, and ways of thinking and behaving.
d. Taken for granted:
o Because culture is learned, members of a given society seldom question the
culture of which they are a part, unless for some reason they become outsiders or
establish some critical distance from the usual cultural expectations. People
engage unthinkingly in hundreds of specifically cultural practices every day;
culture makes these practices seem “normal.”
o Cultural differences within a society also shape social relations. For example,
students who have been raised in a cultural group that teaches them to be quiet
and not outspoken might be perceived as stupid or “slow” if in a classroom where
they are expected to assert themselves and be aggressive in debate

e. Symbolic
 The significance of culture lies in the meaning it holds for people. Symbols are
things or behaviors to which people give meaning; the meaning is not inherent in
a symbol but is be- stowed by the meaning people give it.
 Symbols are powerful expressions of human culture.
 Symbolic attachments can guide human behavior. For example, people stand
when the national anthem is sung and may feel emotional from dis- plays of the
cross or the Star of David. Under some conditions, people organize mass
movements to protest what they see as the defamation of important symbols

f. Varies across time and space

o Culture develops as humans adapt to the physical and social environment around
them
o Space: Culture is not fixed from one place to another. In the United States, for
example, there is a strong cultural belief in scientific solutions to human
problems; in some other countries, religious solutions are preferred
o Culture also varies over time. As people en- counter new situations, the culture
that emerges is a mix of the past and present. Adapting to the new society can
create conflict between generations, especially if the older generation is intent on
passing along their cultural traditions.
o To sum up, culture is concrete because we can observe the cultural objects and
practices that de ne human experience. Culture is abstract because it is a way of
thinking, feeling, believing, and behaving. Culture links the past and the present
because it is the knowledge that makes us part of human groups. Culture gives
shape to human experience.
 g. transmissive
h. continuous and cumulative
i. consistent and integrative
j. dynamic and adaptive
k. gratifying
l. super organic and ideational
m. symbolic narrative
3. Functions of culture
a. Treasury of knowledge
b. Define situations
c. define attitudes, values and goals
d. decide our career
e. provides behavior pattern
f. molds personality
4. Elements of culture: ( H.M.JOHNSON)
a. COGNITIVE ELEMENTS
b. Beliefs
c. Values and norms
d. customs
e. sanctions
f. folkways and mores
g. gestures
h. language
From essentials of sociology:
A) Language ( see KK Aziz Also)
 Language is a set of symbols and rules that, combined in a meaningful way, provides a
complex communication system. e formation of culture among humans is made possible
by language. Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society,
and it is one of the first things children learn
 “Life is lived as a series of conversations” (Tannen )
 Think about the experience of becoming part of a social group. Becoming a part of any
social group—a friendship circle, fraternity or sorority, or any other group—involves
learning the language they use
 Language is fluid and dynamic and evolves in response to social change —a new
language shared among those in the text- messaging culture.

Does Language Shape Culture?

  the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, asserts that language determines other aspects of culture
because language provides the categories through which social reality is de ned. Sapir
and Whorf thought that language determines what people think because language forces
people to perceive the world in certain terms
 If the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis is correct, then speakers of different languages have
different perceptions of reality. Example: Linguistic construction of mystical experience
 Recent View: Most scholars now see two-way causality be- tween language and culture.
Language and culture are inextricable, each shaping the other

Social Inequality in Language

 The language of any culture reflects the nature of that society. us, in a society where there
is inequality, language is likely to communicate assumptions and stereotypes about
different social groups
 The conception of “Orientals” in the West ( see my notes Islam and West)
 Language reflects the social value placed on different groups, and it reflects power
relationships, depending on who gets to name whom ( Hint: language and power by
Foucault; see my notes regarding language, power and social construction of gender)
 In sum, language can reproduce the inequalities that exist in society. At the same time,
changing the language that people use can, to some extent, alter social stereotypes and
thereby change the way people think.

