994641

research-article2021
HOL0010.1177/0959683621994641The HoloceneStavi et al.

Research Paper

The Holocene

Ancient to recent-past runoff

2021, Vol. 31(6) 1047­–1054
© The Author(s) 2021
Article reuse guidelines:

harvesting agriculture in the hyper-arid sagepub.com/journals-permissions

DOI: 10.1177/0959683621994641
https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683621994641

Arava Valley: OSL dating and insights

journals.sagepub.com/home/hol

Ilan Stavi,1,2 Gidon Ragolsky,1 Mordechai Haiman3

and Naomi Porat4

Abstract
Runoff harvesting agriculture was prevalent in ancient times across the southern Levant. In modern Israel, remnants of this agricultural adaptation strategy
are widespread mostly in the semi-arid and arid Negev. Extensive literature has thoroughly described the farming systems of this region. However, runoff
agriculture in the dryer, hyper-arid regions of the Arava Valley and southern Negev (excluding the Uvda Valley), has scarcely been researched. A recent study
revealed remnants of simple stone terraces in several wadis (ephemeral stream channels) throughout the central Arava Valley that have not yet been dated.
The objective of this study was to use the Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) method to date sediments trapped in the stone terraces. The results
revealed dominance of terraces dated to the Ottoman period (1516–1917 CE). Few samples were dated to the earlier Late Islamic period (1099–1516 CE)
or Byzantine period (324–638 CE), and to the later, modern period of the mid-20th century. Generally, these periods coincide with relatively moister regional
climatic conditions, which prevailed in the 4th, 11th–12th, and late 19th centuries CE. Yet, our findings also concur with periods of effective governance by
central administrations. Therefore, results of this study fit the concept that runoff agriculture practiced in peripheral areas in ancient to recent-past times was
co-determined by climatic settings and geo-political conditions, which enabled human inhabitation in these regions.

Keywords
central authorities’ effectiveness, climate change, dryland habitation, extreme deserts, geo-archaeology, human adaptation

Received 14 July, 2020; revised manuscript accepted 22 January, 2021

Introduction conditions of this hot, hyper-arid region (BWh, according to the

Köppen climate classification) make it hostile for human habi-
Runoff harvesting agricultural systems were widespread in the
tation (Goldreich and Karni, 2001). However, stone terraces in
southern Levant starting in the 4th century CE (Fuks et al., 2016),
12 wadis across the region indicate that runoff agriculture was
peaking during the Byzantine period (324–638 CE: Avni et al.,
practiced in the region (Figure 1). In addition, ethnographic tes-
2013; Evenari et al., 1971; Mayerson, 1985), and lasting until the
timonies indicate that runoff harvesting agriculture was prac-
Umayyad period (638–750 CE, also named Early Islamic period:
ticed by local Bedouin populations until the 1960s in extensive
Haiman, 2012; Haiman et al., 2020). Such ancient runoff harvest-
lands across the region. Agro-hydrological assessments of the
ing systems are prevalent in modern-day eastern Jordan (Beckers
terraced wadis suggested that runoff harvesting agriculture is
et al., 2013), north-western Egypt (Vetter et al., 2014), and south-
not viable under current climatic conditions (Stavi et al.,
ern Israel (Haiman et al., 2020). In Israel, this adaptation strategy
2018a).
was mostly widespread in the semi-arid and arid regions, prevail-
It has been commonly accepted that the Bedouin populations
ing between the Judean Lowlands and Southern Hebron Moun-
of the Negev and Sinai did not establish the agricultural runoff
tain in the north (Dayan, 2015; Taxel, 2008), and the Negev
harvesting systems but rather utilized and maintained ancient run-
Highlands (Avni et al., 2013) and Negev Mountains to the south
off harvesting installations (Stavi et al., 2017a). This accords with
(Haiman, 2012). Until recently, except for the Uvda Valley of the
other studies from the Negev Mountains that reported that during
southern Negev (central datum point 29°95′ N, 34°94′ E: Avner,
the 19th and early 20th centuries, local Bedouins practiced agri-
1990, 1998; Stavi et al., 2017a), ancient runoff harvesting agricul-
culture in the sophisticated runoff harvesting systems that were
tural systems in the hyper-arid southern Israel have not been doc-
umented. Moreover, according to Bruins (2012), ancient runoff
harvesting agriculture throughout contemporary Israel has not 1
Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Israel
been practiced south or east of Makhtesh Ramon (in the central 2
Eilat Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Negev: central datum point 30°50′ N, 35°00′ E), with the excep- 3
Israel Antiquities Authority, Israel
tion of Uvda Valley. 4
Geological Survey of Israel, Israel
A recent, pioneer study revealed evidence of ancient runoff
harvesting agriculture in the central Arava Valley (central Corresponding author:
datum point 30°41′ N, 35°14′ E, ~100–200 m.a.s.l.) of southern Ilan Stavi, Dead Sea and Arava Science Center, Yotvata 88820, Israel.
Israel (Stavi et al., 2018a). The extremely harsh climatic Email: istavi@adssc.org
1048 The Holocene 31(6)

