1 4.

5 CONSERVATIVE FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY 201

1 4.5 Conservative Forces a n d

Pote ntial En ergy

Conservative Force . If the work of a force is independent of the

path and depends only on the force's initial and final positions on the IVg = + wyl
path, then we can classify this force as a conservative force. Examples of
conservative forces are the weight of a particle and the force developed
by a spring. The work done by the weight depends only on the vertical W
I +y

displacement of the weight, and the work done by a spring force depends
only on the spring's elongation or compression. Datum
In contrast to a conservative force, consider the force of friction
exerted on a sliding object by a fixed surface. The work done by the -y
frictional force depends on the path - the longer the path, the greater the
j
W
work. Consequently, frictional forces are nonconservative. The work is
dissipated from the body in the form of heat.
Energy. Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. For
example, if a particle is originally at rest, then the principle of work and w
energy states that 2:, U1 .....2 = T2 . In other words, the kinetic energy is Gravitational potential energy
equal to the work that must be done on the particle to bring it from a
state of rest to a speed v. Thus, the kinetic energy is a measure of the Fig. 14-17
particle's capacity to do work, which is associated with the motion of the
particle. When energy comes from the position of the particle, measured
from a fixed datum or reference plane, it is called potential energy. Thus,
potential energy is a measure of the amount of work a conservative force
will do when it moves from a given position to the datum. In mechanics,
the potential energy created by gravity (weight) or an elastic spring is
important.
G ravitational Potential Energy. If a particle is located a
distance y above an arbitrarily selected datum, as shown in Fig. 14-17, the
particle's weight W has positive gravitational potential energy, Vg , since
W has the capacity of doing positive work when the particle is moved
back down to the datum. Likewise, if the particle is located a distance y
below the datum, Vg is negative since the weight does negative work
when the particle is moved back up to the datum. At the datum Vg = O.
In general, if y is positive upward, the gravitational potential energy of
the particle of weight W is*

(14-13)

*Here the weight is assumed to be cons/ant. This assumption is suitable for small
differences in elevation 6. y. If the elevation change is significant, however, a variation of
weight with elevation must be taken into account (see Prob. 14-16) .
 202 CHAPTER 1 4 K I N E T I C S O F A P A RT I C L E : W O R K A N D E N E R G Y

Elastic Potential Ene rgy. When an elastic spring is elongated or

compressed a distance s from its unstretched position, elastic potential
energy Ve can be stored in the spring. This energy is

(14-14)

•
Here v;, is always positive since, in the deformed position, the force of
the spring has the capacity or "potential" for always doing positive work
on the particle when the spring is returned to its unstretched position,
Fig. 14-18.

position, s 0
Unstretched
=

k
+s1

Elastic potential energy

Fig. 14-18

The weight o f the sacks resting o n this

platform causes potential energy to be
stored in the supporting springs. As each
sack is removed, the platform will rise
slightly since some of the potential energy
within the springs will be transformed
into an increase in gravitational potential
energy of the remaining sacks. Such a
device is useful for removing the sacks
without having to bend over to pick them
up as they are unloaded.
 1 4.5 CONSERVATIVE FORCES AND POTENTIAL ENERGY 203

Pote ntia l Functio n . In the general case, if a particle is subjected to

both gravitational and elastic forces, the particle's potential energy can
be expressed as a potential function, which is the algebraic sum

(14-15)

Measurement of V depends on the location of the particle with respect

to a selected datum in accordance with Eqs. 14-13 and 14-14.
The work done by a conservative force in moving the particle from one
point to another point is measured by the difference of this function, i.e.,
(14-16)
For example, the potential function for a particle of weight W
suspended from a spring can be expressed in terms of its position, s,
measured from a datum located at the unstretched length of the spring,
Fig. 14-19. We have

If the particle moves from SI to a lower position S2 , then applying

= = (-Wsl + !ksI) - (- s + !ks�)

Eq. 14-16 it can be seen that the work of W and Fs is

=
UI - 2 V I - V2 W2
- G ks� - !ksI)
W (S2 - SI )