B) Norms
o Norms are the specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given
situation. Society without norms would be chaos; with norms in place, people
know how to act, and social interactions are consistent, predictable, and learnable.
o Implicit norms: norms that exist in the mind of the people sharing same culture
and are reflected in the behaviour and conduct of these people. Implicit norms
may be learned through specific instruction or by observation of the culture
o Norms are explicit when the rules governing behavior are written down or
formally communicated. Typically, speci c sanctions are imposed for violating
explicit norms
o Folkways are the general standards of behavior adhered to by a group. You might
think of folkways as the ordinary customs of di erent group cul- tures. How you
dress is an example of a cultural folkway.
o Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical behavior. Mores provide
strict codes of behavior, such as the injunctions, legal and religious, against
killing others and committing adultery. Mores are often upheld through rules or
laws, the written set of guidelines that de ne right and wrong in society. Basically,
laws are formalized mores
o Social sanctions are mechanisms of social control that enforce folkways, norms,
and mores. e serious- ness of a social sanction depends on how strictly the norm
or mores is held
 o Taboos are those behaviors that bring the most serious sanctions.
o Sanctions can be positive or negative, that is, based on rewards or punishment
o Ethnomethodology is a theoretical approach in sociology based on the idea that
you can discover the normal social order through disrupting it. Ethno
methodological research teaches us that society proceeds on an “as if” basis. at is,
society exists because people behave as if there were no other way to do so.
o Culture is actually “enforced” through the social sanctions applied to those who
violate social norms
C) Beliefs
o Beliefs are shared ideas held collectively by people within a given culture about
what is true. Shared beliefs are part of what binds people together in society.
Beliefs are also the basis for many norms and values of a given culture.
o Some beliefs are so strongly held that people find it difficult to cope with ideas or
experiences that contradict them. Someone who devoutly believes in God may
find atheism intolerable; those who believe in reincarnation may seem irrational
to those who think life ends at death. Similarly, those who believe in magic may
seem merely superstitious to those with a more scientific and rational view of the
world
o Beliefs provide a meaning system around which culture is organized. Whether
belief stems from religion, myth, folklore, or science, it shapes what people take
to be possible and true. Although a given belief may be logically impossible, it
nonetheless guides people through their lives.
D) Values
o Values are the abstract standards in a society or group that de ne ideal principles.
Values de ne what is desirable and morally correct; thus, values determine what is
considered right and wrong,
o Values are ideals forming the abstract standards for group behaviour, but they are
also ideals that may not be realized in every situation.
o Values can be a basis for cultural cohesion, but they can also be a source of
conflict; Example of conflict between liberty and equality in USA, both being the
values cherished by the American culture. Meanwhile, both play a cementing role
in the development of American culture
o Together, norms, beliefs, and values guide the behavior of people in society

table 2.1 Elements of Culture (Essential of Sociology)

5. Types of culture
 a. Material (Tangible)
---art-buildings-weapons-utensils-machines-hairstyles-clothing-jewellary
it consists of the objects created in a given society—its buildings, art, tools, toys,
print and broad- cast media, and other tangible objects; each carry distinctive and
significant meaning in a society.
b. Non material (Symbolic ---Intangible)
-beliefs-values-language-norms-customs-folkways-mores
Nonmaterial culture includes the norms, laws, customs, ideas, and beliefs of a
group of people. Non- material culture is less tangible than material culture, but it
has a strong presence in social behaviour
 Despite diversity of various subcultures, there exist some shared values in
any culture: example of Pakistan: development of Pakistan national
culture
 (Material culture is often over developed while non material lags behind)

6. Socialization and Culture

a. Socialization:
‘’ The process of molding and shaping the personality of human infant.’’
b. Types of socialization
1)Primary Socialization:
Early years of life: Teaching of language, cognitive skills, values and
establishment of emotional ties.
2) Anticipatory Socialization: Learning of culture to which one does not
belongs.
3)Developmental Socialization: Learning about new social roles and new
situations
4)Re-socialization: Radical change in social role ( Mobility could be the one f
actor )
5)Agents of Socialization
a) Family
b) Neighborhood
c) Religion
d) Daycare
e) School
f) Peer groups
g) work place
h) Media
7. Cultural Diversity
 It is rare for a society to be culturally uniform. As societies develop and become more
complex, different cultural traditions appear. e more complex the society, the more likely
 its culture will be internally varied and diverse. e United States, for example, hosts
enormous cultural diversity stemming from religious, ethnic, and racial differences, as
well as regional, age, gender, and class differences
 The richness of Pakistani culture stems from the many traditions that different groups
have brought with them to this society and became the permanent part of the land. From
the first wave of the Arians to the imperialism of English, a number of people like Huns,
Greeks, Arabs, Turks, Persians came to subcontinent along with their culture. Some
elements of these varying cultural currents diffuse and some retained their separate
identity, thus becoming a factor in the rich cultural diversity of the country.

a. Dominant culture
o dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in a society. It is the
cultural form that receives the most support from major institutions and that
constitutes the major belief system
o Although the dominant culture is not the only culture in a society, it is commonly
believed to be “the” culture of a society despite the other cultures present. Social
institutions in the society perpetuate the dominant culture and give it a degree of
legitimacy that is not shared by other cultures. Quite often, the dominant culture is
the standard by which other cultures in the society are judged.
o A dominant culture need not be the culture of the majority of people; rather, it is
simply the culture of that group in society with enough power to de ne the cultural
framework
o Example: Mughal court culture prevailed in subcontinent for about two centuries;
Anglo-Saxon culture in United States ;
b. Subcultures
o Subcultures are the cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior di er
to some degree from those of the dominant culture
o subcultures may coexist with the dominant society, and members of the
subculture may participate in both the subculture and the dominant culture.
o Example: provincial cultures in Pakistan are subcultures