Figure 1. Map of Israel, indicating the study region and other sites of interest mentioned throughout the manuscript (right), and an extension
of the study region (left).

established during the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods and

were abandoned for over a millennium (Ashkenazi, 2007; Ben-
David and Orion, 1988).
The objective of this study was to date the runoff harvesting
agricultural systems across the Arava Valley. We hypothesized the
dominance of Bedouin agriculture across the region. Yet, we also
hypothesized that the Bedouin agriculture relied on existing run-
off harvesting systems, which were established in ancient times.

Materials and methods

During fieldwork, a confined section of each of a total of 12 ter-
races was completely exposed. Overall, all the excavated terraces
revealed a simple structure, comprised one or two stone lines, laid
one above the other (Figure 2). The depth of trapped sediments
upstream of the terraces ranged between 8 and 21 cm.
The simple terraces revealed in this study are structurally dif-
ferent from those that are prevalent across the northern and cen-
tral Negev region. These terraces, characterized by multilayer
staircase-shaped constructions that strengthen the structure and
allow excess water to gradually cascade down (Stavi et al., 2018b,
2019), have been predominantly dated to the Byzantine and Early
Islamic periods (e.g. Ashkenazi, 2007, 2013; Avni et al., 2013;
Bruins, 2012; Evenari et al., 1971; Haiman, 2012; Haiman et al.,
2020). The terraces in our current study are similar to the simple,
less studied terrace type, which has been found across the Negev
(Evenari et al., 1958; Kedar, 1967; Lender, 1990; Rosen, 1994)
and also documented in Syria (Oweis et al., 2012).
Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL; Aitken, 1998) has
been reported to be well-suited for dating sediments trapped
behind stone terraces in the Israeli drylands (Avni et al., 2013).
Quartz grains contributed by dust storms are abundant, and by the
time they settle on the ground surface they have been exposed to
Figure 2. Nahal Dmama (Dmama Wadi: site 182 in Table 1). A
second order wadi, with two stone terraces. Photographed by the
first author.
sunlight and are generally well bleached. These grains are then
transported by runoff from the hillslopes and deposited behind the
stone terraces crossing the stream beds. This process might not
entirely bleach all the grains, and older grains may be incorpo-
rated into the flow. As runoff events across the region are not fre-
quent (Ben-Zvi and Shentsis, 2000), there may be a time-lag
between the deposition of quartz grains on the hillslopes and their
final entrapment by the terrace walls. Archaeological studies of
runoff harvesting agricultural systems in the currently hyper-arid
southern Israel proposed that throughout ancient times, consider-
able flood events occurred once in 2–3 years on average (Avner,
1990, 1998, 2002). However, recent studies revealed that since
the early 21st century, such events occur zero to two times every
~10 years on average (Stavi et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2018a). One way
Stavi et al. 1049

Figure 3. OSL results: dose recovery tests over a range of preheat (PH) and cutheat (CH) temperatures. The best recovery ratio was for
aliquots measured with a PH temperature of 260°C and a CH temperature of 220°C (orange squares on the figure). Recycling ratios (green
diamonds) are mostly within 7% of unity (x-axis shifted to clarity). Recuperation (red triangles) is <7% (a). Probability density function of all 19
measured aliquots for ARC-17; De = 0.54 ± 0.07 Gy (using the Central Age Model). Note the one outlying aliquot at 4 Gy, which was removed
before further data processing (b). Radial plot of the same data, without the outlier aliquot. Full and open symbols represent aliquots within
and outside the ±1σ confidence level, respectively. De = 0.50 ± 0.04 Gy (c). OSL signal for an aliquot of sample ARC-17. The first 10 s (out
of 40) of the OSL signal show the rapid depletion of the signal to a very low background level. De values were calculated by integrating the
counts from first 0.2 s of the signal and subtracting the background from the last 1 s of measurement. Inset: Dose response curve for the same
aliquot. Recycling ratio (at 7 Gy) is 1.02, recuperation is 6%, and De = 0.82 ± 0.03 Gy (d).