----.1--- Datum
s

j
w

Fig. 14-19
 204 CHAPTER 1 4 K I N E T I C S O F A P A RT I C L E : W O R K A N D E N E R G Y

When the displacement along the path is infinitesimal, i.e., from point
(x, y, z) to (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz), Eq. 14-16 becomes
dU = V(x, y, z) - V(x + dx , y + dy , z + dz)
= -dV(x, y, z) (14-17)
If we represent both the force and its displacement as Cartesian
vectors, then the work can also be expressed as

• dU =F · dr = (F) + Fyj + Fzk) · (dxi + dyj + dzk)

= Fx dx + Fy dy + F z dz
Substituting this result into Eq. 14-17 and expressing the differential

(-dx av )
dV(x, y, z) in terms of its partial derivatives yields
av av
Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz + -dy + -dz
ax ay az
= -

Since changes in x, y, and z are all independent of one another, this

equation is satisfied provided

Fx = av Fy = av Fz = av
(14-18)
ax ' ay ' az
-- -- --

Thus,
av i _ av _ av

( )
F j k
ax ay az
= -

= - + -J + - k V
a. a. a
ax ay az
- I

or
F= - V'V (14-19)
where V' (del) represents the vector operator V' = (ajax)i +
(ajay)j + (ajaz)k.
Equation 14-19 relates a force F to its potential function V and
thereby provides a mathematical criterion for proving that F is
conservative. For example, the gravitational potential function for a
weight located a distance y above a datum is Vg = W y. To prove that
W is conservative, it is necessary to show that it satisfies Eq. 14-18 (or
Eq. 14-19), in which case
_ av o a
Fy Fy -- (Wy) -W
ay ' ay
= = =

The negative sign indicates that W acts downward, opposite to positive y,

which is upward.
 1 4.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 205

1 4.6 Conservation of E nergy

When a particle is acted upon by a system of both conservative and
nonconservative forces, the portion of the work done by the conservative
forces can be written in terms of the difference in their potential energies
using Eq. 1 4-16, i.e., ( L Ul -2)cons. = VI - Vz . As a result, the principle of
work and energy can be written as

(14-20)
Here ( LUl -2)noncons. represents the work of the nonconservative forces
acting on the particle. If only conservative forces do work then we have

(14-21)

This equation is referred to as the conservation of mechanical energy

or simply the conservation of energy. It states that during the motion the
sum of the particle's kinetic and potential energies remains constant.
For this to occur, kinetic energy must be transformed into potential
energy, and vice versa. For example, if a ball of weight W is dropped
from a height h above the ground (datum), Fig. 14-20, the potential
energy of the ball is maximum before it is dropped, at which time its
kinetic energy is zero. The total mechanical energy of the ball in its
initial position is thus
E = Tl + Vl = 0+ =
Wh Wh
When the ball has fallen a distance h/2, its speed can be determined by
using v2 = v5 + 2ac(y - Yo), which yields v = V2g(h/2 ) = Vih, The

()
energy of the ball at the mid-height position is therefore

E - -- gh ) 2 + W -h2 -_ Wh
-_ T2 + V2 _ 21 Wg ( , r---;
V

speed is v = Viih, Here, again, the total energy of the ball is

Just before the ball strikes the ground, its potential energy is zero and its

-21 Wg ( v 2gh ) 2 + 0 Wh
Potential Energy (max)
, �
= = - =
Kinetic Energy (zero)
E T3 + V3

Note that when the ball comes in contact with the ground, it deforms Potential Energy and
Kinetic Energy
somewhat, and provided the ground is hard enough, the ball will
rebound off the surface, reaching a new height hi, which will be less than
the height h from which it was first released. Neglecting air friction, the Potential Energy (zero)
difference in height accounts for an energy loss, E/ = W(h - hi ) , which Kinetic Energy (max)
occurs during the collision. Portions of this loss produce noise, localized
deformation of the ball and ground, and heat. Fig. 14-20
 206 CHAPTER 14 K I N E T I C S O F A P A RT I C L E : W O R K A N D E N E R G Y

System of Particles. If a system of particles is subjected only to

conservative forces, then an equation similar to Eq. 14-21 can be written
=
for the particles. Applying the ideas of the preceding discussion, Eq. 14-8
(LTl + LUl -2 LT2 ) becomes
(14-22)

• =
Here, the sum of the system's initial kinetic and potential energies is
equal to the sum of the system's final kinetic and potential energies. In
other words, LT + LV const.