c. Counter cultures
 Countercultures are subcultures created as a reaction against the values of
the dominant culture. Members of the counterculture reject the dominant
cultural values, often for political or moral reasons, and develop cultural
practices that explicitly defy the norms and values of the dominant group.
 Nonconformity to the dominant culture is often the hallmark of a
counterculture. Youth groups often form countercultures. Why? In part, they
do so to resist the culture of older generations, thereby asserting their
independence and identity.
d. Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism
o Because culture tends to be taken for granted, it can be di cult for people within a
culture to see their culture as anything but “the way things are.
o Ethnocentrism is the habit of seeing things only from the point of view of one’s
own group. Judging one culture by the standards of another culture is
ethnocentric. An ethno- centric perspective prevents you from understanding the
world as it is experienced by others, and it can lead to narrow-minded conclusions
about the worth of di- verse cultures.
o Ethnocentrism can build group solidarity, but it also discourages intergroup
understanding. Understanding ethnocentrism is critical to understanding some of
the major conflicts that are shaping current history. Taken to extremes,
ethnocentrism can lead to overt political conflict, war, terrorism, even genocide
o Cultural relativism is the idea that something can be understood and judged only
in relation to the cultural context in which it appears. is does not make every
cultural practice morally acceptable, but it suggests that without knowing the
cultural context, it is impossible to understand why people behave as they do
o Example: Concept of human rights differ across time and space: Should cultures
have the right of self-determination or should cultural practices that maim people
be treated as violations of human rights? is controversy is unresolved
e. The Globalization of culture
 The diffusion of a single culture throughout the world is referred to as global
culture. Despite the enormous diversity of cultures worldwide, fashion, food,
entertainment, and other cultural values are increasingly dominated by global
culture of industrialization.
 The infusion of Western culture throughout the world seems to be accelerating
as the commercialized culture of the United States is marketed worldwide.

 . Global culture is increasingly marked by capitalist interests, squeezing out

the more diverse folk cultures that have been common throughout the world
 . As globalization occurs, both economic changes and traditional cultural
values shape the emerging national culture of different societies
 The conflict between traditional and more commercial values is now being
played out in world affairs, with some arguing that the conflicts we see in
international relations are partially rooted in a struggle between the values of a
consumer-based, capitalist Western culture and the traditional values of local
communities. us, you can witness a proliferation of culturally based
movements, including strong feelings of nationalism, such as among extremist
groups in the Middle East, but also pro-democratic movements in parts of the
Middle East.
8. The Mass media and Popular Culture ( in next week)
a. The organization of mass media
b. The media and popular culture
c. Race, gender and Class in mass media
9. Theoretical perspective of culture and the Media
a. Culture and group solidarity
b. Culture, Power and Social Conflict
c. Symbolic Interaction and the study of culture
10.Cultural Change
o In one sense, culture is a conservative force in society; it tends to be based on
tradition and is passed on through generations, conserving and regenerating the
values and beliefs of society.
o “a nation’s diet can be more revealing than its art or literature”
o interplay of change and continuity

a. Cultural lag
o Some parts of culture may change more rapidly than others; thus, one aspect of
culture may “lag” be- hind another
o culture shock, the feeling of disorientation when one encounters a new or rapidly
changed cultural situation

b. Sources of cultural change

i. Cultures change in response to changed conditions in the society.
Economic changes, population changes, and other social transformations
all influence the development of culture.
ii. Cultures change through cultural diffusion. Cultural diffusion is the
transmission of cultural elements from one society or cultural group to
another. In our world of instantaneous communication, cultural diffusion
is swift and widespread. is is evident in the degree to which worldwide
cultures have been Westernized. Cultural diffusion also occurs when
subcultural influences enter the dominant group. Dominant cultures are
regularly enriched by minority cultures.
 Cultural diffusion is one thing that drives cultural evolution,
especially in a society such as ours that is lush with diversity
 iii. Cultures change as the result of innovation, including inventions and
technological developments.
 Cultural innovations can create dramatic changes in society. ink,
for example, of how the invention of trolleys, subways, and
automobiles changed the character of cities. People no longer
walked to work; instead, cities expanded outward to include
suburbs. Furthermore, the invention of the elevator let cities
expand not just out, but up.
 Now, the development of computer technology infiltrates every
dimension of life. It is hard to overestimate the effect of innovation
on contemporary cultural change
iv. Cultural change can be imposed.
 Change can occur when a powerful group takes over a society and
imposes a new culture. e dominating group may arise internally, as
in a political revolution, or it may appear from outside, perhaps as
an invasion.
 Resistance to political oppression often takes the form of a cultural
movement that asserts or revives the culture of an oppressed group;
thus, cultural expression can be a form of political protest.
 Acculturation through imperialism ; British in subcontinent
imposed their culture on the ruling class which diffused over the
time because of the aspirations of the people to move upward on
the social ladder and to emulate the people in power.

11.Glossary of important terms

a. Ideal culture: A person’s ideal values and norms set as benchmark.
b. Real culture: the norms and values that people actually follow
c. Cultural Relativism
d. Ethnocentrism
e. Xenocentrism
f. Cultural Lag: The gap between the actuality of social norms and values, and
technological innovations. Social problems and conflicts are common outcomes
of this lag.
g. High Culture
h. Popular culture