or another, the time-lag and incomplete bleaching are expected to
introduce some scatter into the OSL results, as grains deposited
over an extended period are simultaneously washed into the wadis
and deposited behind the terrace walls.
The redeposited sediments found behind the terrace walls
comprise fine-grained material, mixed with fine gravels that have
been contributed by the hillslopes and wadi bed. The underlying
natural wadi sediments are predominantly fine and coarse gravels.
Depending on site-specific conditions, redeposited sediments
trapped behind the terraces were sampled for OSL dating either
by digging a small pit near the terrace wall to expose the relevant
section and sampling horizontally, or by drilling vertically down
to the underlying natural gravel. The stratum overlaying the
gravel was very shallow, usually 20–30 cm. To obtain multiple
samples from one terrace, two pits were dug, and samples were
collected from more than one depth. A total of 17 samples from 6
different wadis and 10 terrace systems were collected from the
redeposited fine loess sediments, as well as a 1 sample from an
underlying natural gravel as a control. To avoid any exposure to
sunlight, sampling was conducted under an opaque cover, and
sediments were collected with a trowel from the selected location
and stored immediately in black, light-tight bags. A duplicate
sample was collected from each sampling spot to evaluate dose
rate, grain size distribution, total organic carbon content, and cal-
cium carbonate content.
In the laboratory, the 90–125 µm quartz grains were extracted
from the samples using routine procedures (Faershtein et al.,
2016). After wet sieving to the desired grain size, carbonates were
dissolved using 8% HCl solution, and the samples were rinsed
and dried. Magnetic separation with a current of 1.4 ampere on the
magnet was used to further concentrate the quartz, by removing
heavy minerals and most feldspars (Porat, 2006). The concen-
trated quartz fraction was etched with a 40% HF solution for
40 min, to dissolve any remaining feldspars and remove the outer
10 µm of each grain that is affected by alpha particles. Finally, the
grains were soaked overnight in 16% HCl to remove any fluorides
that may have precipitated. The purity of the quartz was checked
on three aliquots from each sample, by measuring the post-infra-
red recycling ratio as in Duller (1994); no feldspar contamination
was detected.
To determine the most suitable measurement parameters, dose
recovery tests over a range of preheat temperatures were carried
out for sample ARC-2. Twelve 5-mm aliquots were bleached in
the sun for 5 h, bleached again by blue OSL for 100 s, and given a
dose of 6.5 Gy. Subsequently, the aliquots were measured as an
unknown dose under a range of preheat and cutheat temperatures
(Figure 3a), using a Risø DA-15 TL/OSL reader (Bøtter-Jensen
and Murray, 1999). Stimulation was conducted with blue LEDs,
and detection through 7.5 mm U-340 filters. The single aliquot
regenerative dose (SAR) protocol (Wintle and Murray, 2006) was
used with the addition of a cleanout step at 280°C at the end of
every run. Under this range of measurement conditions, recycling
ratios were mostly within 7% of unity, and recuperation was less
than 1% (Figure 3a). These tests revealed that a dose of 6.5 Gy can
be recovered to 99% using a preheat temperature of 260°C, a test
dose of 3.5 Gy, and a cutheat temperature of 220°C (Figure 3a).
These conditions were maintained for equivalent dose (De)
determinations.
1050 The Holocene 31(6)

Table 1. Data and OSL ages for the terraced sites.