The conservation of energy equation can be used to solve problems

involving velocity, displacement, and conservative force systems. It is
generally easier to apply than the principle of work and energy
because this equation requires specifying the particle's kinetic and
potential energies at only two points along the path, rather than
determining the work when the particle moves through a
displacement. For application it is suggested that the following
procedure be used.
Potential Energy.

• Draw two diagrams showing the particle located at its initial and
final points along the path.
• If the particle is subjected to a vertical displacement, establish the
fixed horizontal datum from which to measure the particle's
gravitational potential energy Vg •
Data pertaining to the elevation y of the particle from the datum
and the stretch or compression s of any connecting springs can
•

=
be determined from the geometry associated with the two
diagrams.
Recall Vg Wy, where y is positive upward from the datum
=
•

and negative downward from the datum; also for a spring,

v" ! ks2 , which is always positive.

=
Conservation of Energy.

• Apply the equation Tl + V l T2 + V2 .

When determining the kinetic energy, T = ! mv2 , remember that
the particle's speed v must be measured from an inertial
•

reference frame.
 1 4.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 207

EXA M P L E 1 4 . 9

The gantry structure in the photo is used to test the response of an

airplane during a crash. As shown in Fig. 14-21a, the plane, having a
mass of S Mg, is hoisted back until 8 = 60°, and then the pull-back
cable AC is released when the plane is at rest. Determine the speed of
the plane just before it crashes into the ground, 8 = 15°. Also, what is
the maximum tension developed in the supporting cable during the
motion? Neglect the size of the airplane and the effect of lift caused by
the wings during the motion.
Datum
c

20 m

n\
(a)
SOLUTION

-�
Since the force of the cable does no work on the plane, it must be
obtained using the equation of motion. First, however, we must
determine the plane's speed at B. t
1 5°
Potential Energy. For convenience, the datum has been established 8000(9.81 ) N
at the top of the gantry, Fig. 14-21a.
(b)
Conservation of Energy.

=
TA + VA = TB + VB Fig. 14-21

o SOOO kg (9.S1 m/s2 ) (20 cos 60° m)

= =
-

!(SOOO kg) v1 sooo kg (9.S1 m/s2 ) (20 cos 15° m)

-

VB 13.52 m/s 13.5 m/s Ans.

Equation of Motion. From the free-body diagram when the plane
is at B, Fig. 14-21b, we have
+"'- =
"L Fn man;
T (SOOO(9.S1) N) cos 15° (SOOO kg)
=
(13.52 m/s) 2
20 m
-

T 149 kN
= Ans.
 208 CHAPTER 14 K I N E T I C S O F A P A RT I C L E : W O R K A N D E N E R G Y

EXA M P L E 1 4 . 1 0

The ram R shown in Fig. 14-22a has a mass of 100 kg and is released
from rest 0.75 m from the top of a spring, A, that has a stiffness
kA = 12 kN/m. If a second spring B, having a stiffness
kB = 15 kN/m, is "nested" in A, determine the maximum
R
displacement of A needed to stop the downward motion of the ram.

•
The unstretched length of each spring is indicated in the figure.

T
Neglect the mass of the springs.

0.75 m
SOLUT I O N

Potential Energy. We will assume that the ram compresses both

springs at the instant it comes to rest. The datum is located through
the center of gravity of the ram at its initial position, Fig. 14-22b.
When the kinetic energy is reduced to zero (V2 = 0), A is compressed
a distance SA and B compresses SB = SA - 0.1 m.
ks = 15 kN/m
(a)
Conservation of Energy.

Tl + Vl = T2 + V;
0 + 0 = 0 + U kAS� + � kB(SA - 0.1 ) 2 - Wh }
o+0=0+ U (12 000 N/m)s� + � (15 000 N/m)(sA - 0.1 m) 2
- 981 N (0.75 m + SA) }
981 N

Datum
CD Rearranging the terms,

13 500s� - 2481sA - 660.75 = 0

Using the quadratic formula and solving for the positive root, we have

SA = 0.331 m Ans.