Site Coordinates Texture/mechanical Depth Lab code Depth Dose rate N O-D (%) De (Gy) Age (year
composition (cm) (cm) (Gy/ka) b. 2017)

Aqalaton
Haklaim 206267/469234 Alternating fines and gravel 30–40 ARC-1 30–40 0.97 ± 0.04 18/18 34 5.1 ± 0.4 5280 ± 500
Site 543a 205091/468195 Clean fine sediment 3–8 ARC-5 3–8 1.72 ± 0.05 19/19 78 0.24 ± 0.06 140 ± 30
Gravel and fines 14–20 ARC-6 14–20 1.15 ± 0.03 18/19 52 0.29 ± 0.04 250 ± 30
Clean fines within gravel 15–17 ARC-16 15–17 1.33 ± 0.04 18/18 33 0.51 ± 0.05 380 ± 40
Dmama
Site 183 207364/467795 Uppermost well-sorted fines 0.5–3 ARC-2 0.5–3 1.13 ± 0.04 14/19 86 0.18 ± 0.04 160 ± 30
Lower compact fines 10–17 ARC-3 10–17 1.75 ± 0.05 19/19 37 0.48 ± 0.05 280 ± 30
Well-sorted fines 15–20 ARC-14 15–20 1.30 ± 0.04 17/18 76 0.31 ± 0.05 240 ± 40
Well-sorted fines 25–30 ARC-15 25–30 1.29 ± 0.05 17/19 69 0.25 ± 0.03 200 ± 30
Site 182 207387/467638 Well-sorted fines 10–13 ARC-4 10–13 1.41 ± 0.04 18/18 47 0.20 ± 0.03 140 ± 20
Paran Gevim
Main channel 206439/472027 Fine grained sediment 6–12 ARC-18 6–12 1.97 ± 0.06 18/19 68 0.71 ± 0.10 360 ± 50
Fine grained sediment 12–21 ARC-7 12–21 1.88 ± 0.06 15/19 69 0.56 ± 0.06 300 ± 30
Fine grained sediment 20–25 ARC-17 20–25 2.18 ± 0.06 18/19 56 0.50 ± 0.04 230 ± 20
Eastern chan- 206500/472028 One stone course, well- 3–9 ARC-8 3–9 1.82 ± 0.05 18/19 80 0.20 ± 0.03 110 ± 20
nel sorted fines
Western 206406/471927 Naturally exposed section, 3–8 ARC-9 3–8 2.82 ± 0.10 18/18 80 0.16 ± 0.04 60 ± 15
channel well-sorted fines
Omer Ridge
Main channel 214405/492092 One stone course well-sorted 3–9 ARC-10 3–9 1.69 ± 0.06 10/19 >100 2.5 ± 0.5 1460 ± 320
N. terrace fines
Main channel 214315/491905 Sandy, well sorted 4–10 ARC-11 4–10 1.40 ± 0.04 16/19 97 0.79 ± 0.13 560 ± 100
S. terrace
Secondary 214400/491974 One stone course, well- 4–9 ARC-12 4–9 1.86 ± 0.06 16/19 91 1.7 ± 0.2 910 ± 120
channel sorted fines
Lower Baraq 214281/480894 One course of large Arava 4–9 ARC-13 4–9 1.73 ± 0.05 17/19 46 0.20 ± 0.03 110 ± 20
boulders, well-sorted fines

Ages are in years before 2017, the year of sampling. Grain size for all samples is 90–125 µm. Moisture content estimated at 3 ± 2%. O-D is over-disper-
sion, the amount of scatter in the sample before removing outliers for age calculations. Ages were calculated from N aliquots (out of those measured)
using the central age model.

The De values for each sample were measured on 19 2-mm
aliquots (~200 grains placed at the center of the disc), using the
SAR protocol, and the same instrumentation as above. After mea-
suring the natural signal (with normalization), a zero-dose point
was measured to assess recuperation, followed by three dose
points, a second zero-dose point and a recycling point. The dose
response curves were fitted with an exponential fit (Figure 3d).
Most samples had a normal De distribution, and the average De
values were calculated using the Central Age model (Galbraith
and Roberts, 2012) after discarding distinct outlying older De val-
ues (see Figure 3b and c as an example). This approach was used
because it is expected that during remobilization, older grains that
were not well bleached were deposited behind the terrace wall
along with well bleached grains.
The duplicate samples for the assessment of the environmental
dose rates were dried, crushed and split, and ~50 g were pow-
dered. The concentrations of the radioactive elements U, Th and
K was measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry (ICP-OES) for K, or ICP mass-spectrometry (ICP-
MS) for U and Th (Supplemental Appendix A), against interna-
tional and internal standards. In this hyper-arid region,
time-averaged moisture content was estimated as 3 ± 2%, and the
cosmic dose rates were evaluated from current burial depths fol-
lowing Prescott and Hutton (1994). Alpha, beta, and gamma dose
rates for the grains (Aitken, 1985) were calculated using the con-
version factors of Nambi and Aitken (1986).
Grain size distribution was determined by the hydrometer
method (Bouyoucos, 1962), total organic carbon by the loss-on-
ignition method (Nelson and Sommers, 1996) after fumigation
with diluted hydrochloric acid (Harris et al., 2000), and calcium
carbonate content by the calcimeter method (Loeppert and
Suarez, 1996).
Results
Table 1 lists the field data and the OSL ages obtained from the sedi-
ments trapped in the studied terraces. The full laboratory data is
given in Supplemental Appendix A. The control sample collected
from the natural gravel underlying the sediments trapped behind a
terrace (ARC-1) provided an OSL age of 5280 ± 500 years (before
2020). This age indicates natural processes taking place in the wadi,
prior to and regardless of human activity. Overall, the OSL ages of
the samples obtained from the sediments trapped behind the ter-
races ranged between 1460 ± 320 year before present (sample
ARC-10) and 60 ± 15 year before present (sample ARC-9). All
samples, including the relatively young ones (ARC-2, ARC-4,
ARC-5, ARC-8, ARC-9, ARC-13, and ARC-15, whose ages were
determined to be 100–200 years old), had a bright OSL signal dom-
inated by the fast component and a well-constrained dose response
curve (Figure 3d). This implies that the SAR protocol is suitable,
and indicates that the De values are reliable (Table 1).
Generally, the OSL results revealed that the sediments were
buried between the Late Byzantine and modern periods (Table 1;
Figure 4). Apart from two samples, all were found to be younger
than 560 ± 100 years before present, that is, attributed to the Otto-
man period onwards. Only at one sampling location – Omer
Ridge (samples ARC-10, ARC-11, ARC-12) – the OSL ages were
older, spanning between Late Byzantine, Late Islamic, and Otto-
man periods. This shallow terrace exhibits non-stratigraphically
ordered ages with a very wide scatter (O-D values in Table 1). The
Stavi et al.
Figure 4. Dating results for all samples, arranged in chronological
order. Each wadi is marked with a different color and symbol.
findings may be attributed to the very shallow sample depth and
intermittent cultivation that started in the Late Byzantine, fol-
lowed by abandonment ~560 years before present.
Samples not in stratigraphic order were also obtained in other
sampling sites, although with a smaller range of ages. For exam-
ple, the OSL ages of sediments trapped behind the terraces at
Paran × Gevim’s main channel (samples ARC-7, ARC-17, ARC-
18) ranged between 230 and 360 years, probably indicating aban-
donment ~250 years ago. However, at other sites, the deepest and
shallowest ages are interpreted as the time of establishment and
abandonment, respectively, and indicate extended and continuous
usage. For example, the Aqalaton 543a site (samples ARC-5,
ARC-6, and ARC-16), which gave OSL ages of 380 ± 40 and
140 ± 30 years at the bottom and top layers, respectively.
The youngest OSL age, 60 ± 15 years old, was obtained from
the top layer of the terrace in Paran × Gevim’s western channel
(sample ARC-9), indicating that the site was ploughed until the
mid-20th century. Notably, the ages of the top layer of sediments
in other terraces across the study region are not recent (Table 1),
apparently suggesting that these terraces were in use during a cer-
tain period and subsequently abandoned.
The sediments’ grain size distribution ranged between clay to
loamy sand, and was predominantly sandy clay loam. The mean
moisture was 1.5 ± 0.1%, mean total organic carbon content was