Since SB = 0.331 m - 0.1 m = 0.231 m, which is positive, the

assumption that both springs are compressed by the ram is correct.
Ss = SA - 0.1 m
N OT E: The second root, SA = -0.148 m, does not represent the
(b) physical situation. Since positive S is measured downward, the
negative sign indicates that spring A would have to be "extended" by
Fig. 14-22 an amount of 0.148 m to stop the ram.
 1 4.6 CONSERVATION OF ENERGY 209

EXA M P L E 1 4 . 1 1

=
A smooth 2-kg collar, shown in Fig. 14-23a, fits loosely on the vertical
shaft. If the spring is unstretched when the collar is in the position A,
determine the speed at which the collar is moving when y 1 m , if
=
(a) it is released from rest at A, and (b) it is released at A with an
upward velocity VA 2 m/s.
SOLUTION

Part (a) Potential Energy. For convenience, the datum is established

through AB, Fig. 14-23b. When the collar is at C, the gravitational
potential energy is - ( mg ) y, since the collar is below the datum, and
the elastic potential energy is ! k sts . Here SeB = 0.5 m, which
represents the stretch in the spring as shown in the figure.
Conservation of Energy. (a)
TA + VA = Te + Ve
0 + 0 = !mvt + H kstB - mgy }
=
=
o + 0 H (2 kg) vt } + H (3 N/m)(0.5 m? - 2(9.81) N (1 m) }
Ve 4.39 m/s � Ans.
This problem can also be solved by using the equation of motion or
the principle of work and energy. Note that for both of these
methods the variation of the magnitude and direction of the spring
·
force must be taken into account (see Example 13.4). Here ' D atum

T
however, the above solution is clearly advantageous since the
calculations depend only on data calculated at the initial and final

= 2 mis, using the data in

points of the path.
Part (b) Conservation of Energy. If VA
Fig. 14-23b, we have
TA + VA = Te + Ve
1
-1 {I 2
2 mv2A + 0 - 2 mV2e + 2 kseB - mgy}
S CB = 1.25 m - 0.75 m = 0.5 m
!(2 kg) (2 m/s) 2 + 0 = !(2 kg) vt + H (3 N/m) (0.5 m?
- 2(9.81) N (1 m) } (b)
Ve = 4.82 m/s � Ans. Fig. 14-23

N OTE: The kinetic energy of the collar depends only on the

magnitude of velocity, and therefore it is immaterial if the collar is
moving up or down at 2 m/s when released at A.
 210 CHAPTER 1 4 K I N E T I C S O F A P A RT I C L E : W O R K A N D E N E R G Y

F U N DA M E N TA L P RO B L E M S

Fl4-13. The 2-kg pendulum bob is released from rest
when it is at A. Determine the speed of the bob and the
tension in the cord when the bob passes through its lowest
position, B.
A
Fl4-16. The 5-lb collar is released from rest at A and
travels along the frictionless guide. Determine the speed of
the collar when it strikes the stop B. The spring has an
unstretched length of 0.5 ft.
A

•
1 .5 ft

=
Fl4-13
Fl4-14. The 2-kg package leaves the conveyor belt at A
with a speed of vA 1 mls and slides down the smooth
ramp. Determine the required speed of the conveyor belt at Fl4-16
B so that the package can be delivered without slipping on Fl4-17. The 75-lb block is released from rest 5 ft above
the belt. Also, find the normal reaction the curved portion the plate. Determine the compression of each spring when
of the ramp exerts on the package at B if PB = 2 m. the block momentarily comes to rest after striking the plate.
Neglect the mass of the plate. The springs are initially

D
y
unstretched.

T I
5 ft

_
I
4m
0.25 ft
------------�� �� ==�
�
VB
x Aliiiiiiijiijiii;l;;;;;iiijjjiili!!! c
k= 1000 lb/ft k= 1000 lb/ft

=
Fl4-14

s = 1= 2 m
k' 1500 lb /ft Fl4-17
Fl4-15. The 2-kg collar is given a downward velocity of Fl4-18. The 4-kg collar C has a velocity of VA 2 mls
=

4 ml s when it is at A. If the spring has an unstretched length when it is at A. If the guide rod is smooth, determine the
of 1 m and a stiffness of k 30 Nlm, determine the velocity

k
speed of the collar when it is at B. The spring has an
of the collar at 1 m.
=
unstretched length of 10 = 0.2 m.
400 N/m

0.4 m
B

Fl4-15 F14-18