0.18 ± 0.02%, and mean calcium carbonate content was
58.2 ± 2.3% (Supplemental Appendix B). Grain size distribution
is very similar to dust (loess) that accumulated in the past across
the region (Crouvi et al., 2009). The calcium carbonate content
confirms our field observations that the sediments are derived
from redistributed dust – which on average contains ~30% car-
bonates (Crouvi et al., 2009) – mixed with local comminuted car-
bonate bedrock. Indeed, the source of the fine-grained quartz used
for OSL dating is aeolian; grains were well bleached upon deposi-
tion. The low mean organic carbon content is most likely attrib-
uted to the poor preservation of organic residue under the
prevailing biophysical conditions.
Discussion
Recent studies from the hyper-arid southern Negev and Arava
Valley revealed that ancient runoff harvesting systems across the
region cannot effectively function under the current, extremely
dry, climatic conditions (Stavi et al., 2017a, 2017b, 2018a). Over-
all, our findings of ancient agricultural terraces accord with evi-
dence for episodes of comparatively moister regional climatic
conditions, including the Late Byzantine period (Hirschfeld,
1051
Figure 5. Nahal Dmama (Dmama Wadi: site 183 in Table 1).
A second order wadi, with tillage-induced furrows (marked by
black dashed lines), positioned perpendicular to the stream
direction (from left to right: marked by a pale blue arrow). The
furrows indicate recent (mid-20th century) tillage by Bedouins.
Photographed by the first author.
2004, 2006), the Crusader period (1095–1291 CE: Ellenblum,
2012), and late Ottoman period (Issar, 1998).
Specifically, our findings accord with records of the Dead
Sea’s highstand intervals in the 4th–5th, 11th–12th, and late
18th to mid 20th centuries CE, as well as with the lowstand
interval in the 8th–9th centuries CE (Bookman et al., 2004;
Enzel et al., 2003; Morin et al., 2019); no sediments were attrib-
uted to the lowstand interval. The Dead Sea, a terminal lake of
one of the largest hydrological systems in the Levant, is consid-
ered to be a large rain gauge, and fluctuations of its water level
indicate a change in annual precipitations (Enzel et al., 2003).
Yet, we are aware of the non-full compatibility between precipi-
tation regime of the Dead Sea basin and that of the Arava Valley.
While the northern half of the Dead Sea’s drainage basin is
affected by the Cyprus Lows (Bookman et al., 2004; Enzel et al.,
2003), the Arava region is mostly affected by the Red Sea
Trough (Kahana et al., 2004). Nevertheless, the lack of a better/
closer paleoclimatic record for the Arava, necessitates us relying
on the Dead Sea levels.
Our findings also agree with studies that indicated the occur-
rence of Bedouin runoff harvesting agriculture across the hyper-
arid southern Israel until the 1960s (Stavi et al., 2017a, 2017b), as
well as with other studies that demonstrated increasing regional
aridity since the second half of the 20th century (Bruins et al.,
2012; Ginat et al., 2011; Kafle and Bruins, 2009).
The evidence for only one site dated to the mid-20th century is
not in accordance with the ethnographic testimonies of Bedouin
agriculture in extensive lands across the Arava Valley during
modern times (1917 CE to the mid-20th century: Stavi et al.,
2018a). Further, it does not accord with the presence of tillage-
induced furrows that are positioned perpendicularly to the stream
direction (Figure 5), which indicate relatively recent (decades
old) tillage by local Bedouins in two wadis, as well as with sev-
eral Bedouin metal duckfoot plows and many other Bedouin agri-
cultural tools that were found across the region (Stavi et al.,
2018a). Considering these testimonies, furrows, and artifacts, we
can assume that relatively recent cultivation was widespread in
many wadis across the region. Regardless, tillage activity,
whereby young sediments are mixed with older sediments, which
are brought to the surface by the plough, may explain the older
ages of top-layer sediments in some sites. As only the grains in the
topmost surface layer are exposed to the sunlight, underlying
grains may preserve older ages.
Although climatic settings played a crucial role in rural inhabi-
tation and agricultural activity throughout the region during ancient
1052
to past times, we claim that the prevailing geo-political conditions
also had an important effect. Specifically, investments in civil secu-
rity and infrastructures by the central authorities effectively made
rural settling along borderlines attractive (Bailey, 2006; Hirschfeld,
2004; Marx, 1992; Mayerson, 1990). For example, inhabitation of
Bedouin tribes in the semi-arid northern Negev at the late 19th cen-
tury was regulated by the Ottoman Empire, which invested sub-
stantial efforts in stabilizing its southern frontier, as a reaction to the
evolvement of the British Empire in Egypt (Bailey, 1980; Biger,
1995; Marx, 1967). These efforts included the establishment of the
town of Beer Sheva (31°14′26″ N, 34°47′16″ E) and of the regional
administrative center in Auja el-Hafir (later on named as Nitzana
(30°52′35″ N, 34°25′57″ E): Woolley and Lawrence, 1915), as well
as setting the tribal territories (Amiran, 1963; Bailey, 1980; Ben-
David and Orion, 1998; Musil, 1908). Other tribes that were pushed
further, to the dryer, southern regions – such as the Sarahin of the
ʻAzazme tribal aggregate – were allocated extensive lands by the
Ottomans. Ancient water cisterns, scattered across this landscape,
were renovated by the Ottomans in order to facilitate the Bedouin
inhabitation in these southern territories (Ben-David and Orion,
1998; Musil, 1908).
Regarding the Arava Valley, the concomitance of settlement
and strong governance is evident in sediments from Omer Ridge,
whose ages concur with known rural settling of the Arava region
between the 7th and 10th century CE. This colonization is attrib-
uted to the agricultural periphery of Ayla (located in the nowadays
ʻAqaba: 29°31′32″ N, 35°00′40″ E), which encompassed an
important port, and played a central role in the service of the
Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE: Avner and Magness, 1998;
Nol, 2015; Whitcomb, 2006). In addition to the simple terraces
for runoff harvesting, sophisticated and centrally oriented agricul-
tural systems related to the Ayla periphery are the qanat (tunnel-
well system), which were utilized to capture underground water
for irrigation. Such systems – prevalent across dryland regions of
Iran, Syria, and Morocco (Beckers et al., 2012/2013) – were also
found along the Arava Valley: in ʻEn Evrona (29°38′17″ N,
34°59′50″ E), ‘En Yotvata (29°52′49″ N, 35°02′46″ E), and ʻEn
Marzev (30°41′28″ N, 35°16′16″ E) (Porath et al., 2016). One
way or another, the simple runoff harvesting agriculture could
have been operated by nomads as long as Ayla played an impor-
tant role in the Caliphate (Al-Nasarat, 2012). Therefore, it can be
expected that during the 11th century, once Ayla lost its impor-
tance, its agricultural periphery diminished.
Over the later history, the Arava Valley and southern Jordan
were utilized as an immigration route for Bedouin tribes moving
from the Arabian Peninsula to the southern Levant and Syria
(Marx, 1992). Starting in the 16th and 17th centuries, Bedouin
tribal aggregates of the Saʻidiyyin, ʻUmran, and Aheiwat immi-
grated to the region from northern Arabia, and practiced mixed
farming, including livestock rearing and simple runoff harvesting
agriculture (Bailey, 2006). Because the region was neglected by
the Ottoman administration until the late 18th century, this adap-
tation strategy allowed the Bedouins only a relatively modest
livelihood over the early and middle Ottoman period (Bailey,
1985, 2018; Marx, 1992).
The considerable expansion of runoff harvesting agriculture in
the Arava Valley during the late Ottoman period is attributed to
the increasing international interest in the region at the early 19th
century. Specifically, it could relate to the struggle between the
Ottoman Empire and Great Britain for access to the Red Sea,
increasing the importance of ʻAqaba (Biger, 1995). In the late
19th century, this international struggle led to the considerable
increase in population by the Saʻidiyyin in the northern Arava,
ʻUmran in the central Arava, and Aheiwat in the southern Arava.
These tribal territories persisted until approximately the mid-20th
century, when the State of Israel was established (Avner, 2007;
Bailey, 2006; Ben-David, 2004; Biger, 1995; Kressel et al., 1991).
The Holocene 31(6)
Overall, this study agrees with previous studies, which high-
lighted the importance of geo-political conditions in regulating
rural settling and agricultural activities along borderlines and
peripheral regions. Yet, results of this study still acknowledge the
importance of climatic settings, and specifically, of long-term
decreasing precipitation regimes, in determining the viability of
runoff harvesting agriculture.
Conclusions
Using OSL methodology, this study dates the runoff harvesting
agricultural systems across the hyper-arid central Arava Valley of
Israel for the first time. These farming installations were dated to
a long chronosequence, ranging between the Late Byzantine
period and the mid-20th century, with predominance of the Otto-
man period. Results of this study suggest that agricultural practic-
ing across the region coincided with favorable climatic spells of
relatively moist periods, as well as with geo-political conditions
of strong and stable central authorities.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to: the Ministry of Science and Tech-
nology for supporting the study; Yael Jacobi for the assistance
in fieldwork and sample preparation; Michelle Finzi for proof-
reading of the manuscript; and two anonymous reviewers, whose
comments considerably improved the manuscript.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, au-
thorship, and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
Ilan Stavi https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9725-0003
Supplemental material
Supplemental material for this article is available online.